Is english an asian language andy kirkpatrick wang lixun

Is English an Asian Language? Asia is now home to some 800 million multilingual speakers of English (more than the total number of native English speakers), and how they use English is continually evolving and changing to reflect their cultural backgrounds and everyday experiences Can English, therefore, be considered an Asian language? Drawing upon the Asian corpus of English, this book is the first comprehensive account of the roles, uses and features of English in Asia, encompassing several different varieties of Asian English Chapters cover the distinctive linguistic features of English in different settings, such as in law, religion and popular culture, as well as the use of local rhetorical, pragmatic and cultural styles and its use as a lingua franca among Asian multilinguals It also examines the role of English in education – from primary through to higher education – and consider the implications of this for other languages of Asia andy kirkpatrick is Professor in the Department of Languages, Humanities and Social Sciences at Griffith University Publications include World Englishes (CUP 2007), English as a Lingua Franca in ASEAN (2010), Trilingual Education in Hong Kong’s Primary Schools (2019) He is co-editor of The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Asian Varieties of English (2020), and co-editor of the Routledge International Handbook of Language Education Policy in Asia (2019) wang lixun is Associate Professor in the Department of Linguistics and Modern Language Studies at the Education University of Hong Kong Publications include Introduction to Language Studies (2011), Academic Writing in Language and Education Programmes (2011), Trilingual Education in Hong Kong Primary Schools (2019), and Identity, Motivation, and Multilingual Education in Asian Contexts (2020) He is co-editor of the Springer book series ‘Multilingual Education’ Is English an Asian Language? Andy Kirkpatrick Griffith University with Wang Lixun The Education University of Hong Kong University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia 314–321, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre, New Delhi – 110025, India 79 Anson Road, #06–04/06, Singapore 079906 Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107134683 DOI: 10.1017/9781316471166 © Andy Kirkpatrick with Wang Lixun 2021 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published 2021 A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library ISBN 978-1-107-13468-3 Hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate To Iris, For Lucy and Cody Contents List of Figures and Tables Introduction page viii 1 How English Came to Asia 12 The Asian Corpus of English 30 Asian Varieties of English vs English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) in Asia 53 What Do Asian Multilinguals Talk about When Using English as a Lingua Franca? 71 The Transfer of Features and Communicative Strategies 90 Borrowing Words and Writing Asian Englishes 111 Non-standard Forms in Asian Englishes and ELF 128 English in Law, Religion and Popular Culture 148 English as a Language of Education in Asia 162 10 Implications for English Language Teaching in Asia 179 11 Conclusion 196 References Index 202 217 vii Figures and Tables Figures 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 3.1 Screenshot of ACE online homepage page 38 Screenshot of the Browse Corpus interface 39 Screenshot of transcript of a speech event 40 Screenshot of playing sound recordings in ACE online 41 Screenshot of the Contact Us page 42 Screenshot of Search ACE Online page 42 Screenshot of concordances for ‘so’ in the Leisure sub-section of ACE 43 Word Right collocation pattern of the search word ‘so’ 44 Further contexts of a concordance line shown on the screen 46 Screenshot of the Web concordancer for searching the tagged ACE corpus 47 Screenshot of the concordances for the verb ‘record’ in the Malaysian sub-corpus of ACE 48 The identity-communication continuum 54 Tables A B 1.1 2.1 2.2 2.3 3.1 5.1 6.1 6.2 7.1 viii Knowledge