Creating Climates of School Safety: A Foundation for Reducing School
INTRODUCTION: THREAT ASSESSMENT AND THE PREVENTION OF TARGETED SCHOOL VIOLENCE
While most students will finish their education without experiencing peer violence, recent attacks by students have disrupted the perception of schools as safe havens The focus of educators and parents has shifted from teacher qualifications and curriculum effectiveness to concerns about safety Disturbing images of terrified and injured students escaping from school have left a lasting impact on American society, particularly the tragic events at Columbine High School in Littleton, Colorado, on April 20.
The 1999 school attack stands as the most violent incident in U.S history, becoming a national symbol of the tragic violence that resulted in the deaths of 14 students and a teacher.
Between 1974 and June 2000, targeted school violence incidents were reported in 37 communities nationwide, highlighting that such attacks are relatively rare compared to other forms of violence children encounter both in and out of school The Department of Education notes that 60 million children are enrolled in approximately 100,000 schools across the country, with statistics suggesting that only a small number will experience serious violence within these educational environments.
The alarming rise in highly publicized school shootings has sparked widespread concern regarding the safety and security of schools across the nation, instilling fear that any educational institution could be targeted This heightened awareness of school violence has led to increased focus from educators, law enforcement, and mental health professionals to address and mitigate these threats effectively.
Targeted violence refers to violent incidents where an attacker deliberately chooses a specific target before carrying out the act This concept is explored in the research by Fein, Vossekuil, and Holden in their report “Threat Assessment: An Approach to Prevent Targeted Violence,” published by the U.S Department of Justice in September 1995.
In the 1999 Annual Report on School Safety by the U.S Department of Education and the U.S Department of Justice, professionals and parents are urged to seek answers to two crucial questions: "Could we have anticipated these planned attacks?" and "What preventive measures could have been implemented to avert them?"
For example, what should happen when a student comes to attention for saying something or behaving in a manner that causes concern, as in the following instances?
“The kids are saying that Johnny told his friends not to go to the cafeteria at noon on Tuesday because something big and bad is going to happen.”
Marty, who has appeared withdrawn and irritable the past few weeks, handed in a story about a student putting a bomb in an empty school
Sandy brought bullets to school to show friends.
Rafael, who got pushed around again after gym class, stormed out in tears, shouting “You’re all going to pay!”
Casey, who was suspended last year for bringing a knife to school, left a “hit list” on his desk.
Terry submitted an essay in which an assassin blew up the school, attacked the governor, and then killed himself.
Given the enormous concern about targeted school violence, these reported statements and behaviors cannot be ignored But how should school officials and other responsible adults respond?
This publication, Threat Assessment in Schools: A Guide to Managing
The article discusses the collaborative effort between the U.S Secret Service and the U.S Department of Education to address threatening situations and foster safe school environments It highlights the implementation of the threat assessment process developed by the Secret Service as a key strategy in this initiative.
The Department of Education is actively working to help schools nationwide reduce violence and foster safe environments Utilizing threat assessment strategies developed by the Secret Service, these efforts focus on identifying, evaluating, and managing individuals and groups that may pose a risk of targeted violence.
Development of the School Threat Assessment Process
This guide stems from the collaborative Safe School Initiative launched by the Secret Service and the Department of Education in June 1999 The initiative aimed to investigate the feasibility of applying the Secret Service's threat assessment investigative process to address the issue of targeted violence in schools.
The Safe School Initiative, a collaboration between the Secret Service’s National Threat Assessment Center and the Department of Education’s Safe and Drug-Free Schools Program, leverages the Department of Education's expertise in fostering safe learning environments alongside the Secret Service's knowledge in preventing targeted violence This initiative aims to ensure the safety of students, faculty, and staff in educational settings.
The Safe School Initiative originated from a comprehensive study analyzing the thoughts and behaviors of students involved in school shootings This research focused on 37 incidents of targeted school violence in the United States between December 1974 and May 2000, providing critical insights into pre-attack behaviors.
The Safe School Initiative was developed based on the Exceptional Case Study Project (ECSP), a comprehensive five-year analysis by the Secret Service that examined the motivations and behaviors of individuals who have executed or attempted lethal attacks on public figures in the United States since 1949 This initiative aimed to enhance understanding of such attacks, ultimately aiding Secret Service agents in their investigations of threats directed at the president and other high-profile officials.
3 Vossekuil, B., Fein, R., Reddy, M., Borum, R., & Modzeleski, W The Final Report and Findings of the Safe School Initiative: Implications for the Prevention of School Attacks in the United States U.S
Secret Service and U.S Department of Education: Washington, D C (May 2002), at 15 [hereinafter
The Safe School Initiative Final Report] For a fuller discussion of the Safe School Initiative, its methodology, and findings, please refer to this report.
4 Fein, R & Vossekuil, B “Assassination in the United States: An Operational Study of Recent Assassins, Attackers, and Near-Lethal Approachers.” Journal of Forensic Sciences, 44 (1999), at 321-333.
Secret Service protectees, and the development of strategies to prevent harm to these public officials.
In July 1998, the Secret Service and the Justice Department’s National Institute of Justice released the publication, Protective Intelligence and Threat Assessment
The publication "Investigations: A Guide for State and Local Law Enforcement Officials" aims to expand the accessibility of the Service's threat assessment protocols to a broader audience within law enforcement It provides essential guidance for state and local police officials on effectively conducting and assessing the results of threat assessment investigations.
