Introduction
Outdoor leadership in experiential education transcends mere technical skills; it integrates theoretical knowledge with essential social skills such as interpersonal communication, behavioral science, and emotional awareness This holistic approach fosters effective leadership in outdoor settings, emphasizing the importance of both practical abilities and the capacity to connect with others.
Experiential education enhances both technical and social skills, with social skills showing greater long-term transferability to daily life (Propst & Koessler, 1998) This skill transference fosters resilience in individuals when confronting new challenges, underscoring the importance of integrating experiential education programs into higher education (Bell & Starbuck, 2017) Students who develop adaptability and resilience through such programs are better equipped to navigate the rigors of college life Outdoor orientation programs, in particular, have demonstrated positive impacts on retention rates and academic performance among first-year college students (Bell & Starbuck, 2017).
Experiential education engages learners through direct experiences and reflective practices to enhance knowledge, skills, and community contributions (Gass, Fillis & Russell, 2012) As higher education institutions increasingly acknowledge the benefits of experiential education on student empowerment and retention, it becomes essential to explore how students acquire and transfer these skills to various life aspects, noting the differences in their abilities While research on leadership skill development among trip participants is abundant (Propst 1998; Bell & Starbuck, 2017), there is a notable lack of studies focusing on the leadership development of student trip leaders (Dack, 2010) This research gap is particularly significant when considering how these leaders transfer their skills relative to their experience levels.
Experiential education is grounded in various historical sciences such as physiology, ecology, psychology, sociology, and political science Pioneers like John Dewey and Kurt Hahn, particularly through the Salem School in 1920, established foundational theories that continue to influence modern experiential education Dewey's significant contribution came in 1938 with the publication of his work, "Experience and Education."
Dartmouth pioneered the first outdoor orientation program for incoming students, emphasizing student development beyond the classroom This initiative spurred the creation of various outdoor leadership development programs over the decades, notably Outward Bound in 1941, which significantly influenced the outdoor education movement by establishing safety standards and program design principles (Miner, 1999) Building on the foundations of Outward Bound, the National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) was established in 1965, further advancing outdoor leadership training.
As of 2010, there are more than 164 outdoor orientation programs in the United States alone, with an average of ten new programs being created each year (Bell, Holmes, & Williams, 2010)
To understand how student trip leaders transfer outdoor skills to everyday life, it's essential to consider current trends in higher education With the increasing necessity of a college degree for job seekers, student enrollment has surged to historic levels (Berger & Lyon, 2005) This has led colleges to adopt stricter admission standards, raising expectations for new students and adding pressure amid reduced financial and support resources Consequently, many institutions have witnessed a significant decline in student performance and retention Recognizing that retaining students is more cost-effective than replacing those who leave, colleges have developed strategies to enhance retention rates, including the implementation of outdoor orientation programs (Berger & Lyon, 2005).
Outdoor orientation programs are designed to help incoming college students transition smoothly into their new environment by engaging them in weeklong excursions led by peer mentors These experiences foster a sense of belonging and place, which is crucial for student success Many higher education institutions recognize the importance of developmental growth and aim to integrate it into their programming Additionally, outdoor orientations not only enhance student retention but also equip participants with transferable skills that are valuable in their future careers, making a strong case for the funding and implementation of such programs.
Leadership has evolved through various constructs, initially associated with self-efficacy, which encompasses goal attainment, mentorship, and positive feedback Self-efficacy reflects an individual's belief in their capabilities, playing a crucial role in developing a leadership identity Over time, emotional intelligence, defined as the ability to recognize, manage, and express emotions, has also become integral to the concept of leadership Research utilizing these measurable constructs has been conducted on participants in experiential education to assess their leadership development.
This study aims to investigate the transfer of leadership qualities gained through guided outdoor experiences into various aspects of participants' lives, building on findings that suggest these skills are retained longer than previously believed (Benson, 2018) By exploring how student leaders apply their learned leadership skills in everyday situations, the research seeks to provide valuable insights into the long-term benefits of experiential programs for both students and their local communities Ultimately, this study will address the existing gap in research regarding the practical application of leadership skills developed through outdoor experiences.
This research aims to compare the transference of leadership skills among leaders with varying levels of experience and program involvement It focuses on three key areas: identifying the most transferable leadership skills, measuring these skills, and assessing their transference The findings will offer strategies to enhance the transference of leadership skills among student trip leaders in outdoor programs at higher education institutions.
To enhance the understanding of leadership development within experiential education and outdoor orientation programs, researchers formulated specific questions targeting the leadership growth of student trip leaders at Adventure West Virginia These inquiries investigate key aspects such as self-perceived emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, and the ability to transfer skills learned in these experiences.
