Introduction
Repetitive experiences, even pleasurable ones, can lead to feelings of boredom and dissatisfaction over time For instance, the enjoyment of a consumer's first Hershey’s Kiss often diminishes by the fifth or sixth due to the phenomenon of satiation.
Satiation is commonly viewed as a natural consequence of repeated consumption, as noted by Brickman and Campbell (1971) and Redden (2008) However, the capacity to influence the pace of satiation is a subject of significant interest due to its potential impact on consumer enjoyment and decisions regarding repeat purchases, as highlighted by McAlister and others.
Prior research on satiation highlights how consumers perceive and experience stimuli during consumption, focusing on cognitive appraisals of variety versus repetition More detailed product descriptions can reduce satiation by drawing attention to novel features, such as unique flavors, which mitigates feelings of repetitiveness Additionally, when consumers closely monitor their consumption amounts, the experience feels more repetitive, leading to heightened satiation Overall, both attention to product variety and consumption monitoring significantly influence the satiation response.
2014) consumers devote to visualizing a product before consuming it can influence their
Consumers' satiation rates during a current consumption experience are influenced not only by the immediate experience but also by their anticipation of future consumption Research highlights the importance of perceived variety in present consumption and how anticipated variety affects future choices This study explores how the expectation of varying future consumption can either slow down or speed up satiation rates in the present moment.
Anticipating experiences, such as thinking about dessert while enjoying an entrée or browsing song lists while listening to music, can elicit emotional responses akin to the actual consumption events This phenomenon significantly influences various consumer behaviors by evoking emotions, impacting areas like self-regulation and purchase decisions.
Despite being a common consumer behavior, the impact of anticipated future consumption variety on present satiation responses remains largely unexplored Understanding how expected variety influences consumer satisfaction can help organizations effectively shape consumer behavior, ultimately prolonging the enjoyment of their products and services.
This research contributes to the understanding of satiation and affect by highlighting the role of anticipated future consumption variety in influencing present satiation rates It reveals that consumers expecting more variety in future experiences tend to become satiated more slowly than those anticipating less variety Additionally, it identifies negative affect as a key mechanism linking present satiation with anticipated future variety, contrasting with previous studies that focused on cognitive factors Furthermore, the study uncovers the moderating effects of product type (vice vs virtue) and consumer emotional intelligence, indicating that the negative correlation between anticipated variety and satiation is stronger for vice products and individuals with high emotional intelligence These findings not only clarify the conditions under which anticipated variety affects satiation but also reinforce the proposed affective process mechanism.
This research provides significant insights into how consumers can enhance or diminish their enjoyment of products and services By anticipating a greater variety of future consumption while enjoying a current experience, such as listening to a favorite song or using healthful foods and exercise equipment, consumers can prolong their satisfaction and manage their satiation levels On the other hand, expecting less variety in future consumption may help reduce their overall enjoyment.
10 their desire to overindulge in unhealthful foods or consume products and services in a more sustainable manner (Mick et al 2012).
Theoretical Background
Overview of the Satiation Literature
Repeated consumption of a product or experience can diminish enjoyment, a phenomenon known as satiation Research indicates that while the mere repetition of an experience contributes to this feeling (Galak et al 2013; Redden 2008; Redden and Haws 2013), satiation also stems from psychological factors that can affect consumers regardless of their actual consumption levels.
Research indicates that attention to consumption can accelerate satiation, while factors like item categorization and perceived assortment can slow it down Consumers tend to experience slower satiation when enjoying items perceived as limited in availability, as they focus more on the enjoyment of the rare opportunity rather than their consumption levels Additionally, both imagined consumption and repeated product evaluations can influence satiation, with studies showing that consumers eat fewer M&M’s when they anticipate their consumption and enjoy snacks less when evaluating similar foods repeatedly This article expands on existing research by exploring how anticipated future variety affects consumer satiation.
The Benefits of Real or Anticipated Variety
Perceptions of variety within a consumption domain can lead to positive emotional experiences and heightened enjoyment Studies have shown that greater product variety is associated with increased consumer enjoyment and satisfaction, highlighting the importance of diversity in product offerings for enhancing the overall consumption experience.
12 variety comes at the expense of consuming less of one’s favorite products (Ratner et al
Consumers' responses to variety in products can differ based on their self-control levels, leading them to intentionally seek variety to prolong enjoyment and reduce satiation with their favorite items This strategic pursuit of variety enhances consumer enjoyment and mitigates feelings of repetition, ultimately improving the overall experience Our research suggests that consumers are not only attuned to the current variety available but are also significantly affected by their expectations of future variety, which impacts their perceived enjoyment and satiation during present consumption experiences.
Consumers frequently look ahead to their next consumption experience while engaging in their current one, using this anticipation as both a planning tool and a source of enjoyment This forward-thinking approach helps them simulate future experiences, ultimately guiding their present decision-making.
Anticipating future consumption variety offers consumers crucial insights into their upcoming choices, serving as a motivational beacon during repetitive consumption experiences that may lead to frustration This concept, supported by Gilbert, Gill, and Wilson (2002), highlights the value of simulated consumption in enhancing consumer satisfaction and decision-making.
Thus, we predict that anticipating more future consumption variety will increase consumer enjoyment, slowing their satiation with a present experience
H1: During a present consumption experience, consumers who anticipate more
(less) future consumption variety will become satiated less (more) quickly during a present consumption experience
Anticipated consumption variety does not directly impact consumers' enjoyment and satiation by focusing on current consumption amounts, but rather influences satiation through the emotions evoked by imagining future variety Research shows that imagined and real experiences activate similar neural responses and emotions in consumers, highlighting the significance of affect in consumer behavior Consequently, the emotions derived from anticipating future variety are central to understanding consumer satiation.
Affect and Consumption Enjoyment
Consumers often use affective information to guide their decisions and behaviors, as evidenced by various studies (Cohen et al 2008; Isen and Patrick 1983; Kidwell et al 2008b) This type of information is consistently associated with key aspects of consumer behavior, particularly in enhancing product enjoyment (Poor et al 2012; Vorderer et al 2004; Wang et al 2009).
Consumers often experience a blend of positive and negative emotions during repeated consumption, leading to diminished enjoyment over time Initially, a favorite song may evoke strong positive feelings, but with frequent listening, it can lose its appeal and even trigger negative emotions such as irritability and boredom This phenomenon, known as affective adaptation, results in a decline in positive affect and a perception of repeated consumption as frustrating As affect plays a crucial role in enjoyment, consumers may feel that their current emotional state reflects their enjoyment level If they cannot regain the lost positive emotions—potentially by consuming the product more quickly or in larger quantities—they may face satiation effects.
This research suggests that anticipating future consumption variety can help consumers minimize negative emotions associated with repetitive consumption, thereby enhancing their current enjoyment By looking forward to diverse experiences, consumers may benefit from reduced feelings of irritability, frustration, and boredom, even during present consumption This phenomenon highlights the psychological advantages of anticipating variety, which can lead to a more positive emotional state in the moment.
Anticipated consumption variety can enhance positive affect by alleviating the negative emotions associated with repetitive and unenjoyable experiences Consumers are unlikely to feel positive at the end of a monotonous experience, even with the prospect of variety Instead, we propose that expecting variety can diminish negative feelings by providing relief from dissatisfaction This expectation helps to slow down the onset of irritation and frustration, thereby reducing satiation without necessarily elevating positive emotions.
Prior research has demonstrated that the presence of negative affect is often interpreted as an internal signal to avoid a potential outcome (Carver and Scheier 1990; Fredrickson
In order to enhance present enjoyment, it is essential to minimize the negative emotions consumers face, as this can lead to an increased anticipation for future consumption variety This anticipation may help prolong current enjoyment by influencing perceptions of negative affect, which can indicate overall satisfaction Despite the natural decline in positive emotions during repeated consumption experiences, managing negative feelings can significantly impact consumers' enjoyment levels.
H2: Negative affect mediates the relationship between anticipated consumption variety and satiation rate during a present consumption experience, such that anticipated consumption variety reduces the amount
16 of negative affect consumers experience during a present consumption experience, leading to a decreased present satiation rate.
Empirical Overview
We conducted two experiments to evaluate our hypotheses regarding consumer behavior Experiment 1 tested the key prediction that the variety of anticipated consumption affects the rate of satiation in current consumption experiences In Experiment 2, we established that negative affect serves as a mediator in the relationship between anticipated consumption variety and consumer satiation rates.
We also rule out several competing cognitive process explanations in experiment 2
Experiments 3 and 4 delve deeper into the mechanisms behind our proposed effects Experiment 3 investigates how perceptions of vice versus virtue in products influence the connection between anticipated consumption variety and product satiation rates, revealing an affective process and a key boundary condition for this relationship Meanwhile, Experiment 4 explores how consumer emotional intelligence moderates the link between anticipated consumption variety and satiation, offering further evidence of an affective process and illustrating that higher emotional intelligence can help mitigate satiation rates.
Experiment 1
Method
To select a song for Experiment 1, we asked 21 business undergraduate students to rate 15 popular songs from Spotify based on their overall favorability using a seven-point scale The song “Ho Hey” by the Lumineers was chosen due to its significantly high average rating (M = 5.32), exceeding the scale midpoint (M = 4.00; t(20) = 4.82, p < 01), indicating it was well-liked among participants A 20-second clip of “Ho Hey” was then prepared for use in the main study.
Eighty-six business undergraduate students participated in a study on song evaluation for research credit, utilizing a mixed-factor design with 2 levels of anticipated consumption variety (more vs less) and 15 song clip exposures Anticipated consumption variety was the between-subjects factor, while song clip exposure served as the within-subjects factor Participants were informed that the study would be conducted in two parts.
The first part of the procedure manipulated the 15 repeated exposures of the same clip Participants were informed that they would repeatedly evaluate (15 times) a specially
In a study adapted from Galak et al (2009), participants engaged in a listening task where they repeatedly heard an edited 20-second clip of the song "Hey Ho." Each participant rated their enjoyment of the clip 15 times using a three-item measure that assessed their feelings on a 101-point slider, ranging from "hate it" to "love it," "very unpleasant" to "very pleasant," and "not fun at all" to "very fun."
In the second part of the study, researchers manipulated the anticipated variety of consumption Participants listened to the song "Ho Hey" and received a brief description of the song clip, which was provided prior to the second phase of the experiment.
Participants were instructed that they would evaluate a new song clip in the second part of the study after completing their initial task of rating 15 songs They were informed that the upcoming song would feature a [similar/different] style and artist that appeals to most college students Additionally, a manipulation check question was administered to ensure understanding of the task.
Listening to the song clip I just evaluated and the upcoming one will feel repetitive, as both tasks seem to mirror each other.
Results
We excluded four participants from data analysis for failing a sound/volume check on their lab computer We removed 11 additional participants because of noncompletion of the experiment
In a manipulation check, participants in the less anticipated consumption variety condition reported significantly lower perceived variety between the two tasks compared to those in the more anticipated consumption variety condition, with means of 5.17 and 4.33, respectively (t(84)).
= 2.31, p < 05) This confirms that our manipulation operated as intended
Present Consumption Enjoyment We conducted a 2 (anticipated consumption variety: more vs less) × 15 (song clip exposure) repeated measures analysis of variance
A study using ANOVA on a three-item present consumption enjoyment measure revealed that participants reported lower enjoyment of a song clip with increased exposure (F(14, 1176) = 122.43, p < 01) Additionally, anticipated consumption variety significantly impacted enjoyment levels, with less variety yielding a mean enjoyment score of 46.25 compared to 57.82 for more variety (F(1, 84) = 5.44, p < 05) The results supported the hypothesis that decreased enjoyment correlates with repeated consumption, as this trend interacted with participants’ experimental conditions (F(14, 1176) = 1.71, p < 05) Specifically, consumers expecting greater consumption variety in the subsequent listening task experienced satiation more slowly than those anticipating less variety.
Discussion
This experiment explores how anticipated future consumption variety affects present consumption enjoyment and satiation Specifically, expecting variety in future experiences enhances enjoyment and reduces satiation during current consumption In the second experiment, we investigate the underlying mechanism, hypothesizing that consumers' negative affective state mediates this relationship Participants anticipating more or less future song variety are expected to exhibit differing levels of negative affect immediately after their listening task While positive affective adaptation is anticipated to be similar across participants, the varying negative affective states, driven by the level of anticipated consumption variety, are predicted to fully explain their satiation responses.