The Safe School Initiative study corroborated the Secret Service’s ECSP findings regarding the mindset and actions of attackers, revealing that most perpetrators did not make direct threats to their targets Instead, they exhibited pre-attack behaviors that, if recognized, could have signaled their potential for targeted violence This emphasizes the importance of identifying and understanding these warning signs to prevent incidents of violence in schools.
The threat assessment process employs a "fact-based" approach that focuses on evaluating behaviors instead of relying solely on verbal threats or individual characteristics This method provides a solid foundation for identifying potential risks and supports the adaptation of threat assessment strategies by school administrators and law enforcement to effectively address the issue of targeted school violence.
Key Findings of the Safe School Initiative’s Study of Targeted School
A FOUNDATION FOR REDUCING SCHOOL VIOLENCE
“What I hate about this school is that I'm being picked on in the halls and just about everywhere else”–A 14-year-old student
School has been a challenging experience for me since my first day in elementary school, where I became an easy target for bullying For no apparent reason, my peers began to mock and ridicule me, leading to lasting self-esteem issues that have persisted throughout the 11 years I was bullied.
A 17-year-old student, who tragically took his own life after attacking others at school, reflected in his diary on the irony of being encouraged to express himself He lamented that if someone had supported him in opening up years earlier, he might have had a different outcome.
This Guide outlines a threat assessment process aimed at tackling the issue of targeted school violence, which, while infrequent, represents a severe and alarming concern It is essential to recognize that targeted school violence is just a small part of a larger issue, as many students face ongoing struggles with pain, loneliness, desperation, and despair in their daily lives within schools across the nation.
Threat assessment is a crucial element in a comprehensive strategy aimed at reducing school violence However, it is not sufficient on its own to create lasting change; it must be integrated into broader initiatives that foster safe and secure learning environments The primary goal of these violence-reduction strategies should be to cultivate a culture of safety, respect, and emotional support within schools.
In educational environments that prioritize safety, mutual respect between adults and students flourishes A secure school atmosphere fosters positive role models among faculty, promotes open dialogue that honors diversity, and encourages effective communication Additionally, it ensures that conflicts are addressed and resolved in a constructive manner.
Cultures and climates of safety in educational settings prioritize the social and emotional needs of students alongside their academic requirements These environments foster emotional intelligence, creating a sense of belonging and respect among students As a result, students are less likely to participate in or become victims of harmful behaviors.
A culture of safety in schools establishes "shame-free zones" where teasing and bullying are not tolerated, promoting a supportive environment for adolescents In contrast, school settings that overlook bullying contribute to student isolation and fear, hindering learning and personal growth Ultimately, neglecting such harmful behaviors can stifle healthy development in victims and may escalate into psychological and physical violence.
Creating Connections Between Adults and Students
Building strong human relationships is essential for fostering a culture of safety and respect within educational environments These connections serve as the vital emotional bond among students and between students and the adults responsible for addressing their educational, social, emotional, and safety needs.
In a safe school environment, students benefit from having a strong connection with at least one trusted adult in authority This relationship provides them with a reliable source of support and guidance during challenging times, allowing students to express their concerns openly without fear of judgment or retaliation Schools that foster these connections create a positive atmosphere conducive to learning and emotional well-being.
7 Goleman, D Emotional Intelligence New York: Bantam Books, (1995).
8 See, for example, Resnick,M.D., Bearman,P.S., Blum, R.W et al., (1997) “Protecting Adolescents from Harm,” JAMA, 278(10) pp 823-832 See also www.allaboutkids.umn.edu.
In "Real Boys: Rescuing Our Sons from the Myths of Boyhood," William Pollack explores the challenges boys face in society and the damaging stereotypes that influence their development The follow-up works, "Real Boys’ Voices" and "Real Boys Workbook," co-authored with T Shuster and K Cushman, respectively, delve deeper into boys' experiences and provide practical tools for fostering emotional intelligence and resilience Together, these resources emphasize the importance of understanding and supporting boys in navigating their identities and emotional landscapes.
Effective communication between students and school staff, including teachers, counselors, and administrators, is crucial for addressing concerns and problems Engaging with various school personnel, such as coaches, nurses, and bus drivers, fosters a supportive environment that encourages students to express their needs and challenges.
Schools that prioritize personal connections between staff and students actively seek to identify those who may feel disconnected For instance, in staff meetings, educators discuss strategies to engage students with limited ties to the school community.
In a California school district, faculty members are encouraged to identify students by marking stars next to the names of those they have strong connections with This initiative aims to foster relationships by prompting educators to concentrate their efforts on engaging with students who have fewer stars, thereby enhancing support for all learners.
Breaking the “Code of Silence”
In numerous schools, a strong "code of silence" exists among students and some adults, discouraging the reporting of a peer's pain or potential threats This unspoken rule can be detrimental, compelling students to manage their struggles independently without adult assistance Furthermore, it implies that students should refrain from expressing concerns about a classmate's behavior to responsible adults, which can hinder necessary support and intervention.
The findings of the Safe School Initiative suggest that silence is far from golden.
Research indicates that silence can pose significant risks, particularly in school environments A study revealed that many school shooters had disclosed their violent intentions to peers, yet students often failed to inform adults about these threats.
Implementing a School Threat Assessment Process
STUDY OF TARGETED SCHOOL VIOLENCE
This chapter outlines the Safe School Initiative, which emphasizes the importance of a threat assessment process for identifying, evaluating, and addressing potential threats in educational settings By analyzing past incidents of targeted school violence, the initiative seeks to uncover the attackers' behaviors and communications leading up to the events, aiming to leverage this information to prevent future occurrences of violence in schools.