R1) Does leading outdoor trips for Adventure West Virginia improve leaders’ self-perceived emotional intelligence and self-efficacy across levels of experience with the program?
R2) Do Adventure West Virginia leaders demonstrate a transference of leadership skills to areas outside of AWV across levels of experience with the program?
R3) Does the level of involvement across other Adventure West Virginia program areas impact leaders’ ability to transfer leadership skills to life outside of AWV?
To statistically evaluate the research questions, the researchers formulated three hypotheses concerning student trip leaders' self-perceived emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, and transference The null hypotheses were either accepted or rejected, with detailed discussions provided in Chapter 4.
H1) Leaders with more experience leading First-Year trips will demonstrate higher levels of emotional intelligence and self-efficacy than leaders with less experience
H2) Leaders with more experience leading First-Year trips will demonstrate a higher level of transference of emotional intelligence and self-efficacy to life outside of AWV
Leaders with multiple roles within AWV exhibit greater emotional intelligence and self-efficacy, positively influencing various aspects of their lives compared to those who solely lead First-Year Trips.
Experiential education is an educational philosophy that emphasizes the importance of engaging learners in direct experiences coupled with intentional reflection This approach aims to enhance knowledge, develop essential skills, clarify individual values, and empower individuals to contribute meaningfully to their communities (Gass, Fillis, & Russell, 2012).
Outdoor Orientation Programs, often referred to as first-year experiences, aim to support incoming students in their transition to college life These programs focus on small groups and feature adventure-based activities facilitated by peer mentors, providing a unique opportunity for new students to connect and adapt to their new environment (Bell, Holmes, & Williams, 2010).
Literature Review
This literature review aims to establish a foundational understanding of key constructs relevant to the research, including outdoor leadership development, emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, and transference It highlights the philosophical connections among these constructs while also assessing the current state of research and identifying gaps within the existing knowledge base.
Experiential education is a methodology that engages learners through direct experiences and reflective practices to enhance knowledge, skills, and values Originating from outdoor education, this approach integrates adventure and environmental education, focusing on the interactions between people and nature Adventure education emphasizes personal growth through challenging outdoor experiences, fostering interpersonal relationships and resilience in the face of risk Common elements include uncertainty, perceived risks, excitement, and engagement with the natural world Environmental education empowers individuals to explore ecological issues, develop problem-solving skills, and make informed decisions to positively impact the environment Together, these elements create a holistic learning experience that emphasizes the vital connections between individuals and the natural environment.
The history of experiential education can be traced back to ancient Greece, where philosophers like Plato and Aristotle emphasized the importance of engaging youth in adventurous situations to cultivate virtues In the 19th century, William James advocated for using nature as a medium for experiential learning This period also saw the emergence of the organized camping movement, which utilized adventure and nature for educational purposes The progressive education movement in the early 1900s, led by John Dewey and Kurt Hahn, further developed these concepts, with Dewey's influential work "Experience and Education" laying the groundwork for experiential learning practices This led to the establishment of outdoor education programs, including notable initiatives like Outward Bound and NOLS, which focus on education in, about, and for the outdoors.
Outward Bound, established by Kurt Hahn in 1941, aimed to train merchant seamen in survival skills while fostering moral leadership and self-esteem among participants The program emphasizes active learning, character development, and teamwork (Outward Bound Philosophy, 2021) In 1965, Paul Petzoldt founded the National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) as a spinoff focused on leadership development, addressing the need for well-prepared leaders in outdoor education NOLS maintains a core curriculum centered on safety, judgment, leadership, teamwork, outdoor skills, and environmental studies, setting the standard for leadership training across various sectors, including executive programs and higher education outdoor initiatives.
Looking more specifically at the development of experiential education in higher education institutions, we must start with Dartmouth’s outdoor orientation program that began in
In 1951, Northern Illinois University pioneered outdoor education courses, emphasizing challenge, risk, group participation, cooperation, excitement, and skill development (Raiola & O’Keefe, 1999) This initiative sparked the establishment of similar programs across various higher education institutions, providing students with valuable knowledge and experiential learning opportunities As outdoor education continues to expand, there is a growing demand for well-trained leaders to guide these programs, further professionalizing the field of experiential education.
Experiential education programs have been shown to positively impact participants' self-systems, which encompass self-concept, self-esteem, and self-confidence (Ewert and McAvoy, 2000) Research indicates that individuals who engage in these programs experience significant and beneficial changes in these areas.
