POTENTIAL PESTS OF OHIA (METROSIDEROS POLYMORPHA) AND OTHER MYRTACEAE

POTENTIAL PESTS OF OHIA (METROSIDEROS POLYMORPHA) AND OTHER MYRTACEAE Prepared by: Forest Starr1, Kim Starr1, and Lloyd L Loope2 Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit, Dept of Botany, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96822 U S Geological Survey, Pacific Island Ecosystems Research Center, P.O Box 369, Makawao, Maui, HI 96768 2007 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION INSECTS        Bradysia coprophila - Fungus gnat Diptera : Tephritidae - Fruit Flies Hemiptera : Eriococcidae and Margarodidae - Scales Hemiptera : Psyllidae - Psyllids Hymenoptera : Torymidae and Eulophidae - Wasps Metaleurodicus cardini - Cardin's whitefly Phoracantha recurva - Eucalyptus longhorned beetle PATHOGENS            Botryosphaeria spp - Botryosphaeria canker Coniothyrium spp - Coniothyrium canker Corticium salmonicolor - Pink disease Cryphonectria cubensis - Cryphonectria canker Meloidogyne spp - Root knot nematodes Mycosphaerella spp - Crinkle leaf disease Phaeophleospora spp - Phaeophleospora leaf diseases Phellinus noxius - Brown root rot Puccinia psidii - Ohia rust, guava rust, Eucalyptus rust Ralstonia solanacearum - Bacterial disease, bacterial wilt Seiridium eucalypti - Seiridium stem canker REFERENCES INTRODUCTION Introduction As the global economy expands and more plants and foliage are imported from abroad, the risk that damaging pests or diseases will enter our environment in the U.S and in Hawaii is increased For example, a large portion of the U.S nursery industry relies on imported immature plants for planting to grow into a finished product A recent analysis by the California, North Carolina, and Florida Farm Bureaus states that 1.5 billion plant units (75% of the total arriving in the U.S.) come in annually through the Port of Miami; the Los Angeles airport receives 217 million units (Groot and Kister 2006) Inspectors at the Miami inspection station are able to inspect about 2% of the plant material that arrives They reject material when actionable pests are found, but lack the ability to provide serious deterrence of pests - for example they are unable to track growers/ importers that repeatedly send contaminated material (Groot and Kister 2006) Much of the imported plant material is planted in Florida, but material is also shipped via Miami to other locations in the U.S., including Hawaii Many new imported pests from Latin America establish first in Florida, then later spread to Hawaii either via southern California or directly Another major and increasing source of pests in Hawaii is Asia Taiwan and Thailand have long been agricultural trading partners of the U.S China, a relatively new member of the World Trade Organization is said to be the world’s largest horticultural producer; China’s horticultural exports have almost doubled in value over the past decade (Rae et al 2006) The flower/foliage trade has expanded remarkably over the past two decades, bringing billions of flowers into the U.S from foreign countries; pesticides are frequently applied liberally to avoid rejection in agricultural inspection at the U.S border (Stewart 2007) The domestic flower trade flourishes as well Fungal infections, especially of rusts, are notably prevalent and damaging in the flower trade, given that these pathogens cannot be adequately detected on asymptomatic but contaminated or infested plant material entering the U.S or moving state-to-state (Wise et al 2004) The arrival in early 2005 of a “rose apple strain” of the internationally notorious rust Puccinia psidii (Killgore & Heu 2005) provided a wake up call to Hawaii, putting nearly one million acres of the state’s ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha) forests in jeopardy The rust strain present has a severe impact on non-native rose apple (Syzygium jambos) at a landscape scale, but has so far had only minor effects on ohia Additional rust strains will only be kept out of the state if comprehensive regulations limiting trade in members of the myrtle family are established and enforced As of July 2007, Hawaii Department of Agriculture (HDOA) is in the process of establishing an interim rule and a long-term rule to restrict import of Myrtaceae from the U.S mainland Similar action by the U.S Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (USDA-APHIS) is highly desirable Ironically, a second devastating pest arrived in Hawaii in early 2005 - the erythrina gall wasp, Quadrastichus erythrinae (Heu et al 2005) Two of Hawaii’s dominant signature trees, wiliwili and ohia, are now under siege This juxtaposition of events has brought about the realization that Hawaii’s dominant native plant species must be proactively protected from plant pests, just as sugar cane, pineapple, coffee, and orchids have traditionally been protected by quarantine This concept is in harmony with a recent concept paper produced by the International Union of Forestry Research Organizations (IUFRO Unit 7.03.12 2006) The concept paper states: “Many forest pests have been introduced into new locations on plants for planting Mounting scientific evidence suggests that the current