The Safe School Initiative highlights effective actions that educators and law enforcement can take to address targeted school violence The findings recommend that these stakeholders should concentrate their efforts on developing prevention strategies in two key areas to mitigate the risk of such attacks.
developing the capacity to pick up on and evaluate available or knowable information that might indicate that there is a risk of a targeted school attack; and,
employing the results of these risk evaluations, or “threat assessments,” in developing strategies to prevent potential school attacks from occurring
Support for these suggestions is found in the 10 key findings of the Safe School Initiative study:
Incidents of targeted violence at school are rarely sudden, impulsive acts.
Prior to most incidents, other people knew about the attacker’s idea and/or plan to attack.
Most attackers did not threaten their targets directly prior to advancing the attack.
There is no accurate or useful “profile” of students who engage in targeted school violence.
Most attackers engaged in some behavior, prior to the incident, that caused concern or indicated a need for help.
Most attackers were known to have difficulty coping with significant losses or personal failures Many had considered or attempted suicide.
Many attackers felt bullied, persecuted, or injured by others prior to the attack.
Most attackers had access to and had used weapons prior to the attack.
In many cases, other students were involved in some capacity.
Despite prompt law enforcement responses, most shooting incidents were stopped by means other than law enforcement intervention
An overview of these findings, and their implications for the use of threat assessment protocols to identify, assess, and manage possible targeted school violence, follows.
Implications of Key Findings for the Use of Threat Assessment Protocols
Incidents of targeted violence at school rarely are sudden, impulsive acts.
Research indicates that students involved in school-based attacks do not act impulsively or randomly; rather, these incidents are the culmination of a deliberate thought process According to the Safe School Initiative, this process typically starts with an idea, evolves into a detailed plan, involves acquiring the necessary means to execute that plan, and ultimately leads to the execution of the attack.
An attacker solicited assistance from friends to acquire ammunition and modified a rifle for concealment by sawing off its end He also collaborated with his mother to purchase a long trench coat, which he altered by cutting out pockets to hide the weapon while maintaining access through the openings This individual had a notorious obsession with firearms and openly expressed thoughts of targeting specific students at school.
Understanding the thought process and planning behind potential attacks can be crucial in identifying warning signs through an attacker’s behavior and communication The Safe School Initiative highlights that the interval between an attacker deciding to carry out an assault and the execution of that plan can be very brief Therefore, when signs indicate that a student may threaten the school community, it is essential for school administrators and law enforcement to act swiftly to investigate and intervene in any potential threats This proactive approach can help prevent possible attacks by addressing concerns before they escalate.
Prior to most incidents, other people knew about the attacker’s idea and/or plan to attack.
Many young individuals, including friends, classmates, and siblings, often have prior knowledge of a potential attack on a school Unfortunately, this critical information seldom reaches adults, highlighting a gap in communication that could prevent such incidents.
An attacker had premeditated a shooting in his school's lobby and confided in two friends about his intentions He invited three other students to the mezzanine to keep them safe during the planned assault, which typically saw few students present in the mornings However, on the day of the attack, news of his plan spread rapidly, resulting in 24 students gathering in the mezzanine One student, aware of the attacker's scheme, brought a camera to document the unfolding events.
Students play a crucial role in preventing targeted school violence, as they are often the first to learn about potential threats However, many may hesitate to report their concerns to adults due to various barriers within the school environment To encourage reporting, schools should work to identify and eliminate these obstacles, creating a supportive atmosphere Additionally, having a fair and effective response system in place is essential, as students are more likely to share information if they trust that adults will handle it thoughtfully and respectfully.
This finding underscores the critical role of collecting comprehensive information during a threat assessment inquiry Engaging with all individuals who have interacted with the student, regardless of how insignificant their insights may seem, can contribute to a more holistic understanding of the student's thoughts, behaviors, and intentions Ultimately, investigators may discover that various people in the student's life hold unique pieces of the puzzle, enhancing the overall assessment.
Most attackers did not threaten their targets directly prior to advancing the attack.
The Safe School Initiative revealed that many attackers do not directly threaten their targets, with some making no threats whatsoever Instead, concerning behaviors and communications, such as a young person discussing the possibility of bringing a gun to school, serve as potential indicators of a threat These signs should trigger efforts to gather more information and assess the situation.
This finding highlights the necessity for school administrators to proactively investigate potential threats rather than waiting for an incident to occur It is crucial to address any threats made by students, as failing to do so may be interpreted as tacit approval, potentially encouraging further harmful actions Importantly, it is essential to differentiate between students who merely express harmful intentions and those who demonstrate actual threat behaviors, such as planning or preparing for an attack Therefore, threat assessment inquiries should prioritize identifying signs that a student may pose a real threat, regardless of whether they have explicitly communicated their intentions.
There is no accurate or useful “profile” of students who engage in targeted school violence
The attackers exhibited significant diversity in their demographics, personalities, educational backgrounds, and social traits Additionally, recognizing shared characteristics or behaviors with previous school shooters does not aid in identifying whether a specific student is contemplating or preparing for a violent act.
Example: In one case, the dean of students had commended a student for improving his grades and behavior a few weeks before that student carried out an attack at his school
Relying on student profiles to predict potential violent attacks in schools is an ineffective strategy for identifying individuals at risk of targeted violence This approach poses two significant risks: firstly, most students who match the characteristics of a typical "school shooter" are unlikely to engage in violent behavior; secondly, such profiling may overlook students who do pose a genuine threat but do not exhibit the same traits as previous attackers.