of English in outer circle Asian societies Knowledge of English in expanding circle Asian societies English in China Sample topics of speech events in ACE Top twenty most frequent action/mental verbs in ACE everybody/everyone/nobody/he/she/it + verb (non-marking vs marking of third person singular in ACE) The semantic domains of Arabic loans Communicative strategies of ELF users in ACE Examples of Gayspeak Examples of changes between loanwords and the source words Case endings for stan (stone) in OE 10 11 17 34 49 50 59 109 118 119 129 206 References Galang, R G (2000) Language planning in Philippine education in the 21st century: Toward language-as-resource orientation In M L S Bautista, T A Teodoro, B P Sibayan & A B Gonzalez (eds.), Parangal cang Brother Andrew: Festschrift for Andrew Gonzalez on his sixtieth birthday (pp 267–76) Manila: Linguistic Society of the Philippines García, O (2009) Bilingual education in the 21st century: A global perspective Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell Garcia, O., & Li, W (2014) Translanguaging: Language, bilingualism and education London: Palgrave Macmillan Gargesh, R (2008) Indian English: phonology Varieties of English, 4, 231–43 Gill, S K (2012) The complexities of re-reversal of language in education policy in Malaysia In A Kirkpatrick & R Sussex (eds.), English as an international language in Asia (pp 44–61) Dordrecht: Springer Gill, S K., & Shaari, A H (2019) Malaysia’s complex language policy journey via Bahasa Melayu and English In A Kirkpatrick & A J Liddicoat (eds.), The Routledge international handbook of language education policy in Asia (pp 257–71) London and New York: Routledge Gilmour, D (2018) The British in India London: Allen Lane Gonzalez, A B (1996a) The history of English in the Philippines In M L S Bautista (ed.), English is an Asian language: The Philippine context (pp 25–40) Sydney: The Macquarie Library Gonzalez, A B (1996b) Evaluating bilingual education in the Philippines: Towards a multidimensional model of education in language planning In M L S Bautista (ed.), Readings in Philippine sociolinguistics (pp 327–40) Manila: De la Salle University Press Graddol, D (2010) English next: India London: The British Council Greaves, C (2009) ConcGram 1.0 (software) Amsterdam: John Benjamins Gu, M., Patkin, J., & Kirkpatrick, A (2014) The dynamic identity construction in English as lingua franca intercultural communication: A positioning perspective System, 46, 131–42 Gumperz, J J (ed.) 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93 Acculturation, 58, 59 Ad hoc norms, 94, 96 Anglicists, 13, 15, 18, 199 ASEAN Charter, 62, 63, 180, 181 ASEAN Curriculum Sourcebook, the, 188, Asia-centric, 5, 6, 7, 34, 71 Asian Corpus of English (ACE), 4, 30, 31, 60, 65, 196 Asian English, dictionary of, 114 Asian Englishes, 5, 122, 128, 134, 141, 144, 200 Asian Englishes, linguistic features of, Asian multilinguals, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 29, 34, 45, 52, 65, 69, 70, 71, 78, 87, 89, 108, 140, 181, 184, 194, 196, 199, 200 Asian varieties of English, Asian way / ASEAN way, 7, 74, 76, 101 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), 171 Assessment, 34, 169, 179, 187, 188, 194 Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), 4, 10, 12, 62, 151, 163, 179, 196 Australian Aboriginal languages, 111 Australian English, 54, 111, 113, 114, 146 Bahasa Indonesia, 26, 63 Bangkok Declaration, 62, 63, 180 Bilingual education, 165, 186 Bilingual education policy (BEP), 25, 164 Bilingual policy, 22, 23, 166 Bologna Declaration, 171 Breakdowns in communication, 72, 78, 90, 92, 93, 148, 190 Brunei, 5, 12, 23, 24, 30, 35, 37, 63, 79, 118, 151, 180, 194 Bruneian English/Brunei English, 58, 59, 60, 139, 181 Butler’s criteria, 58 Cambodia, 12, 21, 27, 63, 64, 180, 181 Cantonese, 22, 58, 78, 80, 93, 108, 134, 149, 155, 157, 166, 167, 169, 170 Capacity building, 188, 189 China’s Universities College Admissions Schemes (UCAS), 172 Chinese characters, 17, 167 Chinese English, 117, 144, 171 Chinese Language Law, the, 170 Chinese law, 150, 152 Chinese