Everyday grammar made easy a quick review of what you forgot you knew rod mebane

FUNDAMENTALS

GRAMMAR BASICS

Effective communication is essential for human interaction, and it relies on the use of grammar as a structured code of sounds and symbols While some may wish to overlook grammar, it plays a crucial role in expressing thoughts clearly and meaningfully To convey ideas from one person to another, a shared understanding of language is necessary, highlighting the importance of grammar in facilitating meaningful exchanges.

In our communication, we rely on many different codes (Morse code,

American Sign Language, emoticons, body language) to exchange meaning among ourselves, but by far the most dominant code in our everyday lives is our local everyday language.

Grammar serves as the essential framework of everyday language, facilitating mutual understanding and effective communication It is the foundation that allows us to exchange meaning; without it, comprehension falters, and communication becomes impossible.

Quite plainly, we need to communicate, and we need the rules of grammar

The enforcement of grammar rules varies based on the context, with certain everyday situations allowing for more relaxed adherence to these rules.

In casual conversations with friends and family, individuals often communicate in an informal manner, lacking the structure and rigor typically found in written communication or formal social interactions.

• In the world of social networking—texting, tweeting, and the like—it is practically the Wild West of “anything goes” for grammar, spelling, and language conventions in general.

• When traveling abroad, it is remarkable to see how much good communication can happen with a combination of sounds, hand gestures, and picture drawing and not much grammar.

In various everyday situations, including correspondence, public speaking, business meetings, and marketing materials, adhering to grammar rules is essential Demonstrating a strong command of grammar in both spoken and written communication can significantly benefit individuals in these contexts.

In various professions and fields such as arts and sports, individuals have the freedom to choose their areas of expertise and the depth of their knowledge However, language is unique in that we have no choice; effective communication requires a fundamental understanding of grammar Regardless of the context—be it formal or informal—having a basic grasp of grammar is crucial for successful interaction.

Rules of accepted behavior abound in virtually every field of human endeavor

Experts in various fields, such as scientists, baseball managers, concert violinists, and STEM educators, excel because they understand and apply the essential "rules of the game" in their disciplines However, unlike other areas, language proficiency is always on display; your grammar skills are evident in every conversation, presentation, social media post, and written work.

Your communication behavior significantly influences how others perceive you, much like your tone of voice, gestures, and appearance Frequent grammatical errors in your speaking and writing can create a negative impression, leading others to judge you unfavorably For instance, if people notice basic grammar mistakes in your communication, they may assume you lack attention to detail, regardless of your actual abilities.

Demonstrating strong vocabulary and grammar skills can enhance your credibility, as it conveys a sense of expertise and knowledge While the opinions of others may vary in importance to you, it's crucial to acknowledge that your language use significantly influences the impressions people have of you.

As mentioned, language is our everyday tool for sharing thoughts with others, and grammar is the aspect of language that guides how the parts of language

(especially words) work together Effective communication depends on more than good word selection and correct application of grammar principles

In general, the more you command the underlying grammar resources and tools, the more you can be deliberate in your crafting of messages and in your communication with others.

The process of language acquisition is beautifully exemplified by a young child as they learn to communicate While adults may overlook the intricacies of language skills, watching a toddler grasp words like "mama" or "book," and later understand the sounds of owls hooting and horses running, highlights both the challenges and joys of learning a new language.

The connection between a child's capacity to clearly conceptualize a horse and their ability to articulate the word "horse" is crucial From a developmental perspective, these two skills are interconnected and develop simultaneously.

As children develop, their language skills become more sophisticated, paralleling their growing ability to conceptualize and comprehend the world around them For instance, as they learn about various types of horses and their lifestyles, their understanding deepens, enhancing both their vocabulary and cognitive abilities.

Your foundational understanding of language, including vocabulary and grammar, significantly influences your thoughts, cognitive processes, and communication choices Therefore, improving your grammar skills offers numerous advantages, enhancing both your personal and professional interactions.

• It reduces errors that other people notice and find annoying and distracting.

• It creates an impression that you are organized in your thinking and committed to quality.

• It conveys a sense of someone who is well educated and prepared, which bolsters your credibility.

• It allows for communication enriched in thought, precision, and quality of expression—in both your speaking and your writing.