pest-by-pest regulatory approach and reliance on inspection to detect pests is untenable in today’s global marketplace Much recent experience demonstrates the need to curtail the introduction of plant pests that are present in an exporting territory but not yet known to science Therefore, the forest entomology and pathology science community recommends a pathway approach to regulating nursery stock, similar to that adopted for wood packaging material (WPM) Best management practices effective at preventing known pests will significantly reduce the risk of introducing unknown pests as well.” Without quarantine rules regulating high-risk imports, inspections are incapable of providing protection As pointed out by Hedley (2004), “successful phytosanitary systems are not grounded in inspections at ports but rather, in the establishment of specific import regulations Regulations identify the pests that a country believes constitute a potential danger to its plant health They also identify the possible ways that these pests can enter their country and where measures can affect this entry Finally, they set a range of import measures, from visual inspections to long periods in quarantine premises for intensive testing ” Although there is superficially a gulf between federal and state approaches in Hawaii, USDA-APHIS has strong generic authority through the Plant Protection Act to assist HDOA whenever it makes a compelling case for species protection The objective of this report is to present necessary information to more clearly define the threat to Hawaii’s ohia and other native and non-native Myrtaceae, including a nascent Eucalyptus industry on the Big Island We intend that this information be used in whatever risk analysis is needed for justifying stronger measures for effective protection of Myrtaceae by HDOA and USDA-APHIS Acknowledgments We thank the steering committee of Hawaii’s Coordinating Group on Alien Pest Species for advocating this project and U.S Fish & Wildlife Service for providing the funding We thank Dr David Duffy and his staff of the Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit for major administrative assistance References Groot, N., and J Kister 2006 Commentary: Wanted - An environment of pest-free imports Issued November 29, 2006, in AgAlert, online California Farm Bureau Federation (Accessed: July 5, 2007) Hedley, J 2004 The International Plant Protection Convention and alien species Pages 185-201 In M.L Miller and R.N Fabian (eds.), Harmful invasive species: Legal responses Environmental Law Institute, Washington, D.C (Accessed: July 5, 2007) Heu, R.A., D.M Tsuda, W.T Nagamine, and T.H Suh 2005 Erythrina Gall Wasp, Quadrastichus erythrinae Kim (Hym.: Eulophidae) State of Hawaii, Department of Agriculture - New Pest Advisory No 05-03 (Accessed: July 5, 2007) IUFRO Unit 7.03.12 2006 Recommendation of a pathway approach for regulation of plants for planting: A concept paper from the IUFRO unit on alien invasive species and international trade International Union of Forestry Research Organizations pp (Accessed: July 5, 2007) Rae, A., F Zhong, Y Zhou, and X Geng 2006 China’s expanding role in global horticultural markets Working paper 3/06, Centre for Applied Economics and Policy Studies, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand 24pp (Accessed: July 5, 2007) Stewart, A 2007 Flower Confidential: The Good, the Bad, and the Beautiful in the Business of Flowers Algonquin Books Chapel Hill, NC 306pp (Accessed: July 5, 2007) Wise, K.A., D.S Mueller, and J.W Buck 2004 Quarantines and ornamental rusts APSnet Feature Story Feb 2004 American Phytopathological Society (Accessed: July 5, 2007) INSECTS Bradysia coprophila Fungus gnat Species Bradysia coprophila (Lintner), fungus gnat, Diptera: Sciaridae Hosts Known to host on species in Cactaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Myrtaceae, and Pinaceae In Brazil, B coprophila hosts on Eucalyptus urophylla (Ciesla et al 1996) In greenhouses in Florida, B coprophila was found to be a severe problem on Zygocactus truncatus (Christmas cactus) at Apopka in 1977 and on Pinus palustris (longleaf pine) at Punta Gorda in 1975, where it damaged 50% of 1000 seedlings (Mead and Fasulo 2001) In South Africa, B coprophila was found on Euphorbia pulcherrima (poinsettia) (Hurley 2006) Pathways Fungus gnat larvae can be found in highly organic soils or potting mixes (IPM 2004) Eggs are laid in soil or under bark of cuttings, and larvae feed on organic matter and plant material (Ciesla et al 1996, IPM 2004) It is possible that fungus gnats could be spread in contaminated soil or plants Impact In Florida, fungus gnats are a problem mainly in greenhouses, mostly due to the damage they to plants, but also because large numbers of gnats can be a nuisance to workers (Mead and Fasulo 2001) B coprophila affects mainly seedlings and cuttings Ciesla et al (1996) report that B coprophila is the most important pest of Eucalyptus seedlings in southeastern Brazil, resulting in the loss of millions of seedlings Damage is caused when larvae feed on plant root hairs and feeder roots, or tunnel into the base of cuttings or leaves near the soil, resulting is reduced plant