University of Hong Kong, 172 Chinese variety of English, 20, 59 Clipping, 157 Code switching, 86 Code-mixing, 5, 7, 55, 60, 61, 62, 69, 70, 71, 90, 95, 97, 98, 108, 139, 150, 151, 196, 197 Colloquial Singaporean English/Colloquial Singapore English, 61, 134, 157 Common European Framework for Reference (CEFR), the, 187 Communicative strategies, 6, 7, 100, 102, 106, 107, 108, 190, 197 Communicative strategies, table of, 109 Co-operative modelling, 100 Cooperative principle, the, 95 Copula deletion, 134, 135, 136 Countability, 138 Court proceedings, 150 Cultural conceptualisations, 6, 91, 96 Cultural Revolution, 17, 18 Discourse markers, 6, 59, 60, 70, 75, 97, 98, 100, 197 Discourse particles, 88, 97, 139 Doi Moi policy, 27 Doric, the, 124, 130, 131 Dual Language Programme (DLP), the, 177 Dwibahasa policy, 23 Early Englishes, 128 East India Company (EIC), 12 Education Act of India, 13 217 218 Index Education for All, 183 ELF-approach, 191 Endonormative stabilisation, 57 English and popular culture, 148, 156, 160, 198, 199 English and religion, 26, 152, 155, 197 English and the law, 149 English as a lingua franca, 1, 5, 6, 7, 30, 53, 71, 91 English as an additional language, English as an Asian language, English for Islamic values, 9, 154 English proficiency, 15, 72, 169, 186, 193, 194 English speakers in China, 16, 17 English speakers in India, 12, 13 English, early introduction of, 65 English, institutionalised variety of, English, performance variety of, English, roles of, 1, 29, 53, 160, 179, 199 Englishes of England, 131 Etymology, 113 Exonormative stabilisation, 57 Expanding Circle countries, 10, 53, 65, 141, 155, 156 Filipino, 1, 3, 25, 54, 56, 63, 69, 138, 151, 164, 165, 166, 173, 183, 190, 198 Filipino call-centre industry, 166 Filipino English, 25, 163, 164, 181 Fine-tuning, 170 Formality, levels of/level of, 6, 8, 71, 86, 135, 136 Gao kao, 170 Gayspeak, 119 General U Ne Win, 173 Global 30 Project, the, 173 Greeting, forms of, 91 Guanxi, 59, 72 Ha Jin, Chinese author, 116, 119, 120, 123 Handover of 1997, 148, 149, 166, 169 High stake exchanges, 82 High stakes contexts, 87, 108 Higher education, 9, 21, 34, 65, 156, 162, 170, 173, 175, 186 Highly Immersive Programme (HIP), the, 177 Hobson Jobson, 111, 112, 113 Hong Kong, 3, 5, 6, 9, 16, 30, 32, 34, 35, 37, 79, 80, 87, 92, 108, 115, 148, 149, 151, 155, 157, 158, 159, 163, 166, 167, 169, 170, 172, 197 House of Commons, 13 Hybridisation, 59, 60, 118, 122 Identity marker, 53, 62, 69, 141 Identity-communication continuum (ICC), 53 Idioms, use of, 101 India, Constitution of, 14 Indian English, 54, 56, 57, 59, 92, 111, 112, 113, 118, 198 Indonesia, 12, 21, 25, 26, 29, 62, 63, 76, 102, 140, 151, 154, 163, 180, 181, 188, 191 Inner Circle countries, 11, 56 Inner circle Englishes, 133 Intercultural competence, 188, 191, 192 International education, 173 Japanese English, 119 Jawhar Hassan, 75 Komyson sa Wakang Filipino, 164 Korean Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), 174 Koreanised English, 159 K-pop, 159 Lakdasa Wikkramasinha, 124 Language Law (China), 18 Language of education, English as a, 9, 200 Language policy, 24, 163, 169, 170, 171, 174, 175 Language proficiency benchmarks, 187 Language reform, 16, 167 Laos, 12, 21, 27, 28, 29, 63, 142, 180, 181 Last Lingua Franca, the, 199 Legal systems, 9, 148, 151 Lingua franca approach, 9, 192, 198, 200 Lingua franca approach, principles of, 189, 191, 192, 193, 194 Lingua franca core, the (LFC), 190 Linguistic diversity, 24, 63, 140, 160 Linguistic features, transfer of, 90 Literary Englishes, 199 Literatures in English, 113, 191 Local languages, 2, 5, 8, 13, 22, 55, 58, 59, 65, 96, 121, 162, 163, 164, 165, 178, 179, 184, 197, 199 Local languages as languages of education, 9, 25, 164, 185, 197 Love Pyschedelico, 156 Macaulay, Thomas Babington, 13 Macquarie Dictionary, the, 58, 113, 114 Madrasas, 152, 153, 155 Mahathir Mohammed, 76 Malaysia, 5, 12, 23, 24, 28, 30, 35, 37, 53, 58, 62, 71, 72, 75, 76, 96, 118, 148, 150, 151, 152, 155, 172, 175, 176, 180, 194 Index Malaysian English, 58, 59, 75, 89, 97, 139, 181 Mandarin, 18, 22, 66, 71, 