Instead of categorizing students based on appearance or type when assessing the risk of targeted school violence, it is crucial to focus on their behaviors and communications This approach allows for the identification of students who may be planning an attack By evaluating whether a student is progressing toward a violent act, the speed of that progression, and potential intervention points, we can better address and prevent school-based violence.
Most attackers engaged in some behavior, prior to the incident, that caused others concern or indicated a need for help.
Research indicates that young individuals often communicate their struggles through both direct and indirect signals The boys and young men involved in the school violence studied by the Safe School Initiative exhibited these warning signs prior to their actions.
Conducting a School Threat Assessment
This chapter emphasizes the importance of conducting a thorough threat assessment process It outlines how to identify threatening situations, the essential information needed for a comprehensive assessment, potential sources of that information, and presents 11 critical questions to guide threat assessment team members in evaluating whether a concerning student poses a potential threat.
The presented approach emphasizes that threat assessments can vary significantly in complexity, ranging from brief evaluations to extensive analyses The depth of the threat assessment process is dictated by the specific circumstances and the information gathered about the student of concern Often, initial information-gathering and evaluation can lead to a clear understanding and resolution of many situations.
The Threat Assessment Process as a Continuum
In previous chapters of this Guide, the terms “threat assessment inquiry” and
In the context of school safety, "threat assessment inquiries" and "threat assessment investigations" are often used interchangeably; however, they represent two complementary stages in the threat assessment continuum This model begins with a threat assessment inquiry conducted by the school threat assessment team, which evaluates the situation If this initial inquiry identifies a credible threat of targeted school violence, it is followed by a threat assessment investigation carried out by law enforcement agencies.
Communities and school systems have various approaches to assigning responsibility for threat assessments, which may involve specially trained law enforcement professionals, internal school staff, or a blended system combining both To determine the most effective delineation of responsibilities, it is essential for school officials, law enforcement, and community leaders to evaluate the principles of threat assessment, identify necessary program functions, and assess local resources and relationships.
The threat assessment process highlights that not all school inquiries necessitate law enforcement involvement Preliminary evaluations by the school threat assessment team may reveal that concerns about a student are unfounded or that their behavior poses no risk of targeted violence, allowing for informal management by school officials In such cases, these inquiries do not threaten the school or community, thus typically not requiring referral to law enforcement Conversely, if a credible threat of targeted school violence is identified, it must be reported to law enforcement for further investigation.
Central Distinctions Between Threat Assessment Inquiries and Investigations
The key differences between a threat assessment inquiry and a threat assessment investigation lie in their management within the threat assessment continuum Both processes aim to evaluate whether a student may pose a risk of targeted school violence They focus on critical questions such as, "Is there evidence indicating that this student is potentially planning an attack?" and "What is the likelihood of targeted violence occurring?"
A threat assessment inquiry is initiated by school authorities, often in collaboration with law enforcement This process involves gathering information from the school environment and individuals familiar with the student in question If the collected information indicates that a student may be planning an attack, it is crucial to refer the case to law enforcement for further investigation Additionally, if the inquiry reveals any potential legal violations, involving law enforcement is also warranted.
A threat assessment investigation also asks: “Does this student pose a threat of targeted violence?” In addition, investigators may ask: “Has this student violated a law?”
With respect to their management, the threat assessment inquiry and the threat assessment investigation differ as follows:
threat assessment inquiries are initiated, conducted, and controlled by the school threat assessment team;
threat assessment investigations are initiated, conducted, and controlled by law enforcement agencies.
The distinction between a threat assessment inquiry and a threat assessment investigation is crucial for school safety This decision, which determines when a school threat assessment team should refer a threatening situation to law enforcement, is made collaboratively with school administrators and law enforcement officials Each situation is evaluated individually, ensuring a tailored response to potential threats.
To effectively implement a threat assessment program, it is essential to establish clear policies and procedures that define a general threshold for initiating inquiries This framework will guide the referral of threatening situations to law enforcement agencies, ensuring timely and appropriate responses to potential threats.
The threat assessment process outlined in this Guide is not intended for a broad evaluation of the entire student body to pinpoint individuals at risk of targeted school violence Rather, it serves as a focused tool for addressing specific threatening situations involving particular students who have raised concerns among school administrators or authorities.
Students who become the focus of threat assessment inquiries and investigations may come to the attention of authorities in a number of ways.
Circumstances that Bring a Student to Official Attention
Some students may bring themselves to the attention of authorities by engaging in communications that cause concern:
A student submits a story for an English assignment about a character that shoots other students in his school
Two students in a video class make a movie about kids who bring bombs to school
A dean receives an e-mail stating, “I’m going to kill everyone in this asylum.”
A seventh-grader, who is known to be feared by his classmates, cocks a finger at another boy on the playground and says “you’re gonna die.”
The personal Web page of a high-achieving student has links to Web pages with information about cyanide.
In various scenarios, students have exhibited concerning behaviors that alarm school administrators and authorities, necessitating follow-up inquiries or investigations Each incident involves a student whose identity is either known or can be determined, with some communications presenting direct threats while others remain ambiguous.
Other students of concern come to the attention of authorities through second or third parties:
A school bus driver tells the principal of a school that a group of students has been overheard whispering about bringing a gun to school.