Outward Bound programs significantly enhance participants' interpersonal and leadership skills, empowerment, self-control, independence, assertiveness, decision-making abilities, and self-esteem (Hattie et al., 1997) Research indicates that these programs foster positive group dynamics, promoting reciprocity, cohesion, and trust among participants (Ewert & McAvoy, 2000; Fielding & Hogg, 1997) This aligns with social learning theory, which posits that individuals learn by modeling the behaviors of others, emphasizing the importance of effective course instructors for program success (Bandura, 1969) Consequently, the need for well-trained leaders in these programs is crucial.
Experiential education programs significantly enhance student success and retention in higher education Research by Bell et al (2014) indicates that outdoor orientation programs can boost retention rates and academic performance Additionally, these programs promote extracurricular involvement, facilitate a smooth transition to college, and contribute to community development They foster a sense of place, self-concept, interdependence, self-satisfaction, self-confidence, and tolerance (Bell et al., 2017) A crucial factor in this success is the sense of belonging these orientation trips create, which is vital for incoming students' identity development (Greene, 2017; Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Strayhorn).
Neill (2007) identified twelve key factors that contribute to the effectiveness of experiential education programs Among these, the sixth factor emphasizes the importance of carefully selected and trained leaders, while the seventh focuses on the facilitation techniques employed by these leaders The eighth factor highlights the significance of group development, processes, and dynamics nurtured by the leaders Given that a quarter of these factors pertain to leadership, it is crucial to explore not only the development of these leaders but also the impact that leading such programs has on them personally.
Outdoor leadership focuses on guiding individuals or groups in outdoor settings for recreation or education, encompassing responsibilities such as teaching skills, ensuring safety, and fostering personal growth Effective outdoor leaders help participants set and achieve goals while creating valuable learning experiences It is essential to recognize that outdoor leadership development is a long-term process influenced by various factors, including personality and situational contexts This study aims to explore the mediators of outdoor leadership development, specifically emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, and transference, rather than solely measuring the outcomes.
Outdoor leadership development is a crucial aspect of various outdoor education programs, such as Outward Bound, NOLS, and the Wilderness Education Association NOLS pioneered the approach of tailoring training to cultivate well-rounded outdoor leaders, while other programs aim to instill leadership skills that extend beyond outdoor environments Similar to NOLS and Outward Bound, many higher education outdoor programs select their leaders from participants who exhibit strong leadership qualities early on This transition from participant to peer leader marks a significant shift in one's leadership identity.
Outdoor leadership is a professional practice that demands high standards of quality and ethics from its leaders Various organizations define their own foundations and competencies in outdoor leadership, but many align with the eight core competencies identified by Martin et al (2017) These competencies encompass foundational knowledge, self-awareness, and professional conduct, reflecting the essential skills necessary for effective outdoor leadership.
This study emphasizes the development of self-systems competencies, particularly highlighting the importance of self-awareness through emotional intelligence and enhancing decision-making and judgment via self-efficacy Key areas of focus include decision-making, teaching and facilitation, environmental stewardship, program management, safety and risk management, and technical ability.
Brent Bell and David Starbuck (2017) from Princeton University explored the positive effects of outdoor orientation programming on student peer leaders through a mixed-method study involving four colleges with similar programs Their research revealed that most students reported significant benefits from their leadership experiences, including enhanced belief in outdoor leadership, greater confidence in facing challenges, improved ability to express themselves, and increased leadership self-efficacy However, there remains a gap in research regarding the empirical evidence for the transfer of these skills and their long-term impacts on the lives of leaders.
Emotional intelligence, rooted in the theory of social intelligence, is defined as the ability to recognize and manage one's own emotions and those of others, enabling informed decision-making and behavior (Thorndike, 1920; Salovey and Mayer, 1990) Key skills within emotional intelligence include self-awareness, stress management, accurate perception of others, and adaptable communication (Goleman, 2001) As research on leadership evolves, emotional intelligence has emerged as a crucial factor for identifying and cultivating effective leaders (Palmer et al., 2001) This study will specifically explore the application of emotional intelligence in outdoor leadership contexts.
Methodology
This study aims to assess whether leaders with greater experience in the Adventure West Virginia program exhibit enhanced emotional intelligence and self-efficacy It also seeks to compare the leadership qualities of new leaders versus returning leaders and their ability to apply these skills in various life contexts This chapter outlines the study's scope, describes the population sample, details the data measurement procedures, explains the data analysis methods, and presents the validation criteria for the employed methods.