• It creates a more polished and persuasive appearance in your written pieces, from job-seeking letters to business proposals to advocacy statements.

• Lastly, in terms of your interactions with others, stronger grammar knowledge and skills often lead to generally higher levels of self- confidence and interpersonal effectiveness.

Words serve as essential construction tools, allowing us to express thoughts and share ideas with others Our vocabulary, or lexicon, consists of the words we use, while grammar provides the rules for structuring these words to convey meaning effectively Both vocabulary and grammar are crucial for successful communication; lacking one diminishes the effectiveness of the other For example, consider the following vocabulary words: beautifully, quietly, she, sings, the, touching, woman, and young.

While each word possesses its own definition, collectively they lack a specific meaning However, organizing these words according to grammatical principles can yield a coherent structure.

The young woman in love—she sings quietly and beautifully Touching!

Now this group of words is meaningful!

THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF LANGUAGE

To effectively convey meaning in writing, it is essential to organize words into complete thoughts A complete thought must include both a subject and a predicate, and it should make sense independently Understanding these fundamental components of grammar is crucial for constructing coherent sentences.

The subject is the entity that is doing something or being something in the thought The subject always is or contains a noun (more on nouns in chapter 3).

The grammar hierarchy of significance consists of three levels: letters combine to form words, words combine to create phrases and clauses, and these elements—letters, words, phrases, and clauses—combine to form sentences that convey meaning Effective communication relies on our ability to convey and understand meaning, making it essential to grasp these foundational building blocks for meaningful exchanges.

Letters: the Roman Latin alphabet of twenty-six letters

(in both upper- and lowercase) XYZ, abc

Word: a combination of letters that form one of the eight parts of speech dog

Phrase: a group of related words without a clear subject and associated verb the barking dog

Clause: a group of related words with a clear subject and associated verb the dog barks

Sentence: a clause that is sensible as a stand-alone group of words, with appropriate punctuation The dog barks.

The predicate is the experience that is happening to the subject The predicate always is or contains a verb (more on verbs in chapter 6).

SUBJECT + PREDICATE = COMPLETE THOUGHT raindrops + fall = Raindrops fall. the athlete + runs fast = The athlete runs fast.

In English sentences, the subject typically precedes the predicate, which includes the verb This chapter will elaborate on these fundamental components to enhance your understanding of key grammatical concepts and improve your speaking and writing skills Additionally, a quick test is provided to help you identify the subject and predicate in sentences.

To identify the subject of a sentence, ask, "What is this sentence about?" For the predicate, inquire, "What is the subject?" and "What is the subject doing or experiencing?" These questions help clarify the roles of the subject and predicate in understanding sentence structure.

The cow jumped over the moon.

Subject Question: What is the sentence about? Answer: the cow

Predicate Question: What was happening to the subject? Answer: It jumped over the moon.

Below is a quick guide of the fundamental building blocks of grammar that we will cover in the remaining part of this chapter:

Parts of Speech: noun; adjective; pronoun; verb; adverb; conjunction; preposition; interjection

Phrases: noun phrase; verb phrase; infinitive phrase; gerund phrase; participle phrase; prepositional phrase; absolute phrase; appositive phrase

Clauses: independent clause; dependent clause; adverb clause; adjective clause; noun clause

Objects: direct object; indirect object

Sentences: simple; compound; complex; compound-complex; statement; question; command; exclamation

In English grammar, words are categorized into eight types known as parts of speech, which function like puzzle pieces or colored blocks to create meaning Understanding these parts of speech is essential for grasping grammar principles, as they dictate how words interact within sentences In this article, we will briefly introduce each part of speech, with the promise of deeper exploration in subsequent chapters To illustrate this concept, we will revisit our initial example and color-code the eight parts of speech for clarity.

The young woman in love — she sings quietly and beautifully Touching !

(1) NOUNS: Nouns are always the stars of the show, because nouns are the words we use to name things—like horse , ball , ocean , house In the

The English language boasts a vast array of nouns, encompassing hundreds of thousands of words that identify people, places, animals, activities, ideas, and emotions For a deeper exploration of nouns, refer to chapter 3.