A ninth-grader reports that he has been threatened by another student and warned not to tell anybody about the threat.
A student has reported overhearing a concerning conversation in the lunchroom, where one student expressed frustration by stating, "I’m not going to take it anymore I’m going to get even for good." This statement raises alarms about potential retaliation or harmful intentions, highlighting the need for awareness and intervention in school environments.
A neighbor of a student calls the school to report suspicions that the student is experimenting with bomb-making materials.
In still other cases, students come to the attention of authorities through anonymous communications:
A parent anonymously calls a tip line to report concerns about the behavior of a student.
The school district superintendent’s office receives an anonymous call stating that a bomb will go off in one of the middle schools at 1:45 p.m.
An anonymous letter signed “Fans of Eric and Dylan Club” arrives at a high school The letter states “Remember Columbine” and warns that “Judgment Day” is coming.
Anonymous information must be thoroughly assessed by the school's threat assessment team, as it can vary in accuracy; some details may be true, while others could be partial, incomplete, or intentionally misleading.
When a student cannot be easily identified through anonymous communication, advanced identification methods may be necessary In cases involving anonymous threats of imminent danger, such as bomb threats, the involvement of law enforcement agencies may be essential to ensure safety and security.
Managing Communications about Students of Concern
Policies regarding the handling of communications that raise concerns about students should address the following topics:
Establishing low barriers for reporting for those who may have information of concern 18
It is crucial for both students and adults to be aware of specific warning signs that may indicate potential threats, including weapon-seeking and weapon-using behaviors, as well as homicidal or suicidal tendencies Recognizing behaviors that suggest a young person may be contemplating or planning an attack can play a vital role in preventing violence and ensuring safety within the community.
Managing a Threatening Situation
Threat assessment and management are crucial, interconnected functions that focus on identifying and supporting students in need It is essential for threat assessment teams to prioritize the assistance and guidance of these individuals, ensuring they receive the necessary help to navigate their challenging situations.
When a threat assessment indicates that a student has the interest, motive, and capability to carry out a school attack, it is crucial to prioritize prevention and safeguard potential targets Therefore, it is essential to create a tailored management and monitoring plan for any student identified as a threat during the assessment process to effectively address and mitigate risks of targeted school violence.
Key Components and Functions of a Management Strategy
The management of a threatening situation and the components of the response plan will vary based on the specific circumstances involved For instance, a student under the juvenile or criminal justice system may be overseen by court officials, while if the student continues attending school, administrators may collaborate with parents to implement and monitor a compliance plan.
Successful management of a threatening situation requires substantial time and effort Management of these situations comprises three related functions:
1 controlling/containing the situation and/or student in a way that will prevent the possibility of an attack;
2 protecting and aiding possible targets; and
3 providing support and guidance to help the student deal successfully with his or her problems.
Considerations in Developing a Management Strategy
Managing Threatening Situations for the Short Term
Effectively managing a concerning student requires both immediate and long-term strategies Initially, once a threat assessment confirms that a student may be a risk for targeted school violence, it is crucial for authorities to act swiftly to intervene This prompt action aims to contain the threat and minimize the likelihood of violent incidents.
Conducting a threat assessment inquiry or investigation can effectively mitigate future threatening behavior in students Such assessments not only identify underlying issues prompting potential attacks but also provide necessary support, leading the individual to reconsider and ultimately abandon any plans for violence, recognizing that an attack is neither feasible nor necessary.
In certain circumstances, it is essential to implement clear measures to contain potential threats This may involve closely supervising or confining the individual of concern while ensuring the safety of potential targets.
Managing Threatening Situations for the Long Term
After ensuring that the immediate threat is managed, the threat assessment team must focus on long-term safety strategies They should consider two key questions: What measures can be implemented to contain a potential attacker in the long run? Additionally, what proactive actions can be taken to prevent the potential attacker from becoming a future source of violence?
The main objective of a school threat assessment is to avert potential attacks, making it crucial to choose intervention strategies that offer the highest likelihood of long-term prevention.
Threat managers must consider the most effective and least damaging response to a situation, prioritizing caution in their decision-making Professionals often default to familiar tools, such as police arrests, mental health commitments, workplace firings, and school suspensions or expulsions It is crucial to ensure that the authorities' response aligns appropriately with the specific problem at hand.
The most familiar response may or may not be the best response, the best course of action for the longer term For example, school administrators may feel pressured to
Suspending or expelling a student who threatens to bring a weapon to school may seem like a necessary measure to "get tough" or "set an example." However, such actions can inadvertently provoke immediate or delayed violent responses unless accompanied by appropriate containment and support An expelled student might feel they have lost everything and may act on the belief that they need to retaliate, potentially returning to school armed and ready to attack Furthermore, students who are suspended or expelled without an alternative educational placement may experience less supervision, increasing the risk of dangerous behavior.
When managing a student assessed as a potential threat of targeted violence, it is crucial to focus on long-term prevention strategies rather than solely relying on punitive measures While arresting a student may be necessary in some cases, it is essential to consider additional actions such as confinement, weapons removal, and interpersonal interventions to effectively mitigate the risk of an attack Furthermore, simply referring a student to the mental health system without integrating that referral into a comprehensive monitoring and management plan may not adequately prevent targeted violence.
An Integrated Systems Approach to Managing Threatening Situations
The Safe School Initiative revealed that attackers often develop their plans after unsuccessful attempts to address issues and alleviate emotional distress through peaceful methods It is crucial to help students envision a positive future and guide them towards constructive, non-violent conflict resolution strategies This requires sensitivity, dedication, and a comprehensive approach to effectively support the needs of each student.