Researchers evaluated the effectiveness of leadership training and experiences gained through AWV by analyzing past and present FYT leaders with diverse leadership backgrounds Leaders from the summers of 2017, 2018, and 2019 ranked their leadership skills against other WVU students and assessed the application of these skills in various life areas This timeframe was selected to ensure a comparison of leaders who underwent similar training Key leadership components analyzed included self-perceived emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, and skill transference This approach was informed by Prospt’s (1998) findings on the positive correlation between self-efficacy and leadership abilities, as well as methodologies from Hayashi’s (2006) study on emotional intelligence in experiential education leaders and Goleman’s (2001) work on Emotional Competence.
The study utilized the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue, 2009) to model questions related to Emotional Intelligence (EI) and Social Emotional (SE) aspects The survey was designed to comprehensively cover the construct's sampling domain, as detailed in Table 1, while ensuring ease of completion to boost participation rates This pilot study aimed to assess the correlations between leader experience and leadership qualities, as well as to refine the framing and wording of questions for future research.
Characteristics of Emotional Intelligence (EI) and Self-Efficacy (SE)
Emotion Perception Understanding my own and others’ emotions
Emotion Expression Managing my own emotions
Emotion Management Manage others’ emotions
Self-Motivation Set short- and long-term goals
Stress/Goal Management Set long term goals and review my progress regularly
Characteristics taken from the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue) (Petrides, 2009)
To address the research questions, students from West Virginia University who led First Year Trips for Adventure West Virginia during the summers of 2017 to 2019 were invited to participate This period encompasses three distinct FYT seasons, each with its own leadership training, necessitating a larger sample size to effectively assess skill levels across varying work experiences.
To comprehend the findings of this study, it's essential to grasp the significance of the Adventure West Virginia (AWV) First-Year Trips program, which began in 2004 with just 12 students and has since evolved into one of the largest collegiate outdoor adventure programs in the United States AWV now offers over 50 trips, accommodating more than 1,200 incoming students each summer These peer-led, adventure-based experiences are designed to help first-year students acclimate to life at West Virginia University (WVU) while fostering connections with peers and the university Each trip lasts 5-6 days and includes a variety of outdoor activities such as rock climbing, whitewater rafting, backpacking, community service, high-ropes courses, and team-building exercises Although the typical cost ranges from $400 to $500, AWV provides these enriching experiences to students for a subsidized fee of just $95, with additional financial aid available to cover the cost for those in need.
FYT offers a variety of unique trip models, all featuring a standardized curriculum designed to align with AWV’s objectives of better preparing students for college Through engaging in outdoor sports like rock climbing, white water rafting, backpacking, and high ropes courses, students gain essential technical skills while enjoying a fun and challenging learning environment These activities not only push students beyond their comfort zones but also aim to foster self and group reflection during team discussions, enhancing their overall preparedness for future challenges.
Student leaders guide daily debriefs, gratitude circles, and discussions on evening expectations and morning reminders, while also implementing a full value contract and solo reflections Throughout the trip, students maintain a journal that leaders review for completion and progress Each night features intentional discussions focused on the transition to college, resources for success, diversity and inclusion, and making healthy decisions Topics also emphasize developing a sense of belonging, including WVU history and traditions Students are encouraged to set personal goals for their first year and outline strategies for achieving them, with leaders offering mentorship to help them create actionable plans for success in school.
After the trip, student engagement continues through a one-credit hour course in their first semester, where they track their personal goals and reflect on their experiences Participants are encouraged to apply the lessons learned during their trip to their academic life Those significantly impacted may consider applying for a leadership role, with the application process occurring in the fall semester This includes group interviews followed by individual interviews for successful candidates Accepted students then enroll in a three-credit hour course titled Leadership in Experiential Education (LEED) offered by the Recreation, Parks, and Tourism Resources Department.
The LEED course equips students with essential skills for leading in experiential education, particularly for AWV, covering a range of topics such as outdoor education theory, communication, facilitation design, Leave No Trace principles, group development, and risk management It parallels training offered by organizations like NOLS and Outward Bound Upon successful completion of the course, outstanding applicants receive contracts, and hired students must obtain Wilderness First Aid (WFA) certification, which is provided by WVU and taught by AWV instructors.
In May, after completing their coursework, students engage in an in-person training trip led by AWV professional staff, designed to enhance both technical and social skills in an outdoor environment This experience enables student leaders to apply theories from the LEED course while working with peers, allowing staff to assess how effectively these leaders transfer their skills to real-world, potentially stressful situations Additionally, the training trip provides insights into group dynamics and the individual competencies of each leader.
