Globalization, Children’s Study Abroad, and | Transnationalism as an Emerging Context for | Language Learning: A New Task for Language | Teacher Education |

THE FORUM The TESOL Quarterly invites commentary on current trends or practices in the TESOL profession It also welcomes responses to rebuttals to any articles or remarks published here in The Forum or elsewhere in the Quarterly Globalization, Children’s Study Abroad, and Transnationalism as an Emerging Context for Language Learning: A New Task for Language Teacher Education JUYOUNG SONG Murray State University Murray, Kentucky, United States doi: 10.5054/tq.2011.268059 & Amidst emerging trends in transnational migration via globalization, an increasing number of families have gone abroad to help their schoolaged children and youth gain international education credentials and provide them an opportunity to acquire English as a global language as early as possible This early study abroad before college (hereafter ESA) has been very popular in traditional Expanding Circle countries (Kachru, 1982), especially with middle class families in East Asia such as Chinese and Korean families ESA takes various forms: (1) familyaccompanied (typically with mothers only, known as Korean wild goose mothers or Chinese study mothers), long-term stays in Inner Circle countries such as the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, or relatively short-term stays in the English-speaking countries in the Outer Circle, such as the Philippines and Singapore; or (2) childrenalone study abroad through their enrollment in boarding schools or through home stays These varying ESA practices have important implications in TESOL, such as increasing diversity in places and models for English learning and thus a change in attitudes towards different varieties of English (Graddol, 2006) Recent research has just begun to emphasize the role of education in driving migration flows (Chee, 2003; Chew, 2009, 2010; Ho, 2002; TESOL QUARTERLY Vol 45, No 4, December 2011 749 Huang & Yeoh, 2005; Lee, 2010; Lo & Park, in press; Orellana, Thorne, Chee, & Lam, 2001; Waters, 2005; Yeoh, Huang, & Lam, 2005) However, there is little research on this topic in the field of language learning and teacher education while the number of ESA students has been increasing rapidly in certain regions For example, the number of ESA students constitutes one-fifth of the total student enrollment in a particular private high school in a Midwestern city in the United States (Williams, 2008) At the same time, the number of ESA returnee students in an English as a foreign language (EFL) classroom, for example in a particular middle class region of South Korea, accounts for more than a quarter of the total student population (from interviews with teachers in Seoul) Therefore, it is imperative to begin discussing the general areas of implications for language teacher education regarding the impact of the rapidly growing ESA learner population on the educational and linguistic landscape in their source and host countries This Forum article introduces issues relevant to this emerging group and discusses implications for both English as a second language (ESL) and EFL teacher education CHANGING THE FACE OF IMMIGRANT COMMUNITIES The arrival of new populations through educational migration has changed the face and social reality of immigrant communities Although both this new group and long-term immigrants may share similar characteristics in their transnational practices and experiences, they differ in their envisionment of their children’s future trajectories For example, ESA families align themselves, to a great degree, with the community in their source country in terms of educational practices and expectations, thus focusing on English learning as a form of cultural capital in their home educational market (Song, in press) Parents in this group believe that their children can gain access to global citizenship through English This view of English, as a means of accumulating capital and of acquiring global membership, has become more prominent than the conventional view of language as a marker of a speaker’s ethnonational identity (Heller, 2003; Kang, in press; Song, 2010) That is, ESA families strongly emphasize English learning within the perspective of ‘‘elite bilingualism’’ in which additional languages associated with certain membership affiliations are merely added onto their first language and ethnonational identity Immigrant families, on the other hand, tend to contemplate the need for their mother tongue in regard to their children’s construction and maintenance of an ethnonational identity (Song, 2010) This distinction highlights the view of a (minority or transnational) community as heterogeneous in its members’ multilayered memberships 750 TESOL QUARTERLY and practices Although these transnational families seem to engage in the same sort of bilingual practices, the underlying ideologies and goals and consequently their practices differ largely because of their diverse levels of memberships in multiple communities—the communities that they left behind, currently participate in, and plan to join in the future In this regard, ESA students’ language learning should be considered beyond the local community, particularly in relation to these learners’ ‘‘imagined’’ future membership (Kanno & Norton, 2003) Additionally, boundaries of a community become blurred through the intricate relationship that ESA families hold toward communities beyond a current and local community These dynamic and competing notions of a community and membership raise a question regarding the second language learning and socialization process to become a ‘‘competent’’ member of a community (Schieffelin & Ochs, 1986): Whose competence in which community should be applied to these transnational children and youth who are traveling across national and cultural borders? Furthermore, the intensity and pace of ESA practices in transnational space may be transforming other types of transnational families’ practices in an unexpected way For example, how does the increasing number of ESA learners who have higher proficiency in minority languages influence immigrant families’ heritage language education efforts and bilingual practices? What are the implications of ESA practices for foreign language education in host countries? Further research in these areas is called for to enhance our understanding of how ESA influences other language learning LEARNING ENGLISH, ENGLISHES, OR CHINESE: CHALLENGING OR REINFORCING LANGUAGE IDEOLOGY OF ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL LANGUAGE The primary destinations of the early study abroad families used to be the Western English-speaking countries that are traditionally categorized as Inner Circle countries Recently, however, more families have been choosing Expanding Circle countries where a local variety of English and other local language(s) coexist Such expansion in study abroad sites creates a tension between different varieties of English in the context of language learning (Kang, in press; Park & Bae, 2009) Singapore, in particular, has recently become one of the most popular places among ESA families—7,000 Chinese and 5,000 Korean ESA children and mothers lived and studied there in 2007 (Chew, 2009) By virtue of recognizing the importance of Mandarin because of China’s growth as a global market, ESA families navigate and negotiate the different roles of languages that the context offers—English as a global or default language, Mandarin as an emerging economic instrument, THE FORUM 751 so-called Singlish (the local variety of English) as a marker of solidarity with local peers, and their native language as a national identity (Kang, in press; Park & Bae, 2009) These multiple languages and language ideologies, however, are not necessarily in competition with each other, but are components of these learners’ emerging sense of belonging, which is hybrid and multiple, and connect them to the global and local communities simultaneously Their investment in Mandarin, while still prioritizing standard English acquisition over other languages or varieties (Park & Bae, 2009) challenges, to a certain degree, but concomitantly reinforces the dominant ideology of English as a global language (and the privileged sites of English learning), which, in turn, confirms their desire to acquire ‘‘global’’ membership through a global language Children’s learning and use of multiple languages for different social occasions and identities in this context also contributes to a dynamic view of bilingualism, encompassing the binary categories of English as a mainstream language and membership versus learners’ native language as a minority language and their ethnic identity The dynamic view considers learners’ learning and use of multiple languages in the complex processes of interaction among practices, ideology, and political economy in its social context, which eventually disputes essentialist ideologies of language and identity (Heller, 2007) BECOMING ‘‘NEWCOMERS’’ INTO THE HOME CONTEXT Although TESOL literature discusses how to accommodate newly arrived students into ESL classrooms, there is almost no scholarship available regarding educational reintegration of returnee students to their home educational context in general (Kanno, 2003) or to an English classroom in particular ESA returnees, with their new and refined linguistic capital, may have some advantages in their home educational context For example, these children are given priority in entering highly regarded secondary schools in South Korea, which is an excellent path to admission into prestigious domestic colleges or studying in overseas colleges This is a typical long-term trajectory envisioned by ESA parents However, what is not considered in this trajectory is their children’s process of reintegration into the home educational context after ESA (Choi, 2007) It is reported that upon returning to their source countries these children have difficulties not only in subjects such as the native language and social studies, but also in the English language (Choi, 2007) In English classrooms the gap between their advanced language skills and the lower curricular expectations they encounter, together with peer pressure resulting from a sense of disapproval on the part of their 752 TESOL QUARTERLY classmates (who may resent their nativelike pronunciation and proficiency in English), often discourages their participation in classroom activities (Choi, 2003) Additionally, English teachers’ failure to pay attention to their unique needs also contributes to and reinforces these students’ negative