Experiment 2
Method
In a study involving 135 undergraduate business students who participated for research credit, a mixed-factor design was utilized, examining the effects of anticipated consumption variety (more vs less) across 15 song clip exposures Following the final enjoyment rating, additional measures were introduced, including the hypothesized mediator of participants' negative affective state, assessed using the PANAS scale Furthermore, the study evaluated positive affect, mental imagery, variety seeking, and attention to consumption, alongside three new manipulation check items to ensure reliability.
Results
Manipulation Check A three-item manipulation check, in which lower scores indicate less anticipated future consumption variety (see table 2.6.1), confirmed that participants’
22 expectations of anticipated song variety significantly differed depending on their experimental condition (M less variety = 4.24 vs M more variety = 4.97; t(133) = –3.59, p < 01)
Present Consumption Enjoyment A 2 (anticipated consumption variety: more vs less) ×
A repeated measures ANOVA on 15 song clip exposures indicated a significant main effect of song clip exposure on enjoyment, with participants reporting decreased enjoyment with repeated listening (F(14, 1862) = 119.93, p < 01) However, the anticipated consumption variety did not significantly impact enjoyment (F(1, 133) = 3.14, p > 05) Supporting hypothesis 1, participants expecting greater consumption variety in the upcoming listening task experienced slower satiation during their initial listening task (F(14, 1862) = 1.70, p < 05; see figure 2.6.2).
A multivariate analysis of covariance demonstrated a significant impact of anticipated consumption variety on participants' negative affect after listening to a song, with those expecting more variety reporting lower negative affect (M less variety = 3.10 vs M more variety = 2.56, F(5, 129) = 5.09, p < 05) However, the positive affective states of participants did not significantly differ between the groups (M less variety = 3.83 vs M more variety = 3.83, F(5, 129) = 20, p > 50), indicating that while anticipated variety influenced negative feelings, it did not affect positive emotions.
M more variety = 3.76) The covariate of attention to consumption also had a significant,
23 positive effect on the amount of negative affect consumers experienced (F(5, 129) = 5.57, p < 05) No other covariate produced a significant effect on consumers’ positive or negative affective states
In our mediation analysis using the PANAS framework, we followed the methodology outlined by Larson et al (2014) and utilized Preacher and Hayes's (2008) process macro (model 4) with bootstrapped samples (n = 5,000) The study assessed participants' enjoyment at time 15 as the dependent variable, with anticipated consumption variety (either less or more) serving as the independent variable To ensure accurate results, we included baseline enjoyment at time 1 as a covariate, controlling for the initial enjoyment levels of participants regarding the song.
Table 2.6.1 lists all items utilized in the mediation analysis, where we examined the predicted mechanism involving participants' negative affective state, measured through the PANAS scale (Watson et al 1988), as a mediator Additionally, we considered positive affect as a potential mediator Furthermore, due to its significance in satiation, we simultaneously evaluated the constructs of variety seeking (Raju 1980) and mental imagery (α = 92) (Larson et al 2014).
2014), and attention to consumption (Redden and Haws 2013) as potential mediators, along with participants’ negative and positive affect
Negative affect serves as a complete mediator in the relationship between anticipated consumption variety and enjoyment, as indicated by a 95% confidence interval for the indirect effect that excludes zero (.59 to 7.22) In contrast, the direct effect's confidence interval includes zero (–.01 to 18.08), highlighting the significance of negative emotions in shaping consumer enjoyment.
Participants who reported lower levels of negative affect immediately after the “Ho Hey” listening task experienced significantly higher levels of song enjoyment at time 15 (β = –.27, t(127) = –3.57, p < 01), supporting hypothesis 2.
Participants with high positive affect reported greater enjoyment at time 15 (β = 35, t(127) = 4.67, p < 01) However, the experimental condition did not significantly influence the level of reported positive affect, as indicated by a confidence interval for the indirect effect that included zero (–4.25 to 3.37) Additionally, the factors of variety seeking, mental imagery, and attention to consumption did not mediate the relationship between enjoyment of the song clip at time 15 and anticipated consumption variety, with all confidence intervals for the indirect effects also including zero (–2.19 to 40, –.61 to 1.76, and –.68 to 1.83, respectively).
Mediation analysis reveals that negative affect serves as a key mechanism linking anticipated consumption variety to consumer satiation rates While the PANAS scale assesses a range of negative emotions, not all may be relevant to consumer satiation For instance, when consuming everyday items, anticipated consumption variety may minimally affect feelings of fear, shame, or anxiety, but it significantly influences feelings of being upset, distressed, and irritable (Fishbach et al 2011; McAlister and Pessemier 1982; Poor et al 2012) Consequently, we conducted further analysis to explore these specific emotional responses.
25 mediation analysis with a specific focus on the emotions of upset, distressed, and irritable
As predicted, a scale comprising the emotions of upset, distressed, and irritable fully mediated the relationship between anticipated consumption variety and enjoyment (time
The analysis revealed that the indirect effect of consumers' negative affect on enjoyment was significant, as indicated by a 95% confidence interval that excluded zero (.10 to 7.66) In contrast, the direct effect included zero (–1.10 to 17.60), suggesting that participants who felt less upset, distressed, and irritable after the "Ho Hey" listening task reported greater enjoyment of the song (β = –.27, t(127) = –3.57, p < 01) Furthermore, the variables of variety seeking, mental imagery, and attention to consumption did not mediate the relationship between song enjoyment and anticipated consumption variety, as their 95% confidence intervals for indirect effects included zero (–2.40 to 43, –.61 to 2.04, and –.73 to 1.77, respectively).
Discussion
This experiment replicates the effect of anticipated consumption variety on the present enjoyment of a related consumption experience, as demonstrated in experiment 1
The study reveals that negative emotions such as upset, distress, and irritability act as mediators affecting the varying satiation rates between high and low anticipated variety conditions, supporting hypothesis 2 Additionally, it dismisses positive affect and other cognitive mechanisms commonly discussed in consumer satiation and motivation research.
Participants who expected greater variety in their future consumption experiences reported slower satiation during a song listening task This anticipation of variety led to positive emotional benefits, reducing negative feelings and influencing their satisfaction levels As their emotional state changed, participants adjusted their enjoyment of the product, affecting their satiation response despite the product remaining unchanged Further investigation revealed that the impact of anticipated consumption variety on satiation is less pronounced for products that do not heavily rely on emotional responses for enjoyment, while it remains significant for products where affect plays a crucial role.
The Role of Affect in the Enjoyment of Vice and Virtue Products
This section offers a concise overview of the literature on vice and virtue products, highlighting their theoretical implications for our proposed affective process mechanism Research indicates that indulgent products elicit stronger emotional responses compared to utilitarian products (Ramanathan and Williams 2007; Wang et al 2009) For instance, enjoying craft beer or fine wine typically yields greater emotional benefits than consuming soymilk or wheatgrass juice Ultimately, the value and enjoyment derived from indulgent or vice products largely hinge on the immediate affective experiences they provide.
Wertenbroch (1998) identifies a distinction in consumer preferences for virtue versus vice products, influenced by their evaluation of immediate versus delayed consequences Vice products offer immediate gratification and indulgence, while virtue products provide less immediate satisfaction and indulgence (Ramanathan and Williams, 2007; Liu et al., 2015).
Vice products evoke positive emotional imagery and impulsive behavior in consumers by engaging automatic consumption motivations Their enjoyment largely stems from the affect generated during use Repeated consumption of vice products can lead to a perceived accumulation of negative emotions, which consumers associate more closely with the product itself, as affect plays a significant role in their enjoyment Consequently, consumers who experience minimal negative emotions while consuming vice products may find themselves less quickly satiated, highlighting the importance of affective information in shaping consumer behavior.
Our experiments suggest that consumers who anticipate a greater variety of future consumption tend to experience less negative affect, which enhances their current enjoyment However, this effect diminishes when the anticipated consumption involves virtue products, as the emotional response is less tied to the products themselves Consequently, we do not anticipate a significant effect of future consumption variety on enjoyment when it comes to virtue products.
28 consumption variety in the context of virtue goods because their value and enjoyment are more a function of controlled cognitive processes (Evans 2008; Wertenbroch 1998)
Reducing the negative emotions associated with repeated consumption can enhance enjoyment and decrease satiation rates for vice products, while this effect does not apply to virtue products Therefore, we anticipate that anticipating greater variety in future consumption will lead to prolonged enjoyment of vice products.
H3: The effect of anticipated consumption variety on consumer satiation is magnified (attenuated) for vice (virtue) products.
Experiment 3
Method
For Experiment 3, we conducted a pretest to select four pairs of popular songs that participants would likely identify as vice or virtue songs To ensure consistency, each pair was chosen from the same band or artist, minimizing any potential bias related to the performers We edited each song to a 20-second excerpt from their chorus to create the clips used in the experiment.
In a pretest involving 35 participants from Amazon Mechanical Turk, we evaluated four pairs of vice and virtue songs, compensating each participant with $1 Participants rated the eight songs on favorability and perceptions of vice or virtuousness Based on their ratings, we selected "Welcome to the Jungle" as the vice song and "Sweet Child of Mine" as the virtue song, as both received similar high favorability scores (M Welcome to the Jungle = 5.38 vs M Sweet Child of Mine = 5.61) However, they differed significantly in vice/virtue perceptions, with "Welcome to the Jungle" scoring lower (M = 2.84) compared to "Sweet Child of Mine" (M = 4.02).
To enhance the generalizability of earlier findings, we conducted an experiment with a diverse adult sample using different songs A total of 153 participants from MTurk in the United States, with an average age of 38 and 47% identifying as male, participated for a compensation of $1 The study utilized a 2x2x15 experimental design, examining anticipated consumption variety (more vs less), the type of present song (vice vs virtue), and 15 different song clips.
The study utilized a 30 exposure mixed-factor design, incorporating anticipated consumption variety and the presented song as between-subjects factors, while song clip exposure acted as the within-subject factor The methodology adhered closely to the procedures established in the first experiment.
Results
In our study, we excluded five participants due to incomplete responses The three-item manipulation check effectively demonstrated that participants' expectations for anticipated song variety varied significantly based on their assigned experimental condition, with a mean score of 3.15 for the less variety group compared to 5.49 for the more variety group (t(151) = –14.16, p < 01).
A study examining the effects of anticipated consumption variety and song type on enjoyment revealed that participants found song clips less enjoyable with repeated exposure (F(14, 2086) = 40.79, p < 01) While anticipated consumption variety did not significantly impact enjoyment (F(1, 149) = 07, p > 50), the type of song (vice vs virtue) had a marginal effect (F(1, 149) = 3.81, p < 10) Additionally, the interaction between anticipated consumption variety and song type also influenced enjoyment (F(1, 14) = 3.80, p < 10) Notably, participants expecting more variety in their listening experience reported slower satiation, as indicated by a significant interaction with the linear trend of decreased enjoyment over time (F(14, 2086) = 3.53, p < 01).
More important, ANOVA revealed the predicted significant three-way interaction among anticipated consumption variety, song clip exposure, and the presented song (F(14, 2086)
In our study, we examined the three-way interaction by analyzing satiation rates during a song-rating task Participants exposed to the vice song condition showed significantly slower satiation rates when anticipating more future variety (M slope = –.68) compared to less variety (M slope = –2.15), with statistical significance (t(78) = 2.82, p < 01) Conversely, those in the virtue song condition did not exhibit significant differences in satiation rates when anticipating varying levels of future variety, with slopes of –1.15 and –1.24 respectively (t(71) = 18, p > 80) These findings indicate that while listeners of the virtue song “Sweet Child of Mine” maintained consistent satiation responses, listeners of the vice song “Welcome to the Jungle” experienced slower satiation in the context of anticipated variety, thereby supporting hypothesis 3.
Discussion
This experiment reveals how vice and virtue products influence consumers' satiation responses based on anticipated consumption variety Specifically, it shows that consumers who listened to the vice song "Welcome to the Jungle" experienced slower satiation when expecting greater future consumption variety compared to those anticipating less.