An integrated systems approach significantly improves the effectiveness of both short- and long-term strategies for managing threatening situations in schools Key stakeholders, including school officials, law enforcement, mental health professionals, and youth service workers, must identify and leverage existing community resources to effectively address students who may pose threats of targeted school violence.
The threat assessment process aims to link students with supportive services that foster encouragement and hope, thereby decreasing the chances of future threatening behavior The primary goal is to empower students to thrive independently, without the need for constant oversight from adult authorities.
Monitoring of a student may be discontinued after responsible authorities have completed the following tasks:
Assessing whether (and to what extent) the student has changed unacceptable thinking and behavior over time; and
Developing and supporting intervention strategies that encourage and help the student to change.
Once it is established that the individual no longer presents a risk of targeted school violence, formal monitoring is discontinued Nevertheless, the student may continue to engage with community service systems that facilitate their ongoing success and well-being.
Action Plans for School Leaders: Creating a Safe and Connected
CREATING A SAFE AND CONNECTED SCHOOL CLIMATE AND IMPLEMENTING A THREAT ASSESSMENT PROGRAM
Creating a Safe and Connected School Climate
Establishing safe cultures and climates in schools is crucial for preventing violence To achieve this, collaboration among teachers, administrators, and students is vital in fostering connections and promoting a secure environment.
Major Components and Tasks for Creating a Safe/Connected School Climate
1 Assess the school's emotional climate.
While many prefer to view educational institutions as secure and nurturing spaces that enhance learning, it is essential for leaders and decision-makers to acknowledge and address any underlying issues to ensure a truly safe environment for all students.
To effectively understand the emotional climate of schools, it is crucial for administrators, parents, and community leaders to take a step back and gather insights from students, faculty, and other key stakeholders Utilizing anonymous surveys, face-to-face interviews, focus groups, and psychological assessments can provide valuable real-time data on the school's emotional environment It is important to avoid assumptions about the school climate, as those directly impacted, particularly students, have unique perspectives that may not be recognized otherwise Without a comprehensive assessment process, school officials risk missing critical insights that could inform improvements in the educational experience.
Climate survey findings play a crucial role in enhancing safety and respect within educational settings Providing feedback on school climate data to all stakeholders is essential for fostering collaboration Sharing this data lays the groundwork for a comprehensive approach that engages key participants, empowers students to drive change, and strengthens connections between schools, communities, and parents.
2 Emphasize the importance of listening in schools
Respectful listening is essential in schools, where both pupils and adults must actively listen to one another While adults often expect students to heed their authority, it's crucial to remember that listening is a reciprocal process A school that fosters a culture of "two-way listening" empowers students to speak up and challenge the silence that can often inhibit open communication.
Listening should extend beyond academic issues to encompass the emotional experiences of students, particularly their feelings of hurt and pain It is crucial for teachers to pay attention to students' behaviors, as many may struggle to express their feelings of disenfranchisement, fear, or hurt This inability to articulate their emotions can lead some students to resort to violence as a means of coping By actively listening to behaviors and helping students learn to express their feelings, adults can equip them with essential skills that play a vital role in preventing and reducing violence in educational settings.
3 Take a strong, but caring stance against the code of silence
Silence leaves hurt unexposed and unacknowledged Silence may encourage a young person to move along a path to violence.
4 Work actively to change the perception that talking to an adult about a student contemplating violence is considered “snitching.”
A positive school climate fosters connections among students and between students and adults, creating a safe and secure educational environment When students feel empowered to reach out to caring adults about their peers in distress, they can play a crucial role in saving lives.
5 Find ways to stop bullying
Bullying is a serious issue that encompasses a range of abusive behaviors, from verbal insults to physical threats, and is characterized by one student exerting power over another in a harmful way In schools that prioritize safety and connection, both bullies and victims are treated with respect, fostering a positive environment These schools promote pro-social behavior by teaching conflict resolution, peer mediation, and active listening, encouraging non-violent problem-solving In a safe school climate, adults model respectful behavior and actively intervene against bullying, ensuring a supportive atmosphere for all students.
6 Empower students by involving them in planning, creating, and sustaining a school culture of safety and respect
Establishing a secure school environment requires the active participation of the entire school community, including teachers, students, parents, counselors, administrators, health staff, security professionals, and support personnel A collaborative approach to safety fosters a sense of belonging, as encouraging students to participate in positive activities within their local community can reduce feelings of isolation and strengthen connections, ultimately enhancing overall safety.
7 Ensure that every student feels that he or she has a trusting relationship with at least one adult at school
Trusting relationships between adults and students are the products of quality connection, interaction, and communications These relationships evolve and
For a comprehensive understanding of bullying, please see the Appendix It is crucial that interactions between students and adults, such as homeroom teachers or guidance counselors, are not forced or superficial Schools that prioritize safety actively monitor student interactions and well-being Therefore, school administrators must ensure that at least one adult is aware of each student's situation, fostering a supportive environment.
8 Create mechanisms for developing and sustaining safe school climates
To foster and maintain a safe school climate, a comprehensive mechanism involving administrators, teachers, counselors, students, and security personnel is essential for effective planning and monitoring Key considerations in this process include strategies to enhance safety, the extent to which staff prioritize students' social and emotional learning needs, and the school's progress in ensuring that every student has access to a trusted adult for support during challenging times.