78, 83, 134, 155, 163, 167, 176, 180 Matrix language and embedded language, 139 Medium of instruction/medium of instruction policy, 9, 15, 18, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28, 65, 136, 153, 156, 161, 163, 164, 165, 166, 169, 170, 171, 173, 174, 175, 176, 179, 182, 183, 185, 186, 189, 195 Minute on Indian Education, 13 Mongolia, 34, 160, 162, 197 Mongolian rap, 160 Morphosyntactic forms, 8, 128, 134, 135, 138, 139, 140, 141, 143, 146, 190, 197 Morphosyntactic universals, 128, 134 Mother tongue-based multilingual education (MTBMLE), 25 muafakat (consensus), 74, 102 Multilingual education, 163, 166 Multilingual pedagogy, 193 musyawarah (dialogue), 74, 102 Mutual intelligibility, 189, 190 Myanmar, 3, 11, 12, 13, 21, 28, 63, 142, 148, 152, 173, 180, 181, 185, 186 Myths of language education, 182 Najib Razak, 71 National Foreign Language 2020, the, 187 National language, 10, 14, 20, 21, 23, 25, 26, 63, 64, 69, 96, 121, 150, 162, 164, 166, 167, 169, 171, 174, 175, 176, 177, 182, 184, 191, 195, 198, 200 Natural language environments, 183 Newly independent nations, 162 Ngugi wa Thiong’o, 124 Non-native speaker teachers of English, 192, Non-standard forms, viii, 8, 51, 67, 69, 78, 82, 85, 95, 103, 103, 128, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 140, 141, 142, 143, 146, 147, 190, 197 Orientalists, 13, 15, 18, 199 Outer Circle countries, 10, 155 Pesantren, 26, 154, 181 Philippines, the, 5, 12, 21, 24, 25, 28, 30, 35, 37, 53, 62, 63, 119, 150, 163, 164, 165, 166, 180, 191, 194, 197 Pinyin, 16, 167 Pluricentric language, 184 Popular culture, 9, 127, 191 Postcolonial settings, 123 Postcolonial writers, 124 Pragmatic norms, 6, 62, 90, 91, 92, 95, 96, 197 Pragmatic norms, transfer of, 90, 91, 109, 196 219 Preposition usage, 145 Primary curriculum, 163, 177, 200 Primary school, 15, 16, 18, 23, 25, 26, 27, 65, 163, 165, 166, 169, 170, 176, 183, 187, 195, 197, 200, 201 Pronoun copying, 144 Putonghua, 18, 20, 166, 167, 169, 170 Quomi Madrasas, 153 Raja Rao, 56, 123 Regularisation, 128, 130, 133, 146 Religion, 9, 14, 59, 77, 123, 154, 155, 191 Re-metaphorisation, 120 Rhetorical norms, 93 Second language learning, 184 Secondary school, 10, 20, 26, 152, 169, 170, 176, 187 Shan-shui, 158 Shariah law, 150, 151 Sidhwa, Bapsi, 56, 123, 198 Simplification, 16, 128, 129, 130, 146 Singapore, 3, 5, 12, 21, 24, 28, 30, 35, 37, 53, 62, 63, 113, 141, 142, 148, 151, 155, 157, 163, 180, 186, 194, 199 Singaporean English/Singapore English, 1, 3, 5, 21, 22, 54, 59, 61, 67, 118, 134, 135, 139, 156, 159, 181, 196, 198 Singaporean English/Singapore English, 190 Singlish, 22, 157 Stereotyping, 91, 92 Substrate influence, 9, 133, 134 Tagalog, 25, 63, 69, 121, 164, 166 Teacher standards, 185 Tense, mark for, 68 Tense, non-marking of, 67, 137 Thailand, 1, 11, 12, 20, 29, 34, 62, 86, 152, 162, 180, 181, 191 Thainess, 20 Thomasites, the, 164 Three language formula, 15 ti-yong debate, the, 17 Tommy Koh, 140 Tongwen Guan, 17 Topicalisation, topic prominence, 143 Topic-comment, 143 Translanguaging, 117 Trilingual policy, 166 Twinning programs, 172 Typological matrix approach, 134 Ulema, 153 University of the Philippines, 173 220 Index Varieties of English, stages of development, 57 Vernacular universals, 8, 133, 134 Vietnam, 5, 12, 21, 27, 29, 30, 32, 35, 37, 63, 82, 83, 86, 180, 181, 186, 187 VOICE, 5, 8, 30, 31, 33, 35, 45, 49, 51, 52, 96, 138, 145 Word, borrowing from other languages, 58, 59, 111, 116, 118, 119, 121 Yasmine Gooneratne, 125 Zhu Rongji, 172 ... Is English an Asian Language? Asia is now home to some 800 million multilingual speakers of English (more than the total number of native English speakers), and how they use English is continually... Asian Englishes 111 Non-standard Forms in Asian Englishes and ELF 128 English in Law, Religion and Popular Culture 148 English as a Language of Education in Asia 162 10 Implications for English. .. evolving and changing to reflect their cultural backgrounds and everyday experiences Can English, therefore, be considered an Asian language? Drawing upon the Asian corpus of English, this book is the