Anglo-Aggressors
The proposed Chiriquí plan faced significant disinterest from Central Americans, as highlighted by Nicaragua's Secretary of Foreign Relations, Pedro Zeledon, who emphasized that immigrants could not reside there under the protection of another nation Similarly, Antonio Irisarri, the ambassador for El Salvador and Guatemala, noted that colonization by foreigners in these republics requires special government permission These statements from diplomats reveal a shared apprehension regarding the United States' attempts to colonize the region without local consent, potentially supported by military force.
In the 1850s and 1860s, Central America faced a significant threat to its sovereignty from what this thesis identifies as Anglo-aggressors, primarily represented by the United States and Great Britain These predominantly white-governed nations aimed to expand their influence and control over Latin America, particularly in Central America during the mid-nineteenth century The term "aggressor" aptly describes their actions, which included physical invasions, economic manipulation, and conspiracies to undermine local governance, all in an effort to seize various aspects of Central American sovereignty.
In his address to the United States Congress at the start of the third session of the Thirty-Seventh Congress, the President emphasized key national issues and legislative priorities He called for unity and action to address the challenges facing the nation during a tumultuous period The message highlighted the importance of collaboration between the two houses to effectively navigate the complexities of governance and uphold the principles of democracy The President's remarks aimed to inspire confidence and encourage decisive measures for the betterment of the country.
The region gained significant attention in the 1840s due to its strategic position as a shortcut connecting the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean, highlighting its potential for trade and transportation.
The Panama Canal significantly shortened the perilous journey around Cape Horn, transforming it into a trip that was half as long This route had long been recognized as one of the most dangerous in the world The nation that governed transit through the isthmus held substantial power over transportation in the Western Hemisphere The United States, in particular, had a vested interest in the Central American isthmus, as it offered a faster passage for travelers moving from the eastern seaboard to the west, even before the completion of the transcontinental railroad.
By 1862, following Lincoln's resettlement proposal, negative attitudes toward the U.S and Britain reached unprecedented levels, driven by genuine concerns rather than mere xenophobia Central American countries faced a tangible threat, as their relatively small size and populations made them vulnerable to the imperial ambitions of these two powerful nations During the civil wars from 1826 to 1842, armies in the region rarely exceeded a few thousand troops; for instance, two armies of 2,000 and 1,400 successfully captured Guatemala City in 1839 and 1842 In stark contrast, during its war with Mexico, the U.S deployed over 42,500 regular soldiers alongside 73,000 volunteers, highlighting the significant military disparity.
General Winfield Scott led an army of over 10,000 men during the invasion of the Valley of Mexico, culminating in the capture of Mexico City The sheer numerical strength of the U.S or Britain could easily overpower Central America if desired However, challenges such as disease, political instability, and guerrilla warfare could significantly prolong any military campaign.
44 Michael Clodfelter, Warfare and Armed Conflicts : A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other
Figures, 1494-2000, Jefferson: McFarland & Company, Inc., 2008, p 322
24 fictional invasion - but looking at just statistics, Anglo-aggressors had the greater armies and economies to support them
In the early nineteenth century, Britain, having established a considerable presence in the Caribbean, sought to expand its empire westward into Central America The British ambitions for this region began with substantial loans provided to the Federation of Central America following its declaration of independence.
The British influence in Central America, which was solidified through loans in 1824, strained relations with Spain, a country with whom Britain had a long history of tension Britain's interests in the region were multifaceted, encompassing a potential isthmian canal project and the establishment of additional naval footholds to complement its existing Caribbean island holdings However, the British government's subsequent actions were geared towards maintaining regional instability, which was achieved through the strategic funding of rogue factions in Guatemala and Costa Rica, thereby fueling regional tensions and ultimately contributing to the dissolution of the Central American entity, causing a rift in the relationship between Britain and the newly formed Central American countries.
Following the fracture of the federation, Britain aimed for the most vulnerable target to establish a foothold in The easiest they found to take advantage of was Nicaragua and the
The Mosquito Coast, shared by Honduras and Costa Rica, was home to diverse racial minorities that the state struggled to govern effectively Central American countries, characterized by significant ethnic and racial divisions, faced challenges in controlling indigenous and Black Hispanic populations, particularly as these groups often resided far from urban centers.