The study revealed that the virtue song "Sweet Child of Mine" showed consistent satiation rates regardless of anticipated future consumption variety In a follow-up test, we assessed the perception of the "Ho Hey" song clip, which was identified as a vice song among participants, scoring significantly below the midpoint of the scale (M = 3.39; t(30) = -3.60, p < 05).
Research indicates that anticipating greater future consumption variety can reduce satiation for products that rely heavily on emotional enjoyment, particularly vices When consumers expect diverse future experiences with vice products, they report lower negative feelings during repeated use, which helps to mask the natural decline in positive feelings typically associated with such consumption In contrast, the enjoyment of virtue products, which are less reliant on emotional responses, appears to be unaffected by the anticipation of future consumption variety.
In experiment 4, we continue our study of the impact of anticipated consumption variety on satiation by assessing the moderating role of consumer emotional intelligence
Consumers with high emotional intelligence can enhance their enjoyment of current experiences by effectively managing negative emotions linked to repeated exposures, especially when they anticipate a greater variety of future consumption This ability to prolong enjoyment is crucial in understanding the positive impact of anticipated consumption variety.
Consumers with lower emotional intelligence struggle to prolong their enjoyment when anticipating future variety, as they find it challenging to utilize emotional information for favorable outcomes This suggests that emotional intelligence may influence the link between anticipated consumption and satiation, highlighting the importance of affect in this process In the following section, we will summarize the existing literature on consumer emotional intelligence to reinforce our proposed affective process mechanism.
Consumer Emotional Intelligence
Consumers' ability to recognize and utilize emotional information during their consumption experiences varies significantly Those with higher emotional intelligence can better understand and manage their emotions, leading to more favorable outcomes compared to those with lower emotional intelligence For instance, they are more likely to resist the temptation of unhealthy foods and are less influenced by enticing menu displays Consequently, emotional intelligence acts as a default intervention process, enabling consumers to identify and modify their automatic emotional responses to stimuli in pursuit of higher-order goals.
Consumers with elevated emotional intelligence can effectively utilize emotional insights to enhance their enjoyment of products and experiences Those who excel at distinguishing between positive and negative emotions are likely to experience prolonged satisfaction, leading to reduced satiation over time.
The ability to perceive and manage emotions during consumption can enhance enjoyment by allowing individuals to reappraise their experiences, particularly in the context of anticipated consumption variety Research suggests that consumers with higher emotional intelligence are better equipped to utilize positive and negative affective responses to optimize their current consumption enjoyment As such, these individuals can leverage the anticipation of diverse future consumption experiences to mitigate negative emotions, thereby prolonging satisfaction in the present Consequently, we hypothesize that emotional intelligence plays a crucial role in how consumers process affective information to enhance their enjoyment during consumption.
H4: The effect of anticipated consumption variety on consumer satiation is magnified (attenuated) for consumers with higher (lower) levels of emotional intelligence.
Experiment 4
Method
Pretest To select the song for experiment 4, we pretested the 15 most popular songs from
In a study involving 51 business undergraduate students, the song "Radioactive" by Imagine Dragons was selected based on its high favorability rating (M = 5.33), significantly exceeding the midpoint of the scale (4.00; t(50) = 7.40, p < 01) A 20-second clip of the song's chorus was used for the experiment A pretest confirmed that participants viewed the song clip as a vice, with a mean rating of 3.10, which was notably below the midpoint (t(30) = -4.24, p < 01).
In a study involving 214 undergraduate business students who participated for research credit, a mixed-factor design was utilized, featuring a 2 (anticipated consumption variety: more vs less) × (measured: consumer emotional intelligence) × 15 (song clip exposure) Anticipated consumption variety was treated as the between-subjects factor, while song clip exposure was the within-subject factor To minimize hypothesis guessing, consumer emotional intelligence was assessed in a separate survey conducted during the same lab session, following the methodology outlined by Kidwell et al (2008a).
36 consumer emotional intelligence, this experiment follows the procedure from experiment
Results
In our manipulation check, we excluded 24 participants due to incomplete responses or inconsistent respondent IDs across datasets The analysis revealed that participants' expectations regarding song variety varied significantly based on their experimental condition, with a mean of 3.85 for the less variety group compared to 4.59 for the more variety group (t(212) = –4.38, p < 01).
In a study examining the impact of anticipated consumption variety and consumer emotional intelligence on song clip enjoyment, a 2 (anticipated consumption variety: more vs less) × 15 (song clip exposure) repeated measures analysis was conducted The findings indicated that participants' enjoyment of the song clip decreased with increased exposure (F(14, 2940) = 227.27, p < 01) Additionally, a significant three-way interaction was observed among anticipated consumption variety, song clip exposure, and consumer emotional intelligence (F(14, 2940) = 4.33, p < 01), while all other effects were not significant (ps > 30).
We investigated the significant three-way interaction by calculating the satiation rates (slopes) for all participants A regression analysis was performed on these slopes, using participants' anticipated consumption variety condition, emotional intelligence, and their interaction as independent variables to examine the directionality of the relationships.
The study examined the moderating effect of consumer emotional intelligence on satiation rates in relation to anticipated future consumption variety While anticipated consumption variety did not show a significant main effect (β = 02, p > 70), emotional intelligence had a notable impact (β = 30, p < 01) A significant interaction was found between anticipated consumption variety and emotional intelligence (β = –.29, p < 01), indicating that consumers with higher emotional intelligence experienced lower satiation rates when anticipating greater future variety Floodlight analysis revealed that participants with emotional intelligence below –.75 experienced a positive effect of anticipated variety on satiation (BJN = 72, p = 05), while those above 1.31 showed a negative effect (BJN = –1.03, p = 05) Thus, higher emotional intelligence correlates with lower satiation rates during consumption tasks when anticipating more variety, whereas lower emotional intelligence leads to increased satiation with greater anticipated variety.
Discussion
This experiment reveals that consumer emotional intelligence moderates the relationship between anticipated consumption variety and satiation responses Participants with higher emotional intelligence experienced reduced satiation when expecting greater future variety, supporting hypothesis 4 This suggests that these consumers effectively manage negative emotions related to anticipation, leading to prolonged enjoyment during their song listening task Overall, individuals with elevated emotional intelligence are better equipped to leverage the emotional insights gained from anticipating diverse consumption, resulting in enhanced enjoyment and supporting our theoretical model.
General Discussion
Theoretical Contributions
Anticipating a greater variety of future consumption can reduce negative feelings associated with repetitive product use, thereby slowing satiation This phenomenon is particularly evident with hedonic products that rely on emotional enjoyment, such as vices, but less so with utilitarian products, like virtues Our findings suggest that this effect may extend to other hedonic categories where emotions play a crucial role in perceived enjoyment Additionally, consumers with higher emotional intelligence can enhance their current enjoyment by anticipating future consumption variety, as they effectively utilize emotional insights to foster positive consumer experiences.
Substantive Contributions
This research offers valuable insights for consumers and marketers by demonstrating how anticipating future variety can influence present satiation By reducing satiation rates, consumers can extend their enjoyment of favorite products and experiences, potentially curbing the urge to overconsume Marketers can leverage this strategy by showcasing the diverse meal options that can be created with staple ingredients, like pasta, on packaging to enhance consumer engagement and satisfaction.
Consumers can enhance their enjoyment of music by paying attention to the diverse genres and artists in their playlists This anticipated consumption variety, a shared experience among listeners, provides both consumers and marketers with a flexible strategy to influence satiation rates.
This research explores how anticipated variety within the same consumption domain, such as music, affects consumer satiation, suggesting that similar effects may extend across different domains For instance, consumers may experience slower satiation with country music if they plan to watch a sci-fi movie later, compared to a quicker satiation if they anticipate a western Additionally, the study posits that anticipated consumption variety can impact satiation rates across various domains, including food and non-durable goods, highlighting opportunities for further research into the implications of satiation on consumption amounts, repeat purchase behavior, and the risk of overconsumption.
Further Research
Further research could uncover additional moderating factors that enhance the impact of anticipated consumption variety on reducing consumer satiation, particularly for utilitarian products For instance, when consumers are primed with a specific health goal, they may experience less rapid satiation with an exercise machine if they anticipate greater future consumption variety This is likely due to a heightened sense of goal progress, as switching machines or exercises can create the perception of making more significant strides toward their fitness objectives.
Research indicates that the emotional context significantly influences consumer satiation, particularly the impact of negative emotions such as upset and irritability on consumption behaviors This suggests that exploring emotional intelligence training could empower consumers to better manage their satiation responses Additionally, while current studies focus on how anticipated variety affects enjoyment over time, further investigation is needed to understand its role during product evaluation and selection, particularly in contexts like vending machines where product rotation might sway consumer preferences between healthier and indulgent options.
Satiation is often considered a barrier to happiness for consumers (Brickman and
Consumer satiation can pose a significant threat to brands due to issues like brand switching and product fatigue This phenomenon limits enjoyment across various experiences, including food and friendships The complexities surrounding consumer satiation open up numerous research opportunities, yet the findings suggest that anticipated consumption variety may serve as a valuable strategy for both consumers and marketers to mitigate the negative impacts of repetitive consumption.
42 prolong enjoyment in the present, consumers should anticipate future consumption variety
Tables and Figures
Table 2.4.1: Song Pretest Results, Experiments 1, 2, and 4
1Table 2.4.1: Song Pretest Results, Experiments 1, 2, and 4
Song: Experiments 1 & 2 M (SD) Song: Experiment 4 M (SD)
Don’t you Worry Child 4.90 (1.43) Drunk in Love 4.78 (1.42) Scream and Shout 4.83 (1.25) Let Her Go 4.78 (1.40)
Sure Be Cool If you Did 4.80 (1.26) Royals 4.67 (1.54)
Locked out of Heaven 4.46 (1.63) Talk Dirty 4.31 (1.50)
Table 2.6.1: Measurement of Items by Experiment
2Table 2.6.1: Measurement of Items by Experiment
This song is very enjoyable to listen to
(101-point scale, repeated measure, first item from
Redden 2008, other two items created)
How much are you enjoying the song clip? (hate it/love it)
How do you feel about this song clip? (it’s very unpleasant/it’s very pleasant)
How fun is it to listen to this song clip? (not fun at all/very fun)
I think there will be a lot of musical variety between the song clip I just listened to and the song I will listen to next
I will get to listen to several different styles of music in this survey
The next song I will listen to will be different from the song clip I just listened to
Cronbach α 0.77 0.82 0.76 PANAS (9-point scale, Watson et al
How do you feel right in this present moment?