attitudes toward the classroom instruction in their source country (Choi, 2003) Overall, it often takes more than year for these students to ‘‘stop accepting or rejecting existing community practices and begin to stake out their own stance on belonging’’ (Kanno, 2003, p 125), though this duration does not guarantee their successful adjustment While struggling to adjust to their home context, ESA returnees also bring in new practices and perspectives that influence the domestic context of language learning and teaching For example, English-only classes, international schools, and some special institutions that were originally designed for returnee students are now very popular among families whose children have never been overseas Additionally, more parents would like their children to have overseas educational experiences so that they can compete with those who have had international experiences and acquire better language skills In this vein, returnees’ experiences and their new practices and identity not only are divergent from those of domestic students, but also challenge and shift the participation patterns of ‘‘old timers’’ (Lave & Wenger, 1991) BLURRING THE BORDERS BETWEEN ESL AND EFL CONTEXTS Finally, the ESA phenomenon will potentially bring a new perspective to the notions of ESL/EFL contexts When children and their families cross national borders, they circulate ‘‘local’’ language ideologies and practices, potentially blurring the boundaries of the ESL/EFL contexts and Kachruvian three circles (Graddol, 2006) ESA families maintain their linguistic practices and attitudes toward English that are popular in their source country during their stay and often extend these practices and perspectives to the local community through their interaction with local members For example, these migrant families’ excessive zeal for and investment in English affect local students both in immigrant and mainstream communities who may then adopt these in order to be competitive with these transnational learners In contrast, when these families return to their home EFL context, they also transport practices and views that they have adopted in their hosting ESL context, maintaining them among a group of returnees and attempting to apply them to the local context In such a process, mixed or hybrid practices and identities can also emerge as new practices are adopted, localized, and blended with the home culture and practices As a result, the two contexts THE FORUM 753 of ESL and EFL become more closely interrelated, and the boundaries between these two begin to blur The results will be clearly visible as more students shuttle more frequently between these two contexts in the near future In this regard, a more active collaboration is called for among researchers and practitioners between these two contexts to understand the process and the consequences of the ESA practices IMPLICATIONS FOR LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION With respect to language teacher education, some general implications can be drawn as to how to assist both learners and their teachers who are facing new challenges and demands generated by globalization and transnational educational migration First, given that more learners are learning differing varieties of English through ESA, especially in Outer Circle countries, it is critical for EFL teachers (or those in learners’ source countries) to understand the concept of different varieties other than ‘‘Standard’’ English or a ‘‘native model’’ for language teaching Thus, teacher education needs to help language teachers develop a critical approach toward different varieties of English and norms, moving away from the dichotomous ‘‘native’’ and ‘‘nonnative’’ perspective to a ‘‘plural’’ perspective that enables them to be open to different varieties of English in which the learners have competence (Shin & Kubota, 2008) This is increasingly important in Expanding Circle countries in which Inter Circle varieties and norms used to be the most, if not the only, prestigious ones This plural perspective will help teachers not only understand the diversity in the classroom, but also use the diversity to promote other local students’ international understanding (Matsuda, 2002) Thus, it is essential to move beyond the theoretical dispute over the legitimacy of new varieties of English, particularly in postcolonial contexts and to discuss practical solutions for teachers who need to implement World Englishes perspectives in ‘‘the resource poor EFL context’’ (Bruthiaux, 2010, p 367) Certainly, relevant policy level adaptation will also be necessary to help language teachers cultivate such a plural perspective toward different varieties and norms, because the features of those varieties ‘‘deviant’’ from the perceived norms create issues surrounding how to assess them (Kachru, 2005; Lowenberg, 2002; Matsuda & Matsuda, 2010) Thus, those who are involved with policy planning and implementation as well as material and test development should pay attention to different varieties of English brought by these transnational learners Additionally, the returnee students’ advanced English skills and intercultural competence may challenge English teachers in their source countries Although these students’ overseas experiences can be excellent resources for enriching their