Each summer, student trip leaders are divided into two groups—frontcountry and backcountry—due to the large number of leaders and the diverse range of FYT trips available Frontcountry leaders receive advanced training in group facilitation and essential technical skills for activities like rock climbing and high-ropes courses In contrast, backcountry leaders focus on enhancing their backpacking technical skills and mastering emergency evacuation procedures.
Student trip leaders play a crucial role as peer mentors and facilitators for participants, with 2-4 leaders assigned to each trip based on availability and enrollment They engage in group meetings before, during, and after trips to set goals, address challenges, and reflect on their experiences After each trip, leaders provide constructive feedback to one another to enhance their performance Those who choose to return as leaders the following year receive a refresher on course content through training trips and can express their preferences for specific trips Additionally, returning leaders have the option to enroll in the Expeditionary Planning and Education in the Outdoors (EPEO) course during the spring semester, which offers advanced training in experiential education leadership, covering essential topics such as adaptive dissonance, decision-making, legal liability, and advanced technical skills.
After their initial summer, student leaders can explore various employment opportunities within AWV, aligning their roles with their interests and skills They may work at the Outdoor Recreation Center, which offers program support and gear rentals, or at the Outdoor Education Center, featuring high and low ropes courses and a canopy tour Additionally, they can engage with the indoor climbing wall at the Student Recreation Center or pursue ongoing leadership roles through weekend trips, skills workshops, and break trips throughout the semester.
All student leaders that actively led FYTs during the summer seasons of 2017, 2018, and
In 2019, participants were invited to engage in a study through a structured electronic survey using Qualtrics, which was divided into three sections: demographics, leadership experience, and leadership ability Although the methodology was not an exact replication of previous studies, the questionnaire items were adapted from existing research to suit AWV’s distinctive outdoor orientation program and its student leaders Emotional intelligence and self-efficacy questions were inspired by the works of Hayashi (2006), Goleman (2001), Propst (1998), and Bell and Starbuck (2017), while transference models drew from Marsh (1986), Propst and Koessler (1998), Benson (2009), and Sibthorp (2018) Surveys were distributed via email, facilitating outreach to former leaders regardless of location and maintaining consistent wording across all questions Although this method limited unexpected findings, the primary aim was to investigate the potential correlation between student leaders' experiences in leading outdoor trips and their leadership development and transference.
In the fall of 2019, researchers conducted a Qualtrics survey via email targeting AWV leaders active from 2017 to the summer of 2019 The survey included seven questions on demographics and leadership experience, alongside seven questions assessing self-perceived emotional intelligence and self-efficacy, utilizing Likert scales to enhance answer diversity and minimize ceiling effects Data collection adhered to Institutional Review Board (IRB) standards, and the survey was piloted with AWV professional staff for feedback.
Results
This chapter outlines the findings of the research study, detailing response rates, the demographic profile of student leaders, and descriptive statistics for key leadership variables Each research question introduced earlier is summarized, restating the objectives and presenting the corresponding results The section includes relevant tables and reports the statistical analyses pertinent to each objective, ensuring clarity and coherence in the presentation of data.
The Qualtrics Survey targeted student leaders who had actively led at least one trip during the summer seasons of 2017, 2018, and 2019 The survey was designed to be anonymous and voluntary, inviting participation from 99 leaders, yet only 34 leaders chose to respond.
The survey experienced a response rate of 34%, which may have been influenced by a lack of incentive for participants Technical challenges during administration led to incomplete responses, with five individuals either exiting the survey or not being presented with the leadership questions after their demographic inputs Consequently, the valid response count was reduced to N = 29, resulting in a final response rate of 29% Additionally, Question L5, which asked participants to rank the impact of leading for AWV on their growth across eight leadership skills, was not marked as mandatory, garnering only 12 responses and subsequently being excluded from the overall analysis Detailed response rate results are available in Table 3.
Table 3 Response Rate for Qualtrics Survey
*Five respondents were not included in analysis due to incomplete surveys
Study respondents were asked to report on multiple demographic items In all, seven specific questions were asked relating to respondent demographics (Table 4) or respondent leadership experience (Table 5)
To be considered a FYT leader at WVU, candidates must have completed at least one year of study The survey responses revealed a diverse age distribution among participants, with 9 sophomores (31.03%), 8 juniors (27.59%), 7 seniors (24.14%), and 5 former students (17.24%) While these figures do not reflect the experience levels within the AWV program, they offer valuable insight into the demographics of the sample population.