Positive: Enthusiastic, interested, Determined, Excited, Inspired, Alert,
Negative: Scared, Afraid, Jittery, Nervous, Ashamed, Guilty, Hostile,
I enjoy listening to different genres of music for the sake of comparison
If I have a choice when I listen to music, I’d rather try something new than listen to the songs I already know 0.76
I tend to listen to a lot of different types of music, just for the sake of a change of pace
I paid careful attention to how long I had been listening to the music clip
I paid careful attention to how many times I had listened to the music clip
After a while, I “zoned out” while listening to the music clip (reverse)
(7-point scale, Lowe and Haws 2014;
Very indulgent/not at all indulgent
May cause bad delayed consequences/may cause good delayed consequences
Very much a guilty pleasure/not at all a guilty pleasure
Cronbach α 0.85 Table 2.6.1, continued: Measurement of Items by Experiment
Table 2.8.1: Song Pretest Results, Experiment 3
3Table 2.8.1: Song Pretest Results, Experiment 3
Artist Song Pairs Favorability Virtuousness
Guns N’ Roses Sweet Child of
Rock Your Body 4.45 a (1.67) 2.83 d (0.92) Black Eyed Peas Where is the Love 4.22 a (1.58) 5.03 c (1.02)
* Different subscripts denote significantly different values by pair
Figure: 2.2: Conceptual Model of Anticipated Consumption Variety’s Influence on
Vice Products versus Virtue Products
1 Figure: 2.2: Conceptual Model of Anticipated Consumption Variety’s Influence on Consumer Satiation
Figure 2.4.2: Change in Song Enjoyment with Repeated Exposure - Experiment 1
2 Figure 2.4.2: Change in Song Enjoyment with Repeated Exposure - Experiment 1
Figure 2.6.2: Change in Song Enjoyment with Repeated Exposure - Experiment 2
3 Figure 2.6.2: Change in Song Enjoyment with Repeated Exposure - Experiment 2
Figure 2.8.2: Vice Versus Virtue products and Change in song enjoyment with repeated exposure: Experiment 3
Virtue Song (Sweet Child of Mine)
Less Variety More Variety Song Clip Exposure
Vice Song (Welcome to the Jungle)
Less Variety More Variety Song Clip Exposure
4 Figure 2.8.2: Vice Versus Virtue products and Change in song enjoyment with repeated exposure: Experiment 3
So ng Enjoyment So ng Enjo ym ent
Figure 2.10.2: Consumer Emotional Intelligence and Change in song enjoyment with repeated exposure: Experiment 4
5 Figure 2.10.2: Consumer Emotional Intelligence and Change in song enjoyment with repeated exposure: Experiment 4
3 Synonyms, Not So Similar: How the Structure of Semantic Associations Influences Advertising Effectiveness
Introduction
Marketers strategically craft advertising campaigns around key focal words, such as "happiness" for Coke and "fresh" for Subway, to shape consumer perceptions of their brands These carefully chosen words are integral to communicating each brand's value proposition and can significantly enhance the perceived importance and desirability of the product, as supported by research (van Osselaer and Janiszewski 2012) Additionally, these memory activations play a crucial role in influencing consumers' goal pursuit, the valuation of means that facilitate those goals, and ultimately their product choices (Bargh et al 2001; Avnet and Higgins 2006; Sela and Shiv 2009).
Memories are interconnected, activating a network of related concepts alongside the primary memory due to learned associations and semantic spreading For instance, the term "friend" is linked to concepts like companion, close, and love, which are further associated with other ideas Consequently, when the concept of "friend" is recalled, numerous related concepts are simultaneously activated through this semantic network.
Research on memory has largely concentrated on the connections between individual memories rather than the relationships among concepts within their semantic networks Recent neuroscience advancements indicate that the configuration of cognitive networks underpins how consumers interpret and react to information However, there is a lack of research examining how the activation patterns of memory affect consumer information processing and evaluation This gap raises concerns that marketers may overlook crucial insights about which words to emphasize in their advertising strategies.
This research reveals how the structure of memory associations impacts consumer information processing, specifically through the concept of betweenness centrality in advertising Words with high betweenness centrality serve as crucial connectors within their semantic networks, linking disparate concepts in memory and enhancing logical coherence for consumers Such words foster conceptual fluency, leading to more persuasive advertisements, as consumers typically respond positively when processing information fluently.
Given that the vetting and selection of focal words to feature in advertising is critically important to marketers (van Osselaer and Janiszewski 2012), this research also offers
This article presents significant contributions for marketers, introducing a new method for comparing and selecting focal words for advertising Additionally, it offers valuable insights into the relationship between memory associations and consumer behavior, highlighting that merely understanding the memory associations evoked by a focal word provides an incomplete understanding of consumer responses to its use in advertising.
Our research reveals critical insights for marketers by exploring the connections between concepts and their surrounding networks This understanding enhances how consumers process and react to key terms in advertising, ultimately influencing essential product behaviors such as willingness to pay, likelihood of purchase, and word-of-mouth promotion.
This paper is structured to first review literature on memory activations, network theory, and conceptual processing fluency to formulate our hypotheses We then conduct four studies featuring two pairs of advertising keywords (friend/partner and brilliant/vibrant) across various consumer product categories to improve the generalizability of our findings Finally, we discuss the theoretical and practical implications of our research, acknowledge its limitations, and suggest avenues for future studies.
Theoretical Background
Memory Activation
Memory encompasses a network of interconnected systems that register, encode, store, and retrieve information (Baddeley, 2013) Activated memory involves the retrieval of information, either implicitly or explicitly, into working memory, which can subsequently affect cognition, emotions, and behaviors (Baddeley, 2012; Chartrand et al., 2008; Sela and Shiv, 2009; van Osselaer and Janiszewski, 2012).
Memory significantly influences consumer choice and decision-making, serving as a foundation for implicit market structures and consumer-based brand equity Marketers leverage memory associations to map market dynamics and pinpoint key competitors Brands with stronger positive memory associations, such as fast food or athletic shoes, typically achieve higher brand equity Furthermore, memory's critical role in advertising is highlighted by its ability to foster product familiarity and drive consumer purchases.
Memory activations significantly impact consumer behavior by enhancing the perceived desirability of products and influencing goal-directed actions Research indicates that these activations can affect goal pursuit, the valuation of means that facilitate goals, and product choices by emphasizing the attractiveness of outcomes Interestingly, even sounds, such as homophones, can trigger related concepts; for instance, encountering the word "bye" can evoke the idea of "buy," leading to a greater willingness to spend on a meal at a new restaurant.
In a study conducted by Dimofte and Yalch (2014), it was found that consumers exposed to the positive imagery of Kermit the Frog rated a wine bottle featuring a frog label more favorably In contrast, those who were primed with negative associations, such as warts, evaluated the same product less positively This highlights the significant impact of positive and negative priming on consumer perceptions.
Research has primarily focused on the impact of memory activations, but there is a gap in understanding how the structural position of a memory node within its local semantic network affects consumer perception and information processing.
Network Theory
At its core, network theory recognizes that few entities exist in isolation, but rather as members of a larger system of interconnected relationships (Borgatti and Foster 2003)
To describe the various patterns and structures of relationships, researchers in social networks (Borgatti et al 2009; Van Den Bulte and Wuyts 2007), physics (Newman
2008), and mathematical graph theory (West 2001) have developed dozens of measures described by a lexicon of terms At its most fundamental level, a network is a
The mathematical representation of a relational system consists of nodes and ties, where a node is an independent and coherent element, such as a person, concept, or neuron (Bullmore and Bassett 2011) A tie signifies the connection between nodes, which can be physical, like chemical links between neurons (Bullmore and Olaf 2009), or represent information flow, such as cognitive associations between concepts (Krishnan 1996; Netzer et al 2012) The behaviors of individual elements are influenced by their interactions within the system (Goel and Goldstein 2013) This research explores how the structural position of a focal word in advertising affects consumer information processing, focusing on its connections with other memories or concepts The following section presents physiological and information processing evidence to support the view of memories as networks through a graph theoretic lens.
Memories as Networks
Recent research employing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and other imaging techniques supports the memories-as-networks paradigm Studies demonstrate that network images of brain activity can be aligned with specific categories of concepts For instance, MRI scans reveal that related words like "carrot" and "celery" exhibit similar patterns of brain activity, highlighting the interconnected nature of memory.
58 words with less in common (cow and carrot) generate distinct patterns of activity
(Pereira, Detre, and Botvinick) Indeed, the human brain itself is structurally and functionally organized into a complex network of functional systems and neurons (He and Evans 2010)
Research indicates that memory operates through a networked system, supported by direct neurological evidence (Bullmore and Bassett, 2011; Bullmore and Olaf, 2009; Pereira et al., 2011) This understanding is further enhanced by studies on semantic spreading (Anderson, 1983) and mediated priming, highlighting the interconnected nature of memory processes.
Research on memory activations has predominantly focused on dyadic or direct tie levels, with limited exploration at the local network level While some studies utilize aggregate memory networks to visualize associations and inform managerial decisions, they often overlook the individual consumer's information processing implications.
Research on memory activation shows that when individuals think of the word "lion," the word "stripes" is also unconsciously activated due to their connection through the intermediary word "tiger." This indicates that memory activations can spread from a central concept (lion) to directly related concepts (tiger) and even to seemingly unrelated concepts (stripes) Such indirect activations can rapidly extend to include a wide range of reasonably related words.
59 or concepts are activated in memory, forming a network of interconnected concepts surrounding the focal node
Measuring the impact of individual memory activation within a local semantic network can be challenging; however, established methodologies and network analysis techniques provide a framework for accurately assessing the structure surrounding activated memory nodes In this research, we focus not on isolating numerous activated memories but rather on examining the structural position of a single activated memory node This approach allows us to explore how the surrounding structural properties influence information processing related to that focal memory activation.
The words "friend" and "partner" are often used interchangeably and share similar meanings, as evidenced by their activation of comparable concepts in memory during word association tasks (Nelson et al 2004) This overlap is reflected in their listing as synonyms on thesaurus.com However, despite these similarities, "friend" and "partner" may exhibit differences in their connections within local semantic networks (Miller).
In 1995, research suggested that the concept of "friend" could significantly influence consumer responses to advertising, acting as a vital mediator in memory processing In contrast, the concept of "partner" appears to be more peripheral, with numerous interconnections among related ideas Consequently, while "friend" is situated on a semantic superhighway, facilitating easier access and recall, "partner" is likened to a quiet cul-de-sac, resulting in less impactful consumer engagement.
High betweenness centrality indicates that the concept of "friend" serves as a crucial link between various distinct parts of a network, unlike "partner." This centrality can lead to enhanced consumer processing benefits and improved product behavioral intentions when "friend" is prominently highlighted in advertising.
Betweenness Centrality in Memory Networks
Betweenness centrality (bk) measures the importance of a node within a network by calculating the proportion of shortest paths, or geodesics, between pairs of nodes that traverse through that specific node k Mathematically, it is represented as bk = ∑g ikj / g ij, where bk denotes the betweenness centrality of node k, gikj represents the number of geodesics from nodes i to j that pass through node k, and gij indicates the total number of geodesics from nodes i to j.
Betweenness centrality quantifies how often a node in a network is traversed by entities moving along the shortest paths, reflecting network traffic dynamics (Freeman 1979) In memory networks, the concept of path distances is more accurately represented by the strength or likelihood of associative connections between nodes, rather than by physical distances (Anderson 1983; Balota and Lorch 1986; Nelson et al.).
2004) Network traffic, on the other hand, is more conceptually analogous to the frequency of cognitive activations along a given route Thus, we suggest that
61 betweenness centrality, applied to concepts in memory, represents the frequency or probability of cognitive activations of a particular node or concept in a semantic network
Betweenness centrality serves as an indicator of a node's prominence in relation to its connections within a network Nodes that exhibit higher betweenness centrality are more prone to activation, facilitating the non-conscious spread of semantic associations from one node to another (Anderson 1983; Balota and Lorch 1986).
Betweenness centrality, while similar to other centrality measures like degree, uniquely considers the connections among alter nodes, providing a structural measure of a node's position within a semantic network This approach highlights the importance of how nodes are interconnected, which significantly influences an individual's cognitive attention and information processing Nodes with higher betweenness centrality are more likely to serve as mediating bridges, linking otherwise unrelated concepts or areas within the network, thus facilitating the flow of information.
Mediated priming and semantic spreading activations can lead consumers to unconsciously recognize the position of a node within its semantic network, influencing their behavioral intentions toward products Notably, focal nodes that exhibit higher betweenness centrality are likely to evoke feelings of prestige and power, as they occupy a central role in the network This highlights the importance of structural network patterns in shaping consumer perceptions and behaviors.
The assessment of a friend's betweenness centrality in a network can enhance feelings of desirability, significance, or familiarity, which in turn positively impacts consumers' behavioral intentions This influence extends to their willingness to pay, intentions to share information, and purchase intentions for products advertised using this concept.
H1: As the betweenness centrality of a word increases, positive product behavioral intentions increase.
Empirical Overview
We developed word banks for focal advertising words and conducted four studies to examine how the betweenness centrality of these words affects consumer information processing and behavioral intentions Initially, qualitative pre-tests were performed to create associative word banks In Study 1, we tested the hypothesis that a focal advertising word's betweenness centrality impacts product behavioral intentions, including willingness to pay and word-of-mouth Study 2 assessed the unique contribution of betweenness centrality to predicting product behavioral intentions while controlling for direct consumer attitudes towards the focal word Finally, Studies 3 and 4 revealed that conceptual processing fluency serves as the psychological mechanism behind our findings, confirmed through a proximal-distal mediation analysis.