teaching practices, these teachers 754 TESOL QUARTERLY may be afraid that students’ advanced skills will threaten their authority in the classroom They often react to this challenge by ignoring this group of students in their classroom (Choi, 2003) Thus, teacher education programs should prepare future teachers for such a challenge and discuss how to turn this challenge into a resource For example, it would be useful to focus on developing a teaching strategy through their understanding of these students’ strengths (particularly pronunciation and intercultural competence) and weaknesses (for many cases, formal grammar skills and test taking strategies) Furthermore, more time should be allotted to the discussion of intercultural competence and bilingualism, which have been considered only remotely relevant to the EFL context With an expansion of their knowledge of these areas, teachers can be attuned to the increasing number of young learners’ bior multilingual and multicultural development and maintenance While accommodating this new group of learners, however, teachers should also critically reflect on educational inequality caused by ESA That is, ESA as a strategy adopted by affluent families to teach their children English overseas may deepen the gap between the haves and the have-nots in terms of educational opportunities Additionally, ESA students’ appearance with their advanced skills in English may cause anxiety among the rest of the students who cannot afford ESA and enjoy the advantages it provides Thus, teachers should be aware of how their attitudes toward ESA in general and returnee students in particular can influence the language learning of the rest of their students Their uncritical acceptance of ESA as the most efficient, if not the only, way to learn English, or their selection of instructional methods or assessment tools that favor returnee students can further contribute to educational inequality and can demotivate other students’ English learning within the domestic context On the other hand, ESL teachers or those in learners’ study abroad contexts should be aware of these transnational learners’ diverse levels of membership in multiple communities beyond the local community Consequently, they also need to understand that these learners have diverse language learning goals and forms of linguistic and educational practices that are closely related to their future trajectories For example, migrant parents’ expectations for their children’s language acquisition are informed by their home educational market in which the value of English(es) and the perceived best practices of language learning are different from those of the local community (Song, 2010) In this regard, migrant families’ linguistic and cultural practices may be seen as divergent or ‘‘irrational’’ from the local perspective Understanding the underlying rationale for such practices can help the teachers embrace transnational students’ diverse needs and their different levels of participation in school and classroom communities It will also enable THE FORUM 755 them to assist the learners in resolving possible conflicts caused by their strong desire to maintain their affiliation with their home culture while participating in local linguistic and educational practices Additionally, discussing issues regarding these learners’ reintegration into the home community as well as their second language socialization into the local community will enhance these ESL teachers’ understanding of this new group of learners, locating their current language learning practices in a continuum of their bilingual and bicultural development Through this ‘‘bidirectional’’ perspective, they can conceive these students’ culture-specific practices as a resource in their long-term trajectories, rather than an obstacle to be overcome during their second language socialization process This view will lead these teachers to acknowledge and accept the students’ multicultural and ‘‘cosmopolitan’’ belonging, which encompasses the binary notion of ‘‘mainstream’’ or ‘‘minority’’ culture and identity Providing pre- and in-service ESL teachers with knowledge about these areas is critical, because they play an important role in ESA (and other migrant) families’ adjustment in school and wider communities; ESL teachers often work closely with these families, helping them set goals for their children’s English learning and socializing them into the school specific culture and norms (Cho & Shin, 2008) In conclusion, both ESL and EFL teacher education programs should account for transnational learners, thus helping language teachers develop a broader, globalization-responsive perspective in their teaching practices as their local language teaching and learning context becomes more global via this emerging population of transnational learners THE AUTHOR Juyoung Song is an assistant professor in the Department of English and Philosophy at Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky, United States, where she teaches graduate TESOL courses and advises preservice and in-service language teachers Her research interests include globalization and language learning, children’s early study abroad, sociolinguistic approaches to language teaching and learning, heritage language learning, and 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