vigor, yellowing of leaves, discolored bark of cuttings, and cuttings that fail to sprout and die (Ciesla et al 1996, IPM 2004) In addition, both adult and larvae have been implicated in spreading spores of soil pathogens, such as Botrytis, Fusarium, Verticillium, Pythium, and Phoma (IPM 2004) Treatment Cultural control measures include reducing organic matter in potting media, reducing wet areas near plants, reducing algal growth, and keeping sanitation levels high (IPM 2004) Adults can be monitored with yellow sticky traps (IPM 2004) To reduce fungal food sources, some growers apply hydrated lime (Price 1997) Chemical control measures include insecticidal drenches for larvae and foliar sprays for adults Microbial insecticides can also provide effective controls (IPM 2004) For drenching, the insect growth regulators fenoxycarb, pyriproxyfen and azadirachtin resulted in the most significant reduction of fungus gnat emergence (Ludwig and Oetting 2001) Bacillus thuringiensis var israelensis and a nematode, Steinernema feltiae, have proven to be an effective biological control for B coprophila (Hurley 2006) Distribution Native: Brazil? (Ciesla et al 1996) Introduced: Florida: Apopka area of Orange County; Punta Gorda, Charlotte County; and Gainesville, Alachua County (Mead and Fasulo 2001) Hawaii: Not known to occur in Hawaii (Bishop Museum 1999) References Ciesla, W.M., M Diekmann, and C.A.J Putter 1996 FAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Germplasm No 17 Eucalyptus spp Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome (Accessed: June 19, 2007) Hurley, B 2006 Fungus gnats in forestry nurseries and their possible role as vectors for Fusarium circinatum Magister Scientae University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa (Accessed: May 24, 2007) IPM (Integrated Pest Management) 2004 Fungus gnats (Bradysia cocprophila) University of Illinois, College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences (Accessed: May 24, 2007) Ludwig, S.W and R.D Oetting 2001 Evaluation of medium treatments for management of Frankliniella occidentalis (Thripidae: Thysanoptera) and Bradysia coprophila (Diptera: Sciaridae) Pest Manag Sci 57(12): 1114-8 (Accessed: May 24, 2007) Mead, F.W and T.R Fasulo 2001 Featured Creatures: Fungus gnats Originally published as DPI Entomology Circular 186 University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Services, Department of Entomology and Nemetology and Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry (Accessed: May 24, 2007) Price J, Short D, Osborne L 1997 Management of Fungus Gnats in Greenhouse Ornamentals UF/ IFAS Insect Management Guide (Accessed: May 24, 2007) Diptera : Tephritidae Fruit Flies Species Bactrocera correcta (Bezzi), guava fruit fly, Diptera: Tephritidae Synonyms: Chaetodacus correctus Bezzi, Dacus (Strumeta) correctus (Bezzi), Bactrocera zonata Bezzi Bactrocera zonata (Saunders), peach fruit fly, Diptera: Tephritidae Synonyms: Dacus zonatus (Saunders), Dasyneura zonata Saunders, Rivellia persicae Bigot Hosts Bezzi (1915) notes that B correcta and B zonata occupy similar distributions and host species These species have been found hosting on a broad range of families, including Anacardiaceae, Arecaceae, Combretaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Malvaceaee, Moraceae, Myrtaceae, Punicaceae, Rhamnaceae, Rosaceae, Rubiaceae, Rutaceae, Santalaceae, Sapotaceae, and Solanaceae The following species are listed as host plants for B correcta and B zonata (CDFA 2007, Weems and Fasulo 2001): apple (Malus sylvestris), bael fruit (Aegle marmelos), citrus (Citrus spp.), coffee (Coffea canephora), Chinese date (Ziziphus jujube), date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), fig (Ficus carica), guava (Psidium guajava), mango (Mangifera indica), okra (Abelmoschus esculentus), orange (Citrus sinensis), papaya (Carica papaya), peach (Prunus persica), pomegranate (Punica granatum), quince (Cydonia oblonga), rose apple (Syzygium jambos), sandalwood (Santalum album), sapodilla (Manilkara zapota), Surinam cherry (Eugenia uniflora), tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum), tropical almond (Terminalia catappa\chebula), and white gourd (Lagenaria vulgaris) Pathways Introduction of fruit flies can occur when they "hitch-hike" on imported fruit from areas where the fly is present (FDACS 2007) Impact The guava fruit fly and the peach fruit fly have the potential to become major pests of fruit, including citrus, guava, mango, peach, papaya, and other tropical and subtropical fruits (CDFA 2007) Damage to fruit trees occurs when a female fruit fly punctures the flesh of the fruit and lays her eggs Punctures in the fruit admit decay organisms which break down tissue Eggs then develop into larvae, which feed on the fruit, causing further breakdown of tissue, and making fruit unfit for human consumption (CDFA 2007b) Treatment 10 REFERENCES 71 AFD (Australian Faunal Directory) 2007 Online Directory Australian Government, Department of the Environment and Water Resources (Accessed: May 21, 2007) Alfenas, A.C., R.S Jeng, and M Hubbes 1983 Virulence of Cryphonectria 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