Adjectives serve as essential modifiers for nouns, enhancing their descriptions by providing details such as color (e.g., blue sky), age (e.g., young calf), or mood (e.g., sad boy) A slight alteration in an adjective can significantly change the meaning of a phrase, as illustrated by the contrast between a thriving planet and a dying planet For a deeper understanding of adjectives, refer to chapter 4.

Pronouns serve as substitutes for nouns after their initial introduction, allowing for smoother communication For example, in the sentence "The woman joined the choir She sings alto," the pronoun "she" replaces the noun "the woman." This use of pronouns enhances sentence fluidity and clarity For a deeper understanding of pronouns, refer to chapter 5.

Verbs are essential for conveying action, events, conditions, and states of being, as nothing occurs without them They also provide context by indicating the time frame of an action through variations in tense, such as illustrating that "John is walking now" signifies a present action.

(PRESENT); John walked yesterday (PAST); and John will walk tomorrow

(FUTURE) There are over 25,000 different verbs available in English

(See more on verbs in chapter 6.)

Adverbs are essential companions to verbs, enhancing their meaning by describing the circumstances of the action For instance, in the phrase "Her heart beat wildly," the adverb adds a dramatic flair to the verb These versatile words frequently address key questions such as how, when, where, how much, and how often, enriching the overall context of the sentence.

How long? (See more on adverbs in chapter 7.)

Conjunctions are essential for making connections in language, as they link words, phrases, clauses, and sentences The primary coordinating conjunctions include and, but, or, nor, for, so, and yet, while additional conjunctions are used for specific contexts For more detailed information on conjunctions, refer to chapter 8.

Prepositions are words that precede nouns or pronouns to create prepositional phrases, which modify nouns, adverbs, or adjectives For example, in the phrase "the woman in love," "in" is the preposition There are over 150 prepositions in the English language, but around 30 are commonly used, including "through," "to," "on," "over," "around," "under," "by," "behind," "below," "in," and "along." For more information on prepositions, refer to Chapter 8.

Interjections are words or phrases used to convey strong emotions like joy, surprise, anger, or enthusiasm, often appearing in isolation and in an exclamatory manner Examples include expressions like "Whoops!", "Aha!", and "Yikes!" For more detailed information on interjections, refer to Chapter 8.

A modifier enhances the meaning of a word by adding information, clarification, or emphasis Typically, modifiers function as adjectives that modify nouns, helping to specify or limit their meanings.

Sarah, a new mom, longs for a full night’s sleep

Other modifiers serve as adverbs in modifying verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs:

John enjoyed working out intensely at the beach

Her recovery story was remarkably moving

The doctor inserted the tube very carefully.

A phrase is a group of words that functions as a single grammatical unit, lacking both a subject and a predicate There are eight distinct types of phrases, with noun phrases and verb phrases being the most commonly used.

IN-DEPTH FOCUS

FOCUS ON NOUNS

Nouns are essential in language as they name a wide variety of entities, including people, places, animals, activities, ideas, and emotions Their versatility allows them to function in multiple grammatical roles, serving not only as subjects but also as direct and indirect objects, and even as adjectives With hundreds of thousands of nouns available, they play a crucial role in effective communication.

Nouns are categorized into two main types: proper nouns and common nouns Proper nouns, such as "Santa Claus," "Vietnam," and "Chicago Bulls," refer to specific individuals, locations, or entities and are always capitalized In contrast, common nouns, like "holiday," "country," and "team," do not denote specific items and are typically only capitalized at the beginning of a sentence Within the broader category of common nouns, various subtypes are recognized by grammarians.

(1) Collective nouns identify a group (a swarm of bees, an army of ants).

(2) Compound nouns are nouns made up of a combination of at least two words: sailboat (sail + boat), earthquake (earth + quake), honeydew (honey + dew). p u n c t u a t i o n t i p

Certain word combinations that serve as nouns require a hyphen, such as "roller-skating" and "sister-in-law," while others are written with a space, like "swimming pool" and "attorney general." The guidelines for using hyphens versus spaces can be inconsistent When uncertain, it's best to consult a dictionary or an online resource for clarification.

Concrete nouns refer to items that can be perceived through our five senses, such as sight, sound, touch, smell, or taste, like "pizza." In contrast, abstract nouns represent concepts, qualities, or states that cannot be directly experienced, exemplified by words like "truth."