46 Lester Langley, America and the Americas: The United States in the Western Hemisphere, Second ed., The United States and the Americas, Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2010, p 57
The Mosquito Coast in Nicaragua exemplifies an inhospitable environment, characterized by its swampy terrain along the eastern coastline bordering the Caribbean Sea This region was largely uninhabited by Hispanics, as it was perceived as unsuitable for living, highlighting the challenges faced in these 25 metropolitan areas.
The Mosquito tribe, a mixed racial group of Central American Indians and escaped or freed Afro-Latin Americans, emerged from the descendants of enslaved individuals who fled Britain's Caribbean territories, as well as later migrants from those regions after slavery was abolished The region, characterized by its swampy lowlands and notorious for mosquitoes and deadly diseases like yellow fever and malaria, deterred many settlers, leading to a misconception that it was only suitable for 'tropical' races The Mosquito Coast was a contested area regarding autonomy, with disputes among three Central American countries and the Mosquito tribe itself This instability attracted British intervention to exploit the situation.
The Mosquitos, or Miskitos, are a mixed-race group with British, African, and Indian ancestry, formed through the intermingling of shipwrecked slaves and Spanish-resisting Indigenous people Over time, British settlements further integrated their culture, leading to a distinct identity by the mid-nineteenth century that felt disconnected from the Nicaraguan population This unique cultural background made it easier for the Mosquitos to align with British agents, who were more racially accepting and culturally similar For a deeper understanding of this intriguing sub-nation on Nicaragua's eastern shore, refer to Baron L Pineda's "Nicaragua’s Two Coasts."
In Shipwrecked Identities: Navigating Race on Nicaragua's Mosquito Coast, 34, New Brunswick, New Jersey; London: Rutgers University Press, 2006
The British formalized an agreement for a section of the Mosquito Coast, located at the southeastern edge of Nicaragua, precisely where the San Juan River flows into the Caribbean Sea.
Library Map Collection at University of Texas
In 1844, Britain initiated negotiations with the Mosquitos for land grants and treaties, as the Mosquitos were eager to collaborate due to their long-standing friendly relations and cultural compatibility The British Empire offered them self-rule, a significant advantage over other Central American countries Initially, these negotiations involved small land grants in areas that Nicaragua neglected, but this strategy escalated In 1848, a combined force of British and Mosquito troops attacked and captured the port of San Juan, renaming it Greytown Although the invaders were initially repelled, British warships and reinforcements soon compelled Nicaragua to surrender the town, causing widespread panic in the region and the U.S about potential further aggression.
British invasions, the British distanced themselves The Mosquitos were given credit for the endeavor and allowed to rule over the area until a year later 48
Indians and Blacks
Race and Ethnicity as Threats to Stability
Anglo-aggressors were an outside threat, a looming menace that forced Central
Americans are urged to closely monitor their borders and carefully navigate their foreign policy Meanwhile, many Central Americans perceive a significant and immediate danger surrounding them—the potential destabilization of their centralized governments due to the presence of non-white populations.
In response to Abraham Lincoln's colonization scheme, several countries expressed their reservations, with Honduras specifically stating a preference for “industrious whites” similar to the “German immigrants in Costa Rica.” The idea of settling freed slaves in Honduras was deemed “not at all desirable” by the local population.
B Dickinson, the U.S ambassador to Nicaragua, reported that the Nicaraguan government viewed the presence of Black individuals as a significant degradation for the country His conversations revealed a prevailing public sentiment that regarded Black people as "worthless, idle, thieving vagabonds." Additionally, he was informed that intermingling between Black individuals and Indigenous people would result in what they described as "the worst cross-breed that society can be infested with."
The second largest threat to the sovereignty of Central American countries was perceived to be 'inferior' racial groups, specifically Indigenous peoples and Black individuals These groups were often viewed as unruly and dysfunctional, contributing little to the state's welfare, as highlighted in the discussion on Anglo-aggressors.
American elites feared a potential racial uprising, whether violent or political, as highlighted by outsiders like Dickinson, who questioned which race would maintain political supremacy in Nicaragua This awareness of racial tensions underscored the instability in the region To grasp the complexities of race relations in Latin America, it is essential to explore the historical context, starting from Spanish settlement, which illuminates the mid-nineteenth century struggles of Indigenous peoples and Black communities against central authority.
In the late fifteenth century, Spain and Portugal initiated their conquests of Africa and the Americas, leading to the introduction of slavery from Africa and the Middle East to the Iberian Peninsula Both nations embraced and intensified the practice of slavery within a century, marking a significant and troubling chapter in their histories.