9 Be aware of physical environments and their effects on creating comfort zones.
The physical attributes of educational institutions, such as building structure, facility safety plans, lighting, and architecture, significantly influence the perceived and actual safety of a school environment In larger schools, administrators should consider modifying these physical characteristics to create smaller, interconnected groups of teachers and students, fostering a more supportive and secure educational community.
10 Emphasize an integrated systems model.
Genuine support arises when individuals feel they have contributed to the creation process, making it essential to involve all stakeholders, including students, teachers, administrators, school board members, parents, law enforcement, and community groups Engaging these diverse voices necessitates addressing complex questions surrounding fairness, threat, consequence, and change, tailored to the specific context of each school and its community.
11 All climates of safety ultimately are “local.”
Many local factors contribute to the creation of a culture and climate of safety These factors include: the leadership–“open door” role of the school principal;
“empowered buy-in” of student groups; connections to the local community and its leaders; and the respectful integration into the safe school climates process of
“safekeepers,” such as parents and law enforcement personnel close to the school.
Successful schools recognize that fostering safe school climates enhances educational expectations, leading to higher student engagement and learning Achieving this requires careful planning and dedicated effort, as creating such environments is a gradual process Continuous feedback and evaluation are essential for sustaining and improving these educational settings Moreover, for safe school climates to be effective, they must promote respectful relationships between adults and students, and be embraced as a fundamental aspect of threat assessment and management, understood from leadership down as crucial to the overall learning experience.
Effective threat assessment policies and programs are essential for school violence prevention, particularly when they are authorized and developed by local officials in collaboration with community representatives To successfully establish a threat assessment approach within a community or school district, it is crucial to follow a systematic course of action that engages stakeholders and prioritizes safety.
Conclusion: Threat Assessment as a Decision-Making Tool 83 Appendix: Annotated Resources
Creating an effective strategy to prevent and address targeted school violence is a multifaceted challenge There is no one-size-fits-all solution that can adequately address every crisis faced by school administrators, law enforcement, parents, and community organizations.
When a student's behavior indicates a potential risk of violence, it is crucial for responsible adults to evaluate the associated dangers and determine appropriate responses The threat assessment process described in this Guide aims to support officials in making informed decisions, enhancing the chances of preventing targeted violence in schools While it does not eliminate the challenges of assessing individual actions that threaten school safety, the Guide provides a framework to improve judgment and response strategies.
The threat assessment process emphasizes the need to evaluate each situation of concern individually, recognizing that targeted violence results from a specific and identifiable process Each case of potential school violence is unique, and the assessment is guided by the specific facts at hand, involving a thorough analysis of behaviors and situational context Rather than relying on student characteristics or isolated threatening statements, this process prioritizes the evaluation of a student's behaviors and communications to ascertain their intent and capability to execute a school attack.
The collaboration between the Secret Service and the Department of Education in addressing targeted school violence highlights the importance of the threat assessment process in fostering and strengthening vital relationships between schools and their communities.
Building strong relationships within schools and communities is essential for fostering safe learning environments By prioritizing effective threat assessment and management, educational institutions can establish processes and protocols that significantly diminish school violence, ultimately contributing to a secure atmosphere for students across the nation.
This section provides recommended readings on addressing threatening situations in schools and fostering safe school environments Each topic includes a brief overview of the related documents, serving as a foundational resource rather than an exhaustive list These suggestions aim to guide further exploration of crucial subjects in school safety.
Bullying and the Creation of Respectful Climates
This article highlights valuable resources on bullying behavior and the experiences of boys and young men in educational settings and society Pioneering research by Olweus, along with studies by Graham and Juvonen, offers a comprehensive overview of bullying in schools, including recent statistics on its prevalence among U.S youth Additionally, William Pollack's works, such as "Real Boys" and "Real Boys' Voices," delve into the culture of boyhood in America, challenging common assumptions held by adults and providing strategies to improve interactions with young males The "Real Boys Workbook" offers practical exercises for parents and educators to foster better communication with boys and young men Collectively, the research by Olweus and Pollack emphasizes the importance of creating respectful and safe school environments for all students.
Graham, S, & Juvonen, J (2001) An Attributional Approach to Peer Victimization In Juvonen, J Graham, S (eds.), Peer Harassment in School: The
Plight of the Vulnerable and Victimized, pp 49-72 New York: Guilford Press.
Olweus, D (1993) Bullying at School: What we know and what we can do New York: Blackwell.
lweus, D (1996, Spring) Bully/Victim Problems at School: Facts and Effective Intervention Reclaiming Children and Youth, pp 15-22
Nansel, T., Overpeck, M., Pilla, R., Ruan, J., Simons-Morton, B., & Scheidt, P (2001) Bullying behavior among U.S youth Journal of the American
Pollack, W (1998) Real boys: Rescuing our sons from the myths of boyhood New York: Henry Holt, Inc.
Pollack, W., & Cushman, K (2001) Real boys workbook New York: Villard.
Pollack, W., & Shuster, T (2000) Real boys’ voices New York: Random House.
This article highlights key resources that address the challenges of sharing student information in schools, focusing on the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA), which regulates the protection of educational records It includes the complete text of FERPA and clarifies exceptions to its restrictions Additionally, it offers guidance on creating policies for interagency information sharing regarding juveniles Furthermore, it discusses protections for student information and examines recent state legislative efforts aimed at simplifying the process of sharing student data.