Countable nouns are items that can be quantified, such as "eggs," while uncountable nouns represent broader concepts that cannot be counted, like "happiness." Typically, uncountable nouns do not have a plural form.

Infinitive phrases and gerund phrases are verbal forms that function as nouns An infinitive consists of the base verb accompanied by the preposition "to," such as "to paint." This type of phrase can represent the action of painting, demonstrating its use as a noun in a sentence.

To paint is to renew

To form the plural of a noun, typically add -s to the end of the word (e.g., book becomes books) However, if the singular noun ends with -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -x, or -z, you should instead add -es (for example, church transforms into churches).

A gerund phrase consists of the present participle form of a verb, specifically the -ing form, functioning as a noun For example, the verb "to run" transforms into "running" when expressing an ongoing action However, when "running" is viewed as a type of action rather than an action in progress, it serves as a noun that can function as a subject, object, or subject complement in a sentence.

Running is an efficient form of exercise

An efficient form of exercise is running.

(USED AS THE SUBJECT COMPLEMENT) m a k i n g n o u n s p o s s e s s i v e

To make a noun possessive, add an apostrophe + s (’s) at the end of a singular noun. library  library’s cactus  cactus’s

If the noun is plural and ends in s, add just an apostrophe (’) at the end. animals  animals’

Add an apostrophe + s (’s) if the plural noun ends in any other letter children  children’s

FOCUS ON ADJECTIVES

Adjectives serve as essential modifiers that accompany nouns, enhancing their description by providing details such as color (e.g., green pastures), age (e.g., teen leader), or mood (e.g., angry birds) A slight alteration in the adjective can significantly change the meaning, as seen in the contrast between an adoring crowd and an aggressive crowd By modifying nouns, adjectives enrich our understanding and convey valuable information about them.

Adjectives play a crucial role in language by answering questions such as how many, what kind, what color, and which one With over five thousand different adjectives available, they provide essential details that enhance our understanding of nouns To identify an adjective in a sentence, look for words that describe or modify a noun.

Use this quick test to easily identify an adjective in any sentence.

STEP 1 Determine the word or phrase that is described/modified/informed (the target).

The black stallion in Lane 3 raced quickly down the stretch.

STEP 2 Ask: Is the target a noun?

IF NO = MODIFIER IS NOT AN ADJECTIVE.

IF YES = MODIFIER IS PROBABLY AN ADJECTIVE, proceed.

STEP 3 Ask: Does the word in question answer any of the questions: What kind? How many? Which one?

IF NO = MODIFIER IS NOT AN ADJECTIVE.

IF YES = MODIFIER IS AN ADJECTIVE.

What kind of stallion? A black stallion

Descriptive adjectives play a crucial role in enhancing the meaning of nouns by elaborating on their characteristics For instance, when describing an apple, we can highlight its color (the apple is red), shape (the red apple is round), size (the red, round apple is big), and condition (the big, red, round apple is fresh) These examples illustrate how descriptive adjectives provide depth and clarity to our understanding of nouns.

Limiting adjectives play a crucial role in defining the specificity and identity of nouns, distinguishing between options such as "this church" versus "the church" or "this cupcake" versus "that cupcake." There are nine distinct types of limiting adjectives that help clarify meaning and context in language.

(1) Definite and Indefinite Articles the, a, an

An article is a term that precedes a noun to convey its definiteness or specificity The word "the" functions as a definite article, as in "the store," while "a" and "an" serve as indefinite articles, exemplified by "a book" and "an apple."

(2) Demonstrative Adjectives this, that, these, those

A demonstrative adjective is a word used before a noun to indicate a state of greater specificity than what an article would provide.

Do you want this cookie? No, I want that one.

Have you visited these countries? Yes, I have visited those countries and lots more.

(3) Interrogative Adjectives who, whose, what, which, whom

An interrogative adjective is a word that modifies a noun at the beginning of a question (aka interrogative sentence).

What game should Andrew play first? Which candidate should Vicki support?

Whose paintings are the most expressive?

(4) Relative Adjectives what, which, whose, whatever, whichever, whosever

A relative adjective is a word that modifies a noun when introducing a clause that involves a choice or alternative.

Tim couldn’t decide which path to take.

The Book Club will read whatever book the host selects.