Development of Word Banks
Method
To establish a word bank for studies 1-3, a qualitative pre-test was conducted to identify the common semantic associations of the words "friend" and "partner." These terms were chosen due to their interchangeable potential in advertising, shared semantic associations, and anticipated differences in their betweenness centralities, given "friend's" broader and "partner's" narrower lexical structures (Miller 1995; Nelson et al 2004) Using two related words with similar semantic associations was crucial to maintain consistency across conditions and to examine how the structural properties of each word influenced consumer perceptions.
In a study involving 143 participants from a student subject pool, researchers employed a between-subjects design focusing on the words "friend" and "partner." Following the methodology of John et al (2006), participants first generated open-ended word associations for their assigned word without any prompts In the subsequent phase, they created new word associations for each of the words they had previously listed Ultimately, the participants produced a total of 716 word association pairs, with most associations being noted by multiple individuals However, due to the highly personal nature of word associations, only a subset of these associations was deemed significant.
A total of 64 pairs, identified by at least 10% of participants, were incorporated into the associative word bank for studies 1-3 This bank not only included participant-generated word associations but also utilized an online database of unaided word associations, which has been referenced in previous scholarly research (Nelson et al 2004) Ultimately, the comprehensive word association database consisted of 196 unique word association pairs.
To create the word bank for study 4, focusing on the words "vibrant" and "brilliant," a qualitative pretest was conducted with 205 student participants This study employed a between-subjects design, examining the focal words "brilliant" and "vibrant." The analysis indicated that "brilliant" possesses a broader lexical range than "vibrant," which may contribute to its higher betweenness centrality (Miller 1995) Participants generated a total of 1,369 word association pairs, and after incorporating additional pairs from an online database (Nelson et al 2004), 227 unique word association pairs were finalized to establish the word bank.
Study 1
Method
In a study involving 46 business students, participants evaluated a health insurance advertisement featuring the slogan, "Your Friend in Life," with a focus on the word "friend." This research aimed to explore how the centrality of a focal word can enhance behavioral intentions towards a product To minimize bias from brand recognition, the actual company name was replaced with "[Brand]," allowing participants to concentrate on the advertisement's claims.
Affordable Rates Accepted by 95% of healthcare providers Low, $5 co-pays.” Please see appendix Figure A1.1 for the advertisement
Following the advertisement, participants evaluated their willingness to pay and intentions for word-of-mouth promotion regarding the health insurance plan (refer to Table 3.5.1 for detailed items) Subsequently, they developed a memory network for the term "friend," incorporating both direct and indirect connections in accordance with established methods (John et al 2006).
Participants assessed the strength of associations between a focal word, starting with "friend," and a comprehensive list of associated words derived from our qualitative pretest and Nelson et al.'s (2004) unguided word association database If a participant identified a weak or strong association, they would then explore direct associations linked to their new focal word (e.g., "companion") within the database This process generated a detailed word-by-word association matrix for each participant.
A study involving 66 participants utilized the UCINET software (Borgatti et al., 2002) to analyze strong ties and calculate betweenness centrality scores for the term "friend." Figure 3.5.1 illustrates examples of networks where the word "friend" exhibits both high and low betweenness centralities within its local semantic network.
Results
Regression analysis revealed that focal word betweenness centrality is a significant predictor of both willingness to pay (β = 31; t(44) = 2.14, p < 05) and word-of-mouth intentions (β = 38; t(44) = 2.73, p < 01) Participants who associated the concept of "friend" with a more central position in their memory networks demonstrated a greater likelihood of expressing positive behavioral intentions toward the health insurance plan.
Participants with higher betweenness centrality for the word "friend" showed a more favorable response to the health insurance advertisement However, other network properties, such as in-degree and out-degree centrality, were also analyzed for their predictive ability regarding participants' willingness to pay and word-of-mouth intentions In-degree centrality did not significantly predict willingness to pay and only marginally predicted word-of-mouth intentions Similarly, out-degree centrality failed to predict both willingness to pay and word-of-mouth intentions, indicating that these measures may not effectively capture the relationship with participants' responses.
In a study examining the relationship between centrality measures and participants' willingness to pay and word-of-mouth intentions, betweenness centrality was found to be a significant predictor The results indicated a strong positive correlation, with a coefficient of β = 73, and a t-value of 2.03, suggesting that individuals with higher betweenness centrality are more likely to engage in positive word-of-mouth and exhibit a greater willingness to pay.
The study revealed that participants' betweenness significantly predicted their willingness to pay (β = 85; t(42) = 2.43, p < 05), while in-degree (β = -.31; t(42) = -1.46, p > 10) and out-degree centrality (β = -.22; t(42) = -0.66, p > 20) did not show significant effects A similar trend emerged when analyzing the centrality measures related to the word "friend," where betweenness was again a significant predictor of word-of-mouth intentions (β = 85; t(42) = 2.43, p < 05), while in-degree (β = -.33; t(42) = -1.03, p > 20) and out-degree centrality (β = -.23; t(42) = -1.13, p > 20) remained non-significant.
Discussion
This study presents initial evidence supporting the hypothesis that increased betweenness centrality of a word in advertising correlates with heightened positive product behavioral intentions When comparing betweenness centrality to traditional measures such as in-degree (incoming connections) and out-degree (outgoing connections), our findings indicate that betweenness offers superior predictive power This is attributed to its ability to provide a comprehensive structural measure of how concepts are organized in memory, rather than merely reflecting direct connections within the network.
Despite initial evidence supporting hypothesis H1, key questions persist, particularly regarding whether participants' betweenness centralities related to the word "friend" influenced their willingness to pay and intentions for word-of-mouth communication.
Participants with a more positive explicit attitude towards the word "friend" may have responded more favorably to the advertisement, indicating that their perceptions could influence their reactions, rather than suggesting that they processed the advertisement differently.
Attitudes are evaluative reactions—positive, negative, or neutral—toward an object, influencing how individuals respond to products or actions, such as paying a premium price or recommending items to friends (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975) This construct is central to consumer motivation models, as seen in political language that uses catchphrases like "death tax" or "freedom fries," which frame topics to elicit specific reactions without conveying substantial information Similarly, marketers use evocative language to generate positive consumer responses, labeling food as "healthy," clothing as "stylish," and electronics as "advanced." In our study, we aim to isolate participants' explicit attitudes toward a focal word in advertisements to assess how betweenness centrality uniquely affects their willingness to pay and intentions for word-of-mouth recommendations.
Study 2
Method
A study involving 233 undergraduate business students utilized a two-level between-subjects design to fulfill a research requirement Participants assessed a brief advertisement for an online storage and backup service, which featured the slogan "Your [Friend / Partner] in the Digital Age." This research aimed to evaluate the impact of the focal word on perceptions of the brand's online backup and cloud services.
Experience seamless automatic data syncing and backup across all your devices, including computers, phones, and tablets Our service supports all modern operating systems and offers a complimentary 5 GB of storage, with the option to purchase additional space as needed.
After viewing one of the two advertisements, participants expressed their willingness to pay through open-ended responses to minimize the risk of ceiling or floor effects linked to scaled measures Additionally, they reported their intentions for word-of-mouth communication across various items to ensure reliability (refer to Table 3.5.1) Following the advertisement evaluation, word associations were gathered as outlined in Study 1 Lastly, the attitude towards the focal word was assessed (see Table 3.5.1 for specific items).
Results
First, a t-test revealed that the word friend (M = 263.04) has a significantly higher (t(231)
The analysis revealed a significant difference in betweenness centrality, with a mean of -12.69 (p < 001) compared to the partner's mean of 69 Additionally, a correlation analysis showed a moderate association between the direct attitudinal rating of the focal word and its betweenness centrality, with a correlation coefficient of r(231) = 25 (p < 01).
A hierarchical regression analysis revealed that participants’ focal word betweenness centrality significantly contributes to predicting willingness to pay (ΔR² = 017, β = 14, t(230) = 2.03, p < 05) and word-of-mouth intentions (ΔR² = 025, β = 16, t(230) = 2.46, p < 05) beyond their explicit attitude towards the focal word In the friend condition, focal word betweenness centrality significantly predicted willingness to pay (ΔR² = 035, β = 19, t(118) = 2.07, p < 05) and showed marginal significance for word-of-mouth intentions (ΔR² = 027, β = 16, t(118) = 1.85, p < 10) However, it did not provide additional explained variance for willingness to pay (ΔR² = 001, β = 03, t(109) = 377, p > 20) or word-of-mouth intentions (ΔR² = 002, β = -.04, t(109) = -.48, p > 20) in other conditions.
> 20) beyond participants’ explicit attitude of the word partner This is not unexpected given partner’s low level of betweenness centrality in this data
In the study, participants' attitudes toward the focal word did not significantly predict their willingness to pay when analyzed individually (β = -.08; t(231) = -1.22, p > 20), but showed a marginal prediction when assessed alongside word betweenness centrality (β = -.12; t(230) = -1.70, p < 10) Additionally, their attitudes significantly influenced word-of-mouth intentions when evaluated individually (β = 140; t(231) = 2.16, p < 05), yet this effect diminished when considered with betweenness centrality (β = 10; t(230) = 1.48, p > 10) Importantly, without factoring in the betweenness centrality of the focal words, participants' advertising conditions (friend or partner) did not significantly affect their willingness to pay (β = 01; t(231) = 11, p > 20) or their word-of-mouth intentions (β = 10; t(231) = 1.50, p > 10).
Mediation analysis was performed to investigate the indirect effects of the advertisement condition on participants' willingness to pay and word-of-mouth intentions, as it did not show a direct impact Utilizing Preacher and Hayes's process macro (model 4) with 5000 bootstrapped samples, the study examined the betweenness centrality of the advertisement word as a mediator The experimental condition was treated as the independent variable, while willingness to pay and word-of-mouth intentions were analyzed as dependent variables The results indicated that the betweenness centrality of the focal word fully mediated the relationship between the advertisement condition and both willingness to pay (indirect effect 95% CI = 99 to 20.98) and word-of-mouth intentions (indirect effect 95% CI = 02 to 41), with no significant direct effects observed.
72 effects (95% CI = -16.84 to 3.19) and (95% CI = -.38 to 30) respectively, controlling for the direct attitudinal rating of participants’ focal word.
Discussion
Study 2 reveals that the betweenness centrality of focal words in advertising significantly influences willingness to pay and word-of-mouth intentions, independent of participants' attitudinal ratings, confirming findings from Study 1 However, due to high variance in betweenness centrality measures, the words "friend" and "partner" did not have a direct effect on these intentions Instead, evidence supports indirect mediation, emphasizing the importance of the structural position of advertising words In Study 3, conceptual fluency is introduced as the psychological mechanism driving the impact of betweenness centrality on product behavioral intentions.
Conceptual Processing Fluency and Consumer Evaluations
Advertisements that incorporate focal words with high betweenness centralities enhance consumer processing due to their frequent activation within a semantic network This leads to a logical structure that balances less related clusters, resulting in improved conceptual fluency Conceptual fluency, defined as the ease of information processing, often elicits positive gut reactions from consumers (Landwehr et al 2011) Consequently, fluent stimuli are more likely to resonate with audiences.
Research indicates that fluency in information can evoke feelings of clarity, familiarity, and truthfulness in consumers This sense of fluency makes information feel "right," enhancing its persuasive appeal and ultimately influencing consumer intentions and behaviors.
Conceptual fluency refers to the ease with which we process, recognize, and feel familiar with a stimulus (Reber, Schwarz, and Winkielman 2004) This concept is closely linked to the mere exposure effect, which suggests that repeated exposure to a neutral object enhances our liking for it (Zajonc 1968) As we encounter a stimulus more frequently, our sense of familiarity and recognition improves, leading to an increased preference for it Familiar stimuli are often perceived as less threatening, contributing to this heightened liking (Zajonc).
Research suggests that words with higher betweenness centralities are frequently activated in memory through semantic spreading This repeated activation may lead to a non-conscious mere exposure effect among consumers, resulting in heightened familiarity and increased preference for those words.