Christopher Columbus was the first European to encounter the indigenous peoples of the Americas During his expeditions, he enslaved many of the Native Americans on Hispaniola, establishing a troubling precedent for the treatment of indigenous populations.
By 1521, Hernando Cortez had successfully conquered the Aztec Empire in Central America, exploiting internal divisions to facilitate his rebellion He established himself as the leader of the newly restructured empire and was the first Spaniard to implement widespread slavery in the New World The Spanish crown rewarded Cortez and his fellow conquistadors with extensive land grants, which included laborers to extract value from these territories Both indigenous allies and the conquered Aztecs were subjected to the encomienda system, a royal grant that allowed Spaniards to control and exploit local populations.
In the sixteenth century, indigenous Indians faced severe oppression under Spanish conquistadors, often treated as slaves, with those resisting or suspected of non-compliance at risk of violent retribution Many were forcibly taken from their mountain homes to work for the Spaniards, while some bravely fought back and perished in battle, and others sought refuge in remote areas of Central America Tragically, countless indigenous people succumbed to foreign diseases, endured grueling labor in various industries, or died during uprisings against their conquerors.
Surviving indigenous populations posed a challenge to the centralized government of New Spain, as highlighted in a 1773 document that reveals the difficulties in compelling natives to remain in designated labor areas The letter suggests that allowing encomienda holders to permanently own the indigenous people could create mutual benefits However, the freedom of those who chose to roam, stay in the mountains, or set their own work schedules enraged landowners who considered themselves the rightful authorities over the Indians.
By the early seventeenth century, the indigenous populations of Mexico and Central America had significantly declined due to the brutality and diseases brought by the Spaniards, which devastated their once-thriving cultures Despite this, the Spaniards remained determined to maintain productivity in their mines, farms, and ranches Initially, they resorted to hunting and capturing the remaining Indians, facing challenges such as difficult terrain, particularly in regions like Costa Rica.
Pedro de Alvarado conducted a brutal campaign against indigenous peoples in present-day El Salvador, targeting those who resisted Spanish rule This violent repression forced many natives to seek refuge in the wilderness for decades to escape persecution For more insights, refer to Virginia Tilley's work, "Seeing Indians: A Study of Race, Nation, and Power in El Salvador."
During the Spanish-American era, much of the territory was wild and uncharted, with Indigenous peoples often escaping to seek new opportunities or retreat into the wilderness A certain individual mistakenly assumed that declaring them as slaves would ensure their loyalty to plantations and mines, a notion that was highly improbable This perspective is highlighted in the "Petition to the King to Grant Permanent Encomiendas."
American Conflict and Creation, ed Bradford Burns (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 2003), p 38-39
Desperate for labor to sustain their encomiendas, Indian defenders often faced the challenge of capturing workers However, many Indians chose to escape, fleeing to the mountains or seeking refuge with more compassionate landowners.
The Spanish labor problem was partially addressed by the introduction of African slaves, who were already subjected to forced labor in various regions worldwide This transition was implemented with minimal resistance, allowing the Spanish to adapt the system to their colonies Consequently, this shift provided some relief to the Indigenous populations, as they experienced a slight elevation in the caste system established by the Spanish, which primarily aimed to maintain Iberians at the top.
Central American Rivalry
In the mid-nineteenth century, Central America faced significant threats to its sovereignty, primarily from external Anglo-aggressors and internal challenges like pardocracia, which united the five countries in their struggle However, the most profound danger came from within, as the nations themselves posed the greatest risk to both individual and regional sovereignty in Central America.
The five Central American nations aimed to maintain regional autonomy; however, their rivalries and internal differences posed significant threats to their sovereignty In their efforts to weaken and outmaneuver one another, they dismantled the neighborly relationships that had been established during the first forty years of independence Consequently, these nations found themselves unable or unwilling to assist each other, particularly when faced with external challenges during peacetime.
After gaining independence from Spain in 1821, Central America experienced a brief period of self-governance, but internal conflicts led to its absorption by Mexico Two years later, Mexico allowed the five provinces to self-govern once more, resulting in the formation of a federation with representatives from each province However, ongoing violence between the major political factions, the Conservatives and Liberals, marked this new nation, establishing a tumultuous precedent in Central American political history.
Central American Liberals emerged as a progressive political faction aiming to dismantle the longstanding Spanish colonial system that had prevailed for three centuries Their agenda included reducing the Catholic Church's influence, promoting the integration of Indigenous peoples and Blacks into society, and fostering rapid economic growth to compete with neighboring countries While they sought to emulate the U.S governmental framework, many Liberals, primarily composed of Creoles, held discriminatory views, failing to recognize Indigenous peoples and Blacks as equals deserving of political representation.