Overwhelmingly, a majority of students associated themselves as being White (n = 28, 96.55%) One student chose not to answer
Given 7 options for identifying with gender, a majority of respondents identified as either female (n = 16, 55.17%) or male (n = 12, 41.38%) One respondent identified as genderqueer or gender non-conforming (n = 1, 3.45%)
To better understand student demographics and financial backgrounds, student leaders were surveyed about their financial aid status Out of the respondents, 15 leaders, representing 51.72%, confirmed they received financial aid from West Virginia University (WVU), while 14 leaders, accounting for 48.28%, indicated they did not receive any financial assistance.
Genderqueer or Gender Non-conforming 1 3.45
* Demographic questions that provided alternative answers that received no responses and were removed from table
First Year of Leading FYTs
To differentiate various experience levels, student leaders were asked to report on the year that they first led an FYT Leaders answered 2015 (n = 1, 3.45%), 2016 (n = 3, 10.35%),
In the analysis of leadership trends, data from 2017 to 2019 indicates a gradual increase in the number of leaders, with 10.35% in 2017, 34.48% in 2018, and 41.38% in 2019 Leaders were classified into two categories: New Leaders (NL), which includes those who led exclusively in the 2019 season (41.38%), and Return Leaders (RL), representing those who have led for two or more seasons (58.62%).
The survey also asked respondents to report how many FYT trips they have led The answers were organized into five categories: 1-2 trips (n = 2, 6.90%), 3-5 trips (n = 13, 44.83%), 6-10 trips (n = 6, 20.69%), 11-15 trips (n = 6, 20.69%), 16 or more trips (n = 2, 6.90%)
To assess the experience levels of FYT leaders, respondents were inquired about their involvement in other roles within the AWV program Among them, 16 students exclusively served as leaders for FYT trips.
= 16, 55.17%) Student leaders that led FYTs and held other positions within AWV consisted of
A total of 13 students participated in the survey, representing 44.83% of the respondents Among them, 24.14% were from the Program Support Staff, 10.34% served as Climbing Site Managers, and 13.79% were affiliated with the Outdoor Education Center All respondents were assumed to be FYT leaders, with options to identify their specific leadership roles The breakdown of their selections included 41.38% as solely frontcountry leaders, 24.14% as backcountry leaders, and 34.45% as leaders in both areas This data facilitated the formation of two subgroups: Just Leader (L), encompassing those focused on either frontcountry or backcountry, and Leader and More (L+), which includes those involved in both frontcountry or backcountry and at least one additional program area.
New Leader versus Return Leader* (N = 29)
Position with Adventure West Virginia
* New groupings based on demographic questions
** FYTs (First Year Trips) – AWV’s Outdoor Orientation Program
Study respondents were also asked to rate different aspects or skill levels of several leadership constructs Questions were asked relating to these constructs, with all being specified below
L1: Recommendation of participation to other students
Leaders were asked on a 7-point Likert-type scale anchored from 1 = strongly disagree to
A significant majority of respondents, 86.21% (n = 25), strongly endorsed the idea of participating in a First-Year Transition (FYT) program for incoming freshmen Additionally, 68.97% (n = 20) expressed strong support for recommending the FYT leader position to fellow students Overall, all participants agreed with these positive statements regarding the FYT experience.
L2: Leading FYTs impact on leadership ability
In a recent survey, students evaluated the impact of leading First-Year Teams (FYT) on their leadership abilities using a 7-point Likert scale, where 1 indicated strong disagreement and 7 indicated strong agreement An impressive 96.55% of student leaders (n = 28) either strongly agreed or agreed that their experience leading FYTs positively influenced their leadership skills Conversely, only one leader (3.45%) strongly disagreed with this assessment, highlighting the overall positive perception of FYTs among the majority of participants.
L3: FYT leadership skills compared to other WVU students
Students were asked to rate their leadership skills compared to other WVU students on a 7-point Likert-type scale anchored from 1 = Far below average to 7 = far above average
A significant portion of student leaders at WVU assessed their leadership abilities positively, with 37.93% rating their skills as significantly above average and 55.17% as moderately above average compared to their peers Only 6.90% of leaders felt their skills were on par with the average student.
L4: Transference of leader abilities from FYTs outside of an AWV setting
A survey was conducted to evaluate the transferability of eight leadership skills among FYT leaders, using a 7-point Likert scale The results revealed that nearly all leaders felt their training and experiences enabled them to apply these skills beyond the trip leader context Notably, the skills most readily utilized outside this context were Giving and Receiving Feedback (average score of 6.72), and Judgement and Decision Making (average score of 6.55).