Fluent stimuli are processed more easily than non-fluent stimuli, as they align better with an individual's existing semantic knowledge structures (Winkielman et al 2003) Conceptual fluency can be enhanced through congruent semantic associations, such as the use of rhyme in aphorisms (McGlone and Tofighbakhsh 2000) For example, the phrase "woes unite foes" was perceived as more accurate than "woes unite enemies," despite both conveying a similar meaning (McGlone and Tofighbakhsh 2000).
Words with high centralities in a semantic network enhance conceptual fluency by bridging less similar clusters of meaning For instance, the word "friend" connects concepts of dependability, like support and trust, with those of enjoyment, such as fun and buddy This mediating role fosters cognitive structure, logically linking disparate ideas in memory Consequently, advertisements using such words require less cognitive effort for consumers to process, recognize, and categorize, leading to a heightened sense of semantic congruence and ease of understanding.
Research consistently shows that conceptual fluency is associated with positive evaluations and favorable attitudes toward the related object (Kidwell et al 2013; Lee and Aaker 2004; Reber et al 2004) Therefore, we anticipate that this relationship will hold true in our predictions.
Conceptual fluency serves as a mediator in the connection between focal word betweenness centrality and positive product behavioral intentions Specifically, a higher focal word betweenness centrality correlates with increased conceptual processing fluency, which in turn is linked to more favorable intentions towards the product.
Study 3
Method
A total of 194 undergraduate business students took part in a two-level between-subjects experiment, focusing on the keywords "friend" or "partner," to fulfill a research credit requirement Participants assessed an advertisement, after which their willingness to pay, word-of-mouth intentions, product purchase intentions, and conceptual processing fluency were measured Following the advertisement evaluation, word associations were gathered as outlined in Study 1 Finally, the attitude towards the focal word was measured according to the methodology described in Study 2.
Results
Focal word betweenness centrality significantly enhances the prediction of willingness to pay (ΔR² = 020, β = 15; t(191) = 1.98, p < 05), word-of-mouth intentions (ΔR² = 040, β = 16; t(191) = 2.82, p < 01), and purchase intentions (ΔR² = 049, β = 23; t(191) = 3.15, p < 01), in addition to focal word attitude In a focused analysis with participants in the friend condition, focal word betweenness centrality (M = 230.24) also significantly predicts willingness to pay (ΔR² = 043, β = 22; t(95) = 2.05, p < 05) and word-of-mouth intentions (ΔR² = 049, β = 23; t(95) = 2.23, p < 05).
In the study, purchase intentions were significantly influenced by the focal word attitude, with a ΔR² of 065 (β = 27; t(95) = 2.57, p < 05) Notably, the focal word "partner" exhibited a betweenness centrality of zero across all participant conditions Consistent with previous findings, the advertising condition did not significantly predict participants' willingness to pay (β = 01; t(192) = 17, p > 20) However, there was a marginal prediction of participants' word-of-mouth intentions based on their advertising condition.
= 12; t(192) = 1.69, p < 10) and significantly predicted their purchase intentions (β 15; t(192) = 2.00, p < 05)
Mediation Analysis To test for indirect only proximal-distal mediation, we utilized
Preacher and Hayes's (2008) process macro (model 6) utilized bootstrapped samples (n = 5000) to examine the impact of participants' experimental conditions as the independent variable The study identified the betweenness centrality of the condition word as a proximal mediator and conceptual processing fluency as a distal mediator Three separate analyses focused on willingness to pay, word-of-mouth, and purchase intentions as dependent variables, with focal word attitude included as a covariate Results, as predicted and illustrated in Figure 3.8.2, highlighted the relationship between proximal (focal word betweenness centrality) and distal mediators.
The mediation of conceptual advertisement processing fluency significantly explained the relationship between participants' experimental conditions and their willingness to pay (indirect effect 95% CI = 08 to 1.63), word-of-mouth (indirect effect 95% CI = 04 to 28), and purchase intentions (indirect effect 95% CI = 04 to 32) In contrast, the direct effects were non-significant, with confidence intervals of 95% CI = -7.78 to 4.54 for willingness to pay, 95% CI = -.21 to 56 for word-of-mouth, and 95% CI = -.32 to 72 for purchase intentions, while controlling for participants' direct attitudinal ratings of the focal word.
Discussion
This study reveals that conceptual processing fluency serves as the underlying psychological mechanism for the betweenness centrality effect identified in our research Specifically, words with high betweenness centrality link less semantically related clusters within a network, enhancing conceptual processing fluency during consumers' evaluations of advertisements This heightened fluency subsequently boosts the persuasive impact of the advertisement, ultimately influencing consumer intentions.
While previous studies have shown that focal word betweenness centrality enhances conceptual processing fluency in consumers, this effect has only been tested with the words "friend" and "partner." In our fourth study, we explore new focal advertisement words, "brilliant" and "vibrant," chosen for their prevalence in HDTV ads Additionally, we include the brand name of the advertised product to enhance the external validity of our findings If the proximal-distal mediation analysis from study 3 can be replicated with these new words and product categories, it will provide robust support for our theoretical model.
Study 4
Method
A study involving 149 undergraduate business students utilized a two-level between-subjects design to fulfill a research requirement, focusing on the descriptive words "brilliant" or "vibrant" in a VIZO HDTV advertisement Participants assessed a short print ad that prominently featured one of these terms while maintaining identical content across both versions The advertisement highlighted key features of the VIZIO HDTV, including its brilliant LED display, 55" 1080p resolution, 120Hz refresh rate, and smart TV capabilities for streaming and web interaction.
After participants were exposed to the advertisement, their willingness to pay, word-of-mouth intentions, purchase intentions, and conceptual fluency were assessed Following the evaluation of the advertisement, word associations were gathered using a method similar to that of previous studies Lastly, the attitude towards the focal word was measured, as illustrated in figure 3.9.1.
79 for an example network for the word brilliant and figure 3.9.1.1 for an example network of the word vibrant.
Results
The focal word brilliant (M = 148.82) was found to have a significantly (t(147) = -5.89, p
In this study, participants exposed to the brilliant condition exhibited a higher betweenness centrality (M = 57.28) compared to those in the vibrant condition While betweenness centrality did not significantly predict willingness to pay, word-of-mouth intentions, or purchase intentions, it did enhance the explained variance in conceptual processing fluency beyond participants' explicit attitudes (ΔR² = 025, β = 19, p = 052) Individually, the brilliant condition showed a similar trend (ΔR² = 047, β = 19, p = 070), whereas the vibrant condition yielded no significant results (ΔR² = 00, β = 19, p > 20) Additionally, the advertising condition did not significantly influence participants' willingness to pay (β = 13, p > 10), word-of-mouth intentions (β = -.13, p > 10), or purchase intentions (β = -.09).
Mediation Analysis To test for indirect only proximal-distal mediation, we utilized
Preacher and Hayes's (2008) process macro analysis, utilizing bootstrapped samples of 5,000, replicated the findings of study 3, as illustrated in Figure 3.9.2, which focused on willingness to pay The mediation results revealed that betweenness centrality, as the proximal variable, and conceptual processing fluency, as the distal variable, significantly accounted for the relationship between these constructs.
In a study involving 80 participants, the analysis revealed significant indirect effects of experimental conditions on various outcomes: willingness to pay (95% CI = 17 to 30.68), word-of-mouth intentions (95% CI = 01 to 26), and purchase intentions (95% CI = 01 to 19) However, direct effects were found to be non-significant across the same measures These findings highlight that focal word betweenness centrality plays a crucial role in enhancing advertising effectiveness, driven by the psychological mechanism of conceptual processing fluency This insight offers marketers a valuable strategy for selecting optimal focal words in their advertising campaigns.
Discussion
Study 4 provides an additional demonstration of the proximal-distal mediation detailed in study 3, with a new group of focal words, in a new product domain, with the product brand prominently displayed in the advertisement Again, word betweenness centrality increased consumer’s conceptual processing fluency, which in turn influenced their focal behavioral intentions towards the advertised product Thus, the results of study 4 provided a rigorous test to enhance the generalizability of our results and support our proposed theoretical model.
General Discussion
Theoretical Contributions
This research theoretically extends the literature on consumer memory and information processing by identifying how consumers respond to how activated memory nodes are
Research indicates that participants with higher betweenness centralities for key advertising words are more likely to have positive behavioral intentions towards the advertised product The connections between memories in local semantic networks significantly affect consumer perception and information processing Without considering these connections, the effectiveness of focal advertising words and the attitudes they generate can be inconsistent predictors of their influence on consumer behavior This study underscores the importance of semantic structures in shaping how consumers respond to memory activations related to advertising.
The betweenness centrality of focal words in advertising significantly impacts consumers' conceptual processing fluency Words with higher betweenness centralities enhance the logical structure and context of a broader semantic web, facilitating easier recognition and categorization of advertisements This improved processing fluency leads to more favorable behavioral intentions towards the advertised product Moreover, betweenness centrality uniquely influences these intentions through conceptual processing fluency, independent of participants' explicit attitudes towards the advertising word Notably, betweenness centrality surpasses other centrality measures, such as in-degree and out-degree, in predicting product behavioral intentions, highlighting the importance of a memory's structural position within its semantic network for effective information processing.
Substantive Contributions
Organizations and marketers must recognize the impact of both direct and indirect memory activations from their advertising, paying close attention to the structural placement of key advertising words within consumers' semantic networks By understanding how the cognitive framework surrounding these focal words influences consumer behavior, marketers can enhance their strategies to promote favorable product intentions, including willingness to pay, word-of-mouth, and purchasing decisions Additionally, by actively shaping the semantic networks linked to their advertising keywords or product names, marketers can improve the centrality of these terms, moving beyond reliance on existing consumer associations.
Public health campaigns, environmental initiatives, and charity events can enhance their advertising effectiveness by choosing focal words with high betweenness centralities Recent research highlights the significance of conceptual fluency in recycling appeals, suggesting that incorporating such words into advertisement copy can boost consumer engagement with related programs.
Limitations and Further Research
The cumulative evidence provided for the betweenness centrality effect in this research is correlational in nature Because word betweenness centrality was measured rather than
While our study did not directly manipulate the proposed betweenness centrality effect, future research should explore altering participants' memory networks to address this gap Additionally, the diversity among participants may limit the accuracy of the network measures regarding individual memory activations Despite this potential error variance, the consistency of our findings across various data sets indicates that our associative word banks effectively approximated the average memory activations within the study population.
Current research underscores the significance of the betweenness centrality effect and its psychological mechanisms, yet many questions persist This study primarily examines one measure of memory network structure's impact on consumer behavior, but betweenness centrality is just one of several metrics, including density and eigenvector centrality, that characterize interconnected relationships There are ample opportunities for further research to explore how various memory structures affect consumer information processing Ultimately, while marketers must grasp the semantic associations in memory, understanding the connections within consumers' local semantic networks is equally vital.
Tables and Figures
Table 3.5.1: Measurement of Items by Study
4Table 3.5.1: Measurement Items by Study
It would be worth paying a little more to use this product, relative to the other brands that are available
How much would you be willing to pay for _? (Open ended)
(Items adapted from Maxham and Netemeyer
I am likely to tell other people about this product
I am likely to spread positive word-of-mouth about this product
I would recommend this product to my friends
If my friends were looking for a product like this, I would tell them to try this product.”
What is your attitude toward the word [friend / partner / brilliant / vibrant]?