Medaris, M.L., Campbell, E., & James, B (1997, June) Sharing information: A guide to the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act and participation in juvenile justice programs Washington, DC: U.S Department of
Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention and U.S Department of Education, Family Policy Compliance Office.
Please also see the following Web site for updates on FERPA regulations since the 1997 publication of this document: http://www.ed.gov/offices/OM/fpco
Slayton, J (2000, March) Establishing and maintaining interagency information sharing JAIBG Bulletin Washington, D.C.: U.S Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
Thomerson, J (2001, May) School violence: Sharing student information Denver, Colo.: National Conference of State Legislatures.
As of this Guide's publication, the following resources provide the latest data and statistics on violence and crime in American schools and communities Due to the absence of a centralized reporting system for youth-related violence and crime in schools, these reports together offer a comprehensive overview of the state of school violence in America.
Anderson, M., et al (2001) School-associated Violent Deaths in the United States, 1994-1999 Journal of the American Medical Association, 286, pp 2695-2702 (2001)
The report "Indicators of School Crime and Safety, 2000," published by the U.S Department of Education and the U.S Department of Justice, provides crucial insights into the state of school safety and crime statistics This comprehensive document, identified as NCES 2001-017 and NCJ-184176, is accessible online at nces.ed.gov/pubs2001/quarterly/winter/elementary/e_section4.html, offering valuable data for educators, policymakers, and researchers focused on enhancing school safety.
National Research Council and Institute of Medicine, Committee on Law and Justice and Board on Children, Youth, and Families (2001) Juvenile
Crime, Juvenile Justice Panel on Juvenile Crime: Prevention, Treatment, and
Control McCord, J., et al (Eds.) National Academy Press: Washington, D C.
Snyder, H.N., & Sickmund, M (1999) Juvenile offenders and victims:
1999 National Report Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice & Delinquency
Prevention, U.S Department of Justice Available at: www.ncjrs.gov/html/ojjdp/nationalreport99/index.html
U.S Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics
(2002) Digest of Education Statistics 2000; Washington D.C.: Authors
U.S Department of Education and U.S Department of Justice (1999)
1999 Annual Report on School Safety Washington, D.C.: Authors.
Risk Assessment and General Aggression / Violence
"Assessing violence risk among youth" offers a comprehensive overview of the risk factors associated with general aggression and violence in young individuals It consolidates the latest scientific findings on this issue and provides essential recommendations for clinicians responsible for evaluating youth aggression risk Similarly, the SAVRY manual reviews these risk factors and presents a structured assessment tool designed to assist clinicians in evaluating the risk of general aggression and violence in specific youth cases.
Borum, R (2000) Assessing violence risk among youth Journal of
Borum, R., Bartel, P., & Forth, A (2002) Manual for the Structured
Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY) Tampa: Fla.: University of South
U.S Department of Health and Human Services (2001) Youth violence: A report of the Surgeon General Rockville, Md.: U.S Department of
Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
Administration, Center for Mental Health Services, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Mental Health Available at: http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/youthviolence/
Threat Assessment and Targeted Violence
This article highlights essential resources on targeted violence and threat assessment strategies aimed at preventing such attacks It references an academic paper titled "Defining an approach for evaluating targeted violence," which outlines key concepts and questions for investigators assessing potential threats Another paper, "Assassination in the United States," reviews findings from the Exceptional Case Study Project Additionally, a guide for law enforcement, "Protective intelligence & threat assessment investigations," offers guidelines for developing threat assessment capabilities for protecting officials The article also includes a brief overview of threat assessment methods and discusses various approaches schools can use to evaluate potential threats from students, such as profiling, structured clinical assessments, and automated decision-making tools.
Defining an approach for evaluating risk of targeted violence
Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 17, pp 323-337 Available at http://www.secretservice.gov/ntac.htm
Fein and Vossekuil's 1999 study, published in the Journal of Forensic Sciences, examines recent cases of assassins, attackers, and individuals who approached targets with lethal intent in the United States The research provides an operational analysis of these incidents, highlighting patterns and behaviors associated with assassination attempts For further details, the study can be accessed at the U.S Secret Service's National Threat Assessment Center website.
Fein, R.A., & Vossekuil, B (1998) Protective intelligence & threat assessment investigations: A guide for state and local law enforcement officials
(NIJ/OJP/DOJ Publication No 170612) Washington, DC: U.S Department of Justice Available at http://www.secretservice.gov/ntac.htm
Fein, R.A., Vossekuil, B., & Holden, G.A (1995, September) Threat assessment: An approach to prevent targeted violence National Institute of Justice:
Research in Action, 1-7 Available at http://www.secretservice.gov/ntac.htm
Reddy, M., Borum, R., Berglund, J., Vossekuil, B., Fein, R., &
Modzeleski, W (2001) Evaluating risk for targeted violence in schools: Comparing risk assessment, threat assessment, and other approaches Psychology in the
Schools, 38, pp 157-172 Available at http://www.secretservice.gov/ntac.htm.
Web Sites United States Department of Education www.ed.gov
United States Secret Service www.secretservice.gov
Dr Robert Fein, a forensic psychologist and director of the National Violence Prevention and Study Center, has over twenty years of experience in threat assessment with the U.S Secret Service He recently co-directed the Secret Service Safe School Initiative and co-authored the book "Protective Intelligence and Threat Assessment: A Guide for State and Local."
Dr Fein, an expert in targeted violence, holds positions at both Harvard Medical School and the University of Massachusetts Medical School For inquiries, he can be contacted at rfein@nvpsc.org.