Relationship and Community Building (𝑥̅ = 6.55) Following skills included Risk Management (𝑥̅ = 6.41), Situational Leadership (𝑥̅ = 6.28), Managing Conflict (𝑥̅ = 6.82), Wellness and Self- Care (𝑥̅ = 5.93), and Bystander Intervention (𝑥̅ = 6.00)
L5: Ranking how impactful leading for AWV has been on certain skill development
The question was excluded from the data analysis due to its non-essential nature in the survey, resulting in a low response rate Student leaders ranked eight categories from 1 (most impactful) to 8 (least impactful) regarding the influence of leading for AWV on their growth Analyzing the responses from the twelve leaders who participated, the descriptive statistics revealed the following rankings in descending order of impact: Giving and Receiving Feedback (𝑥̅ = 2.00), Relationship, and others.
Community Building (𝑥̅ = 2.83), Situational Leadership (𝑥̅ = 3.76), Judgement and Decision Making (𝑥̅ = 3.75), Managing Conflict (𝑥̅ = 5.42), Wellness and Self-Care (𝑥̅ = 5.42), Risk Management (𝑥̅ = 5.42), and Bystander Intervention (𝑥̅ = 7.50)
L6: Usefulness of leadership skills in settings outside of AWV
Respondents evaluated the applicability of their leadership skills beyond AWV using a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) The findings indicated a high level of perceived usefulness, particularly on the WVU campus, with an average rating of 6.24.
Community outside of WVU (𝑥̅ = 6.24), Within student groups (𝑥̅ = 6.24), In the workplace (𝑥̅ 6.17), With friends/roommates (𝑥̅ = 5.97), With family members (𝑥̅ = 5.72)
L7: Transference of emotional intelligence and self-efficacy from FYTs to other areas of life
The study examines leadership skills by addressing two key aspects: leading FYT trips and not leading them It evaluates emotional intelligence through four specific skills: understanding one's own emotions, reading others' emotions, managing personal emotions effectively, and managing the emotions of others Additionally, it assesses self-efficacy by focusing on the ability to achieve personal goals.
Discussion
This concluding chapter aims to interpret the data collected throughout the research project, establishing connections between the findings and the existing literature on the transfer of leadership skills among trip leaders in outdoor orientation programs By addressing the study's research questions and correlating the results with prior studies, this section seeks to provide a comprehensive understanding of the research outcomes Additionally, it discusses the limitations encountered during the study and outlines implications for future research and practical applications in the field.
This study aimed to explore three key areas: first, it analyzed how self-perceived leadership skills differ based on the experience level of leaders Second, it compared two groups—New Leaders and Return Leaders—to assess any significant differences in the transfer of leadership skills to other life areas Finally, it categorized leaders based on their experience with FYT trips for AWV, distinguishing between those who only led these trips and those who held additional positions The chapter is structured around the research questions guiding the investigation.
Previous studies have found that outdoor education programs, specifically outdoor orientation programs have the ability to increase student success and retention (Ewert &
McAvoy, 2000; Hattie et al., 1997; Fielding & Hogg, 1997; Bandura, 1969; and Bell & Starbuck,
While extensive research highlights the benefits of programs for participants, there remains a gap in understanding the impact on peer student trip leaders Two key factors that are increasingly studied in relation to effective leadership are emotional intelligence and self-efficacy.
Research has shown that adventure programs positively influence leaders' social competencies, particularly in emotional intelligence and self-efficacy (Burgess & Stough, 2001; Propst & Koessler, 1998; Hattie et al., 1997) Studies indicate a correlation between emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, and training, suggesting these traits can be developed (King, 1999; Purkable, 2003) However, a research gap exists regarding how effectively student leaders apply these skills beyond their leadership roles This study aims to address this gap by exploring Adventure WV student leaders' abilities to utilize emotional intelligence and self-efficacy while leading First Year Trips (FYTs) and in other contexts.
This project aimed to investigate whether self-perceived leadership skills among FYT leaders vary based on their level of experience Previous research indicates a positive correlation between emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, and leadership experience (Aguir, 1986; Hayashi & Ewert, 2006; Jacobs, 2004).
Virginia program wanted to examine the effectiveness of their FYT training curriculum designed specifically to strengthen these skills within their leaders
This study analyzed correlational data by testing two types of ratio data to differentiate FYT leaders based on their experience: New versus Return Leaders and the Number of Trips Led The grouping of New versus Return Leaders yielded more statistically significant results, as it involved a simpler division into two groups rather than five With a sample size of 29, the findings revealed that FYT leaders had overwhelmingly positive experiences with Adventure WV, with nearly all participants willing to recommend both FYT trips and the leadership role itself Furthermore, all but one leader noted a positive impact on their leadership abilities from leading FYTs These insights are crucial for understanding leaders' perceptions of the program, prompting an exploration of how these responses may differ based on their experience levels.