Please describe your purchase intentions of the product in the advertisement you just viewed …
Very low purchase interest/Very high purchase interest
Did not flow/Flowed well
Difficult to follow/Easy to follow
Not easy to relate to/Easy to relate to
Difficult to process/Easy to process
Difficult to understand/Easy to understand
Difficult to comprehend/Easy to comprehend
Does not make sense/Makes sense
*Items on a 7-point scale unless otherwise noted
Table 3.5.1, continued: Measurement of Items by Study
Figure 3.5.1: Sample Participant Memory Network for Friend – Lower Betweenness
7Figure 3.5.1: Sample Participant Memory Network for Friend – Lower Betweenness Centrality
Sample Participant Memory Network for Friend – Higher Betweenness Centrality
88 Figure 3.6.1: Sample Participant Memory Network for Partner
8 Figure 3.6.1: Sample Participant Memory Network for Partner
Figure 3.6.2: Willingness to Pay Mediation Analysis – Study 2
Standardized regression coefficients are shown in parentheses, * = P < 05, ** = P < 01,
NS = non-significant 5000 bootstrapped samples in PROCESS macro, 95% CI
Willingness to Pay Mediation Analysis – Study 2
Figure 3.8.2: Willingness to Pay Mediation Analysis – Study 3
Standardized regression coefficients are shown in parentheses, * = P < 05, ** = P < 01,
NS = non-significant 5000 bootstrapped samples in PROCESS macro, 95% CI
Willingness To Pay Mediation Analysis – Study 3
91 Figure 3.8.3: Sample Network, Bridging Concepts – Study 3
11 Figure 3.8.3: Sample Network, Bridging Concepts – Study 3
92 Figure 3.9.1: Sample Participant Memory Network for Brilliant
12 Figure 3.9.1: Sample Participant Memory Network for Brilliant
93 Figure 3.9.1.1: Sample Participant Memory Network for Vibrant
13 Figure 3.9.1.1: Sample Participant Memory Network for Vibrant
Figure 3.9.2: Willingness to Pay Mediation Analysis – Study 4
Standardized regression coefficients are shown in parentheses, t = < 055, * = P < 05, **
= P < 01, NS = non-significant 5000 bootstrapped samples in PROCESS macro, 95%
Willingness To Pay Mediation Analysis – Study 4
This dissertation explores the impact of affect, or a consumer's internal emotional state, on the lasting enjoyment of products and key behavioral intentions towards advertised items The research aims to enhance theoretical understanding of how affective responses are formed and their effects on consumer behavior, while also presenting practical applications for both consumers and marketers It reveals the significance of affect in consumer satiation and introduces innovative methods to enhance current consumption enjoyment Additionally, it examines how the semantic structure of advertising language influences consumers' behavioral intentions by affecting their conceptual processing fluency.
The first essay contributes to consumer theory by showing that anticipating a greater variety of future consumption can reduce the rate at which consumers become satiated with current experiences This anticipation lessens negative emotions associated with repetitive consumption, particularly for products that rely heavily on emotional enjoyment, such as vices, while having less impact on virtues Additionally, the study reveals that consumer emotional intelligence moderates the relationship between expected future variety and satiation, supporting an affective process mechanism and identifying a boundary condition for this effect Overall, the dissertation presents a new approach to influence consumers' natural satiation responses during repetitive activities, such as listening to music or playing video games.
Consumers using a treadmill can enhance their experience by exploring various future possibilities, such as diverse music genres, new game features, and different training programs Marketers can capitalize on this by showcasing the numerous ways to use or enjoy a product through packaging, menus, or advertising, emphasizing how current consumption may evolve into different future uses.
This article explores how affective processes shape consumer behavior, highlighting the role of semantic associations in advertising It reveals that the betweenness centrality of focal words significantly impacts consumers' behavioral intentions toward advertised products The study identifies conceptual fluency as the psychological mechanism behind this effect, suggesting that the connections within semantic networks influence consumer perception and response to advertising Marketers are encouraged to consider not only the memory activations triggered by focal words but also their structural placement within consumers' semantic networks By understanding these dynamics, marketers can enhance their strategies to effectively influence consumer processing and responses to advertisements.
These essays enhance our understanding of how emotions impact the lasting enjoyment of current consumption experiences and influence consumer intentions toward advertised products To sustain enjoyment, consumers can anticipate future variety in their consumption to mitigate negative feelings associated with repetitive experiences Marketers can boost consumers' conceptual fluency and foster positive intentions toward their products by strategically choosing focal words based on betweenness centrality in their advertising.
Chapter 2 Appendix
99 Figure A1.2: Text Advertisement – Study 2 and 3
16 Figure A1.2: Text Advertisement – Study 2 and 3
120Hz Refresh Rate: Great for General Viewing and Action Content
Smart TV: Interact with Streaming Content and the Web
Abendroth, Lisa J and Kristin Diehl (2006), "Now or Never: Effects of Limited Purchase
Opportunities on Patterns of Regret Over Time," Journal of Consumer Research,
Anderson, John R (1983), "A Spreading Activation Theory of Memory," Journal of verbal learning and verbal behavior, 22 (3), 261-95
Avnet, Tamar and E Tory Higgins (2006), "How Regulatory Fit Affects Value in Consumer
Choices and Opinions," Journal of Marketing Research, 43 (1), 1-10
Baddeley, Alan (2012), "Working Memory: Theories, Models, and Controversies," Annual
Baddeley, Alan (2013), Essentials of Human Memory (Classic Edition), New York:
Balota, David A and Robert F Lorch (1986), "Depth of Automatic Spreading Activation:
Mediated Priming Effects in Pronunciation but Not in Lexical Decision," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 12 (3), 336-45
Bargh, John A., Peter M Gollwitzer, Annette Lee-Chai, Kimberly Barndollar, and Roman
Trửtschel (2001), "The Automated Will: Nonconscious Activation and Pursuit of Behavioral Goals," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81 (6), 1014-27
Bettman, James R (1979), "Memory Factors in Consumer Choice: A Review," Journal of
Blair, Sean and Neal J Roese (2013), "Balancing the Basket: The Role of Shopping
Basket Composition in Embarrassment," Journal of Consumer Research, 40 (4), 676-91
Borgatti, Stephen P., Martin G Everett, and Linton C Freeman (2002), "Ucinet 6 for
Windows: Software for Social Network Analysis (Version 6.469)," Harvard, MA:
Borgatti, Stephen P and Pacey C Foster (2003), "The Network Paradigm in Organizational
Research: A Review and Typology," Journal of Management, 29 (6), 991-1013 Borgatti, Stephen P., Ajay Mehra, Daniel J Brass, and Giuseppe Labianca (2009),
"Network Analysis in the Social Sciences," Science, 323 (5916), 892-95
Bornstein, Robert F and Paul R D'Agostino (1994), "The Attribution and Discounting of
Perceptual Fluency: Preliminary Tests of a Perceptual Fluency/Attributional Model of the Mere Exposure Effect," Social Cognition, 12 (2), 103-28
Bray, Signe, Shinsuke Shimojo, and John P O'Doherty (2010), "Human Medial
Orbitofrontal Cortex Is Recruited During Experience of Imagined and Real
Brickman, Philip and Donald T Campbell, ed (1971), Hedonic Relativism and Planning the Good Society, New York: Academic Press
Bullmore, Ed T and Danielle S Bassett (2011), "Brain Graphs: Graphical Models of the
Human Brain Connectome," Annual review of clinical psychology, 7 (2011), 113-
Bullmore, Ed T and Sporns Olaf (2009), "Complex Brain Networks: Graph Theoretical
Analysis of Structural and Functional Systems," Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10
Carver, Charles S and Michael F Scheier (1990), "Origins and Functions of Positive and
Negative Affect: A Control-Process View," Psychological Review, 97 (1), 19-35
Chartrand, Tanya L., Joel Huber, Baba Shiv, and Robin J Tanner (2008), "Nonconscious
Goals and Consumer Choice," Journal of Consumer Research, 35 (2), 189-201
Chernev, Alexander, Ryan Hamilton, and David Gal (2011), "Competing for Consumer
Identity: Limits to Self-Expression and the Perils of Lifestyle Branding," Journal of Marketing, 75 (3), 66-82
Clore, Gerald L (1994), "Why Emotions Are Felt,” in The Nature of Emotion:
Fundamental Questions, ed Paul Ekman and Richard J Davidson, New York:
Cohen, Joel B., Michel T Pham, and Eduardo B Andrade (2008) explore the significance of affect in consumer behavior in their chapter titled "The Nature and Role of Affect in Consumer Behavior," featured in the Handbook of Consumer Psychology This work, edited by Curtis P Haugtvedt, Paul Herr, and Frank Kardes, provides insights into how emotions influence consumer decision-making processes The authors emphasize the intricate relationship between affective responses and consumer choices, highlighting the importance of understanding emotional drivers in marketing strategies.
Davis, Derick F and Paul M Herr (2014), "From Bye to Buy: Homophones as a
Phonological Route to Priming," Journal of Consumer Research, 40 (6), 1063-77
Decety, Jean and Julie Grèzes (2006), "The Power of Simulation: Imagining One's Own and Other's Behavior," Brain Research, 1079 (1), 4-14
Dimofte, Claudiu V and Richard F Yalch (2011), "The Mere Association Effect and
Brand Evaluations," Journal of Consumer Psychology, 21 (1), 24-37
Evans, Jonathan St B T (2008), "Dual-Processing Accounts of Reasoning, Judgment, and Social Cognition," Annual Review of Psychology, 59 (1), 255-78
Fishbach, Ayelet, Rebecca K Ratner, and Ying Zhang (2011), "Inherently Loyal or
Easily Bored?: Nonconscious Activation of Consistency Versus Variety-Seeking Behavior," Journal of Consumer Psychology, 21 (1), 38-48
Fishbein, Martin and Icek Ajzen (1975), Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An
Introduction to Theory and Research, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing
Forster, Jens, Nira Liberman, and Ronald S Friedman (2007), "Seven Principles of Goal
Activation: A Systematic Approach to Distinguishing Goal Priming from Priming of Non-Goal Constructs," Personality and Social Psychology Review, 11 (3), 211-
Frederick, Shane and George Loewenstein (1999), "Hedonic Adaptation," in Well-Being:
The Foundations of Hedonic Psychology, ed Daniel Kahneman, Ed Diener, and
Norbert Schwarz, New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 302-29
Fredrickson, Barbara L (2001), "The Role of Positive Emotions in Positive Psychology:
The Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotions," American Psychologist, 56
Freeman, Linton C (1979), "Centrality in Social Networks Conceptual Clarification,"
Galak, Jeff, Justin Kruger, and George Loewenstein (2013), "Slow Down! Insensitivity to
Rate of Consumption Leads to Avoidable Satiation," Journal of Consumer
Galak, Jeff, Joseph P Redden, and Justin Kruger (2009), "Variety Amnesia: Recalling
Past Variety Can Accelerate Recovery from Satiation," Journal of Consumer
Galak, Jeff, Joseph P Redden, Yang Yang, and Ellie J Kyung (2014), "How Perceptions of Temporal Distance Influence Satiation," Journal of Experimental Social
Gilbert, Daniel T., Michael J Gill, and Timothy D Wilson (2002), "The Future Is Now:
Temporal Correction in Affective Forecasting," Organizational Behavior and
Goel, Sharad and Daniel G Goldstein (2013), "Predicting Individual Behavior with Social
Gollier, Christian and Alexander Muermann (2010), "Optimal Choice and Beliefs with
Ex Ante Savoring and Ex Post Disappointment," Management Science, 56 (8), 1272-84
Haws, Kelly L and Joseph P Redden (2013), “In Control of Variety: High Self-Control
Reduces the Effect of Variety on Food Consumption,” Appetite, 69, 196-203
He, Yong and Alan Evans (2010), "Graph Theoretical Modeling of Brain Connectivity,"
Holmes, Emily A and Andrew Mathews (2005), "Mental Imagery and Emotion: A
Isen, Alice M and Robert Patrick (1983), "The Effect of Positive Feelings on Risk
Taking: When the Chips Are Down," Organizational Behavior and Human
John, Deborah Roedder, Barbara Loken, Kyeongheui Kim, and Alokparna Basu Monga
(2006), "Brand Concept Maps: A Methodology for Identifying Brand Association Networks," Journal of Marketing Research, 43 (4), 549-63
Kahn, Barbara E and Brian Wansink (2004), "The Influence of Assortment Structure on
Perceived Variety and Consumption Quantities," Journal of Consumer Research,
Keller, Kevin Lane (1993), "Conceptualizing, Measuring, and Managing Customer-Based
Brand Equity," The Journal of Marketing, 57 (1), 1-22
Kidwell, Blair, Adam Farmer, and David M Hardesty (2013), "Getting Liberals and
Conservatives to Go Green: Political Ideology and Congruent Appeals," Journal of
Kidwell, Blair, David M Hardesty, and Terry L Childers (2008a), "Consumer Emotional
Intelligence: Conceptualization, Measurement, and the Prediction of Consumer Decision Making," Journal of Consumer Research, 35 (1), 154-66
——— (2008b), "Emotional Calibration Effects on Consumer Choice," Journal of
Kidwell, Blair, Jonathan Hasford, and David M Hardesty (2015), "Emotional Ability
Training and Mindful Eating," Journal of Marketing Research, 52 (1), 105-19
Krishnan, H S (1996), "Characteristics of Memory Associations: A Consumer-Based
Brand Equity Perspective," International Journal of Research in Marketing, 13 (4), 389-405
In their 2002 study, "A Theory of Goal Systems," Kruglanski et al explore the intricate relationships between various goals and how they influence human behavior The authors propose that goals are interconnected within a system, where the pursuit of one goal can affect the motivation and achievement of others This framework emphasizes the importance of understanding these goal hierarchies to better comprehend decision-making processes By analyzing the dynamics of goal systems, the research contributes valuable insights into social psychology and the factors that drive individuals toward their objectives.