Conservatives aimed to maintain a colonial system, strongly supporting the Catholic Church's role in governance They sought to keep Indigenous and Black populations distanced from urban areas to prevent unrest against the central government, advocating for forced labor while confining Indians to their villages In the early years, many Conservatives even contemplated reestablishing slavery but faced challenges in doing so after years of emancipation.
The Liberals and Conservatives represented starkly opposing visions for the future of the country, with Liberals advocating for radical changes to align with industrialized nations, while Conservatives aimed to maintain the existing system Both factions were dominated by Creole elites who were reluctant to share power with non-elites and non-whites, prioritizing their struggle for dominance over their political ideologies The Liberals gained control of the newly established Federal Republic of Central America following the 1824 election, but their rule was soon challenged by civil wars and Conservative uprisings that persisted for five years During this tumultuous period, the Liberals sought external assistance, securing loans from Great Britain to support their governance.
The perspective shared by many Liberals and Northerners in the northern United States reflected a paternalistic attitude towards Black individuals, believing they should be freed from slavery but still requiring oversight and guidance from white individuals, as they doubted their ability for self-governance.
By 1829, Liberal leader Francisco Morazán attempted to unify the five nations under a Liberal banner, but his efforts only lasted less than a decade The early years of independence were marked by numerous revolutions, revolts, and civil wars, highlighting the irreconcilable divide between the Liberal and Conservative parties during the early to mid-nineteenth century.
By 1838, escalating tensions between liberals and conservatives led to a significant civil war, prompting countries to declare independence from the federation by 1841 Over the next decade, these nations adopted conservative governance, exemplified by leaders like Rafael Carrera of Guatemala, who established colonial-style administrations that resisted modernization and foreign investment.
The five federated countries formed a powerful and diverse coalition, yet their fragmentation led to increased weakness and instability This instability was exacerbated by two political parties that continually undermined each other, often resorting to foreign aid as a means of usurpation The most critical events contributing to this turmoil have been outlined in the first chapter, "Anglo-aggressors."
The political and economic instability in Nicaragua led to the establishment of transit agreements with the United States, notably involving Vanderbilt and his associates In response to these challenges, the Nicaraguan government actively invited foreign investment and granted significant land concessions.
103 Consider the following for more detailed breakdown of the political parties' wars against each other; Woodward, Central America, p 92-119
U.S investors, including Vanderbilt, exploited Nicaragua's infrastructure rights and monopolies in exchange for promises of economic prosperity Despite receiving numerous concessions, these investors consistently failed to pay the negotiated annual fees to the Nicaraguan government This lack of payment and disregard for agreements highlights the responsibility of the U.S and its corporations for the poor treatment of their commitments in Nicaragua.
Nicaraguans though, for their part, had perhaps been too eager, and too willing, to cede so much to foreign capitalists
In 1856, Nicaraguan Liberals invited the notorious U.S filibuster William Walker to assist in overthrowing the conservative government, promising him and his diverse army land and political opportunities This move further threatened Nicaragua's sovereignty, as Conservatives had already compromised their economy to U.S influence, while Liberals surrendered their political control to foreign agents In their attempts to outmaneuver each other, both political factions inadvertently destabilized their nation, allowing Walker to quickly seize power amidst the chaos Ultimately, Conservative forces from the other Central American nations intervened, ousting Walker and reinstating a new conservative leader.
In May 1862, U.S ambassador to Costa Rica, Charles Riotte, communicated to William Seward that the Costa Rican government sought to allocate land on one of its coasts for foreign settlement, highlighting the nation's openness to inviting foreign elements This initiative followed President Lincoln's recent financial support for a colonization plan, underscoring the strategic interest in fostering international relationships during that period.
104 Michel Gobat, Confronting the American Dream: Nicaragua Under U.S Imperial Rule (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005), 24-25
Initially, the five Central American countries were not united against the U.S colonization plan, as evidenced by Costa Rica's strategic messaging to the U.S to prioritize them for an African-American colony This move aimed to attract U.S investment without fully considering the potential regional and political consequences A similar approach had been taken by Nicaragua a decade earlier However, inviting a foreign power to establish a presence in the region proved to be a risky endeavor, leading Costa Rica to ultimately retract their invitation once they assessed the possible outcomes.