The findings indicate that more experienced leaders at WVU perceived their leadership skills as above average, aligning with Bell and Starbuck's (2017) research that suggests increased experience boosts confidence in leadership abilities However, no significant differences were found in emotional intelligence and self-efficacy between new and returning leaders, nor among groups based on the number of trips led Despite this, student leaders reported a belief that their experience leading FYTs for AWV enhanced their leadership skills, reflecting positively on AWV’s training methods and supporting Bell and Starbuck's findings.
Transference plays a crucial role in assessing the effectiveness of adventure education programs (Cummings, 2009) Researchers have highlighted that the true value of these programs lies in the skills acquired during adventure activities and their applicability in future scenarios (Gass, 1999; Neill, 2007; Cummings, 2009) In higher education, outdoor education can significantly benefit students by helping them transfer skills to the high-pressure college environment This study focused on AWV student trip leaders and found that they successfully applied skills learned in AWV training to contexts beyond trip leading Key skills identified for transfer included emotional intelligence aspects like giving and receiving feedback, relationship and community building, and judgment and decision-making (self-efficacy) Notably, more experienced leaders demonstrated a greater ability to transfer the skill of Wellness and Self-Care, which is particularly significant as it reflects an individual-focused aspect of emotional intelligence that may enhance its transferability.
Research indicates that leaders exhibit lower confidence in applying emotional intelligence and self-efficacy skills outside of trip-leading contexts, aligning with prior studies that suggest leadership skills are more effectively utilized within a leadership role Notably, three specific skills—reading emotions, managing emotions, and setting long-term goals—were identified as particularly challenging for leaders to transfer beyond the context of leading trips Analyses confirmed that leaders perceived these skills as the most difficult to adapt to non-trip settings While confidence in using these skills during trips was higher, the transferability of certain skills varied based on leader experience.
Researchers discovered that leaders successfully transfer their emotional understanding both during and outside of leadership settings This aligns with earlier studies by Hayashi and Ewert (2006) and Jacobs (2004), which indicated that more experienced leaders tend to exhibit higher emotional intelligence Furthermore, emotional intelligence skills, particularly those involving intrapersonal components, are more likely to be effectively transferred This suggests that intrapersonal skills, being inherently easier to convey, play a crucial role in the development of emotional intelligence among leaders.
A study by Koessler (1998) highlights the enduring success of emotional intelligence skills in leadership, serving as a benchmark for future skill transference Kappa analysis revealed that return leaders demonstrated significant moderate agreement in three emotional intelligence competencies, whereas new leaders did not show any such agreement Specifically, return leaders excelled in understanding their own emotions, interpreting the emotions of others, and effectively managing the emotions of those around them in environments beyond their foundational training (FYT).
Experienced leaders often exhibit higher confidence in their skills while leading FYTs, but this confidence diminishes by nearly 30% when applied to other contexts This trend is supported by a low Kappa coefficient indicating a lack of agreement While less experienced leaders seem to transfer their confidence effectively, their overall levels of high confidence in both FYTs and other settings are limited This phenomenon has not been previously explored in research, highlighting the need for further investigation into its causes Additionally, many leadership programs emphasize humility, warning that overconfidence in leaders can lead to significant decision-making risks (Miner, 1999).
As leaders accumulate experience and apply their learned lessons in real-world situations, they gain a clearer understanding of their position on the leadership spectrum.
The Dunning-Kruger Effect may explain why less experienced individuals overestimate their skills, particularly in leadership roles following recent training New leaders, fresh from training and their initial experiences, often feel more confident in applying these skills across various aspects of life In contrast, seasoned leaders possess a clearer understanding of their abilities during trips but recognize their limitations in transferring these skills to other contexts Further research is needed to explore this phenomenon.
Research by Propst and Koessler (1998) indicates that individuals with higher self-efficacy are more inclined to seek leadership roles While experience is often measured by time spent in the field, involvement in the AWV program can reveal how effectively leaders apply their skills Studies suggest that skill transference is enhanced when individuals encounter diverse opportunities to practice new skills (Marsh et al., 1986; Propst & Koessler, 1998; Paxton & McAvoy, 200; Kellert, 1999; Sibthorp et al., 2008; Benson, 2018) In this study, student leaders engaged in various program areas within AWV may experience more unique opportunities for skill application To evaluate the influence of this additional experience on leadership skill transference, researchers conducted a comparative analysis of two groups.
When testing for transference of skills among leaders of different experience levels, specifically students who are just leaders compared to those that hold additional positions within