Labroo, Aparna A and Anirban Mukhopadhyay (2009), "Lay Theories of Emotion
Transience and the Search for Happiness: A Fresh Perspective on Affect
Regulation," Journal of Consumer Research, 36 (2), 242-54
Landwehr, Jan R, Aparna A Labroo, and Andreas Herrmann (2011), "Gut Liking for the
Ordinary: Incorporating Design Fluency Improves Automobile Sales Forecasts,"
Larson, Jeffrey S., Joseph P Redden, and Ryan S Elder (2014), "Satiation from Sensory
Simulation: Evaluating Foods Decreases Enjoyment of Similar Foods," Journal of
Lee, Angela Y and Jennifer L Aaker (2004), "Bringing the Frame into Focus: The
Influence of Regulatory Fit on Processing Fluency and Persuasion," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86 (2), 205-18
Liu, Peggy J., Kelly L Haws, Cait Lamberton, Troy H Campbell, and Gavan J
Fitzsimons (2015), "Vice-Virtue Bundles," Management Science, 61 (1), 204-28
Loewenstein, George (1996), "Out of Control: Visceral Influences on Behavior,"
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 65 (3), 272-92
Lowe, Michael L and Kelly L Haws (2014), "(Im)moral Support: The Social Outcomes of Parallel Self-Control Decisions," Journal of Consumer Research, 41 (2), 489-
Lucas, Richard E (2007), "Long-Term Disability Is Associated with Lasting Changes in
Subjective Well-Being: Evidence from Two Nationally Representative
Longitudinal Studies," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92 (4), 717-
Maxham, James G and Richard G Netemeyer (2002), "Modeling Customer Perceptions of Complaint Handling over Time: The Effects of Perceived Justice on Satisfaction and Intent," Journal of Retailing, 78 (4), 239-52
McAlister, Leigh and Edgar Pessemier (1982), "Variety Seeking Behavior: An
Interdisciplinary Review," Journal of Consumer Research, 9 (3), 311-22
McGlone, Matthew S and Jessica Tofighbakhsh (2000), "Birds of a Feather Flock
Conjointly (?): Rhyme as Reason in Aphorisms," Psychological Science, 11 (5),
Menon, Satya and Barbara E Kahn (1995), "The Impact of Context on Variety Seeking in Product Choices," Journal of Consumer Research, 22 (3), 285-95
Mehta, Nitin, Xinlei Chen, and Om Narasimhan (2008), "Informing, Transforming, and
Persuading: Disentangling the Multiple Effects of Advertising on Brand Choice Decisions," Marketing Science, 27 (3), 334-55
Mick, David Glen, Simone Pettigrew, Cornelia Pechmann, and Julie L Ozanne (2012),
"Origins, Qualities, and Envisionments of Transformative Consumer Research," in Transformative Consumer Research for Personal and Collective Well-Being, ed David Glen Mick, Simone Pettigrew, Cornelia Pechmann, and Julie L
Ozanne, New York: Taylor and Francis: 3-24
Miller, George A (1995), "Wordnet: A Lexical Database for English," Communications of the ACM, 38 (11), 39-41
Mogilner, Cassie, Tamar Rudnick, and Sheena S Iyengar (2008), "The Mere
Categorization Effect: How the Presence of Categories Increases Choosers’
Perceptions of Assortment Variety and Outcome Satisfaction," Journal of
Morewedge, Carey K., Young Eun Huh, and Joachim Vosgerau (2010), "Thought for
Food: Imagined Consumption Reduces Actual Consumption," Science, 330
Nelson, Douglas, Cathy McEvoy, and Thomas Schreiber (2004), "The University of South
Florida Free Association, Rhyme, and Word Fragment Norms," Behavior Research
Nenkov, Gergana Y., J Jeffrey Inman, and John Hulland (2008), "Considering the
Future: The Conceptualization and Measurement of Elaboration on Potential Outcomes," Journal of Consumer Research, 35 (1), 126-41
Newman, Mark (2008), "The Physics of Networks," Physics Today, 61 (11), 33-38
Pereira, Francisco, Greg Detre, and Matthew Botvinick (2011), "Generating Text from
Functional Brain Images," Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 72 (5), 1-11
Pham, Michel Tuan (1998), "Representativeness, Relevance, and the Use of Feelings in
Decision Making," Journal of Consumer Research, 25 (2), 144-59
Poor, Morgan, Adam Duhachek, and Shanker Krishnan (2012), "The Moderating Role of
Emotional Differentiation on Satiation," Journal of Consumer Psychology, 22 (4), 507-19
Preacher, Kristopher and Andrew Hayes (2008), "Asymptotic and Resampling Strategies for Assessing and Comparing Indirect Effects in Multiple Mediator Models,"
Raju, Puthankurissi S (1980), "Optimum Stimulation Level: Its Relationship to
Personality, Demographics, and Exploratory Behavior," Journal of Consumer
Ramanathan, Suresh and Patti Williams (2007), "Immediate and Delayed Emotional
Consequences of Indulgence: The Moderating Influence of Personality Type on Mixed Emotions," Journal of Consumer Research, 34 (2), 212-23
Ratner, Rebecca K and Barbara E Kahn (2002), "The Impact of Private Versus Public
Consumption on Variety‐Seeking Behavior," Journal of Consumer Research, 29
Ratner, Rebecca K., Barbara E Kahn, and Daniel Kahneman (1999), "Choosing Less-
Preferred Experiences for the Sake of Variety," Journal of Consumer Research,
Read, Daniel, George Loewenstein, and Shobana Kalyanaraman (1999), "Mixing Virtue and Vice: Combining the Immediacy Effect and the Diversification Heuristic,"
Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 12 (4), 257-73
Reber, Rolf and Norbert Schwarz (1999), "Effects of Perceptual Fluency on Judgments of
Reber, Rolf, Norbert Schwarz, and Piotr Winkielman (2004), "Processing Fluency and
Aesthetic Pleasure: Is Beauty in the Perceiver's Processing Experience?,"
Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8 (4), 364-82
Redden, Joseph P (2008), "Reducing Satiation: The Role of Categorization Level,"
Redden, Joseph P and Kelly L Haws (2013), "Healthy Satiation: The Role of Decreasing
Desire in Effective Self-Control," Journal of Consumer Research, 39 (5), 1100-
Schwarz, Norbert (1998), "Warmer and More Social: Recent Developments in Cognitive
Social Psychology," Annual Review of Sociology, 24 (1), 239-64
Schwarz, Norbert and Gerald L Clore (1983), "Mood, Misattribution, and Judgments of
Well-Being: Informative and Directive Functions of Affective States," Journal of
Sela, Aner and Baba Shiv (2009), "Unraveling Priming: When Does the Same Prime
Activate a Goal Versus a Trait?," Journal of Consumer Research, 36 (3), 418-33
Scott, Maura L., Stephen M Nowlis, Naomi Mandel, and Andrea C Morales (2008),
"The Effects of Reduced Food Size and Package Size on the Consumption
Behavior of Restrained and Unrestrained Eaters," Journal of Consumer Research,
Sevilla, Julio and Joseph P Redden (2014), "Limited Availability Reduces the Rate of
Satiation," Journal of Marketing Research, 51 (2), 205-17
Shiv, Baba and Alexander Fedorikhin (1999), "Heart and Mind in Conflict: The Interplay of Affect and Cognition in Consumer Decision Making," Journal of Consumer
Spiller, Stephen A., Gavan J Fitzsimons, John G Lynch Jr., and Gary H McClelland
(2013), "Spotlights, Floodlights, and the Magic Number Zero: Simple Effects Tests in Moderated Regression," Journal of Marketing Research, 50 (2), 277-88
Thomas, Manoj, Kalpesh Kaushik Desai, and Satheeshkumar Seenivasan (2011), "How
Credit Card Payments Increase Unhealthy Food Purchases: Visceral Regulation of Vices," Journal of Consumer Research, 38 (1), 126-39
In their 2010 study, Tsiros and Hardesty explore the effectiveness of different strategies for ending price promotions, comparing immediate retraction to gradual phasing out They highlight the impact of these strategies on consumer perceptions and purchasing behavior Additionally, van Den Bulte and Wuyts (2007) examine the role of social networks in marketing, emphasizing how connections and relationships influence consumer decisions and brand loyalty Together, these studies provide valuable insights into promotional strategies and the significance of social dynamics in marketing.
Marketing Science Institute; Cambridge, MA van Osselaer, Stijn M J and Chris Janiszewski (2012), "A Goal-Based Model of Product
Evaluation and Choice," Journal of Consumer Research, 39 (2), 260-92
Vorderer, Peter, Christoph Klimmt, and Ute Ritterfeld (2004), "Enjoyment: At the Heart of Media Entertainment," Communication Theory, 14 (4), 388-408
Wang, Jing, Nathan Novemsky, and Ravi Dhar (2009), "Anticipating Adaptation to
Products," Journal of Consumer Research, 36 (2), 149-59
Watson, David, Lee A Clark, and Auke Tellegen (1988), "Development and Validation of Brief Measures of Positive and Negative Affect: The PANAS Scales," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54 (6), 1063-70
West, Douglas Brent (2001), Introduction to Graph Theory, Vol 2: Prentice Hall; Upper
Wertenbroch, Klaus (1998), "Consumption Self-Control by Rationing Purchase
Quantities of Virtue and Vice," Marketing Science, 17 (4), 317-37
Whittlesea, Bruce W A (1993), "Illusions of Familiarity," Journal of Experimental
Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19 (6), 1235-53
Whittlesea, Bruce W A., Larry L Jacoby, and Krista Girard (1990), "Illusions of
Immediate Memory: Evidence of an Attributional Basis for Feelings of Familiarity and Perceptual Quality," Journal of Memory and Language, 29 (6), 716-32
Winkielman, Piotr, Norbert Schwarz, Tetra Fazendeiro, and Rolf Reber (2003), "The
Hedonic Marking of Processing Fluency: Implications for Evaluative Judgment,"
The psychology of evaluation: Affective processes in cognition and emotion, 189-
Wilcox, Keith, Beth Vallen, Lauren Block, and Gavan J Fitzsimons (2009), “Vicarious
Goal Fulfillment: When the Mere Presence of a Healthy Option Leads to an Ironically Indulgent Decision,” Journal of Consumer Research, 36 (3), 380-93
Wilson, Timothy D and Daniel T Gilbert (2008), "Explaining Away: A Model of
Affective Adaptation," Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3 (5), 370-86
Winterich, Karen Page and Kelly L Haws (2011), "Helpful Hopefulness: The Effect of
Future Positive Emotions on Consumption," Journal of Consumer Research, 38
Wood, Stacy L and C Page Moreau (2006), "From Fear to Loathing? How Emotion
Influences the Evaluation and Early Use of Innovations," Journal of Marketing,
Zajonc, Robert B (1968), "Attitudinal Effects of Mere Exposure," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 9 (2p2), 1-27
Zajonc, Robert B (2001), "Mere Exposure: A Gateway to the Subliminal," Current
Zhao, Xinshu, John G Lynch, and Qimei Chen (2010), "Reconsidering Baron and Kenny:
Myths and Truths About Mediation Analysis," Journal of Consumer Research, 37
Zhong, Jing Yang and Vincent-Wayne Mitchell (2010), "A Mechanism Model of the
Effect of Hedonic Product Consumption on Well-Being," Journal of Consumer