(5) Numerical Adjectives cardinals (one, two, three, etc.) ordinals (first, second, third, etc.)

A numerical adjective refers to a cardinal number that specifies a quantity or an ordinal number that denotes position, degree, or rank within a sequence.

Alexis has lived in at least three states.

Stella was the second St Bernard to join the family.

(6) Quantifiers all, any, enough, few, less, least, a little, a lot of, many, more, most, much, no, none, not any, plenty of, several, some (and many more)

A quantifier is a word or phrase used before a noun to indicate quantity or amount in general The most common are above.

There were just enough cookies to go around.

(7) Possessive Adjectives my, your, their (noun’s, nouns’)

A possessive adjective indicates ownership by demonstrating a relationship of belonging between nouns It is formed by adding an apostrophe followed by an "s" to the noun, or simply an apostrophe if the noun already ends in "s."

Alice’s restaurant, worker’s uniform pilots’ union, states’ rights

(8) Comparative Adjectives adjective-er (than), adjective-ier (than), more adjective (than)

A comparative adjective is used in the comparison of two nouns to indicate a quantity or quality difference between them The conjunction than is often used in the comparison

Tom was older than Barbara by about a year.

Susan is more aware of raccoon movements than most.

(9) Superlative Adjectives adjective-est, adjective-iest, most adjective (of)

A superlative adjective is used in a comparison of nouns to identify a maximum or extreme level

F o r m i n g C o m p a r a t i v e a n d S u p e r l a t i v e A d j e c t i v e s The following tables provide guidelines for forming comparative and superlative adjectives.

One syllable Jackson is young add -er Davis is younger add -est Felix is the youngest.

The pansy is pretty. drop -y, add -ier The daffodil is prettier. drop -y, add -iest The rose is the prettiest.

The biscuit was delicious. more + adjective

The cookie was more delicious. most + adjective

The eclair was most delicious.

ADJECTIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE good Peas are good better Tomatoes are better best Brussels sprouts are best of all! well

The well patient headed home better

The patient was better this morning best

The patient is currently in excellent health While the flu was quite severe, strep throat proved to be even worse This year's flu strain is considered the worst we've encountered In terms of money, a dollar represents a small amount, while a quarter is even less, making it the least significant sum.

A penny is the least amount. far A far throw farther Throw a farther toss the farthest That was the farthest pass. far Far-reaching concept further Without further adieu. the furthest

She is the furthest ahead in the process.

FOCUS ON PRONOUNS AND CASE

Pronouns are words that step in to take the place of a noun when appropriate

Once a noun is introduced, it can be substituted by a pronoun, allowing for a smoother flow in writing Pronouns come in various forms, with personal pronouns being the most prevalent as they represent people and objects This chapter will also explore additional pronoun types beyond personal pronouns.

Personal Pronouns: Katy is now a college graduate She majored in biology.

Reflexive Pronouns: The injured man drove himself to the hospital.

Reciprocal Pronouns: The children helped each other with distance learning.

Indefinite Pronouns: There is nobody home.

Relative Pronouns: The movie that you loved is streaming on Netflix.

Demonstrative Pronouns: This is an award-winning dog.

Interrogative Pronouns: What did the store owners decide to do?

In this article, we will explore the various types of pronouns and examine the significance of grammatical case in determining the appropriate pronoun forms for different situations Additionally, we will provide essential guidelines for the correct usage of pronouns according to their respective cases.

Personal pronouns replace individuals and occasionally objects, categorized into three types: first person, second person, and third person, each with both singular and plural forms.

First person refers to the speaker(s) in the sentence I, we

Second person refers to the person(s) spoken to you

Third person refers to the person(s) spoken about he, she, it, they

The noun to which a pronoun refers is called the antecedent The term stems from the Latin root word ante that means “going before.”

Suzanne left her briefcase at the office.

Personal pronouns in English vary by case, which is crucial for determining their role in a sentence There are three cases: subject case, object case, and possessive case, each with its own set of pronoun forms Understanding case is essential for using the correct pronoun form For instance, in the sentence "I bought John a coffee," "I" is a subject pronoun, indicating its function as the subject of the sentence.

When a pronoun is in the object case, it necessitates the use of an object pronoun For instance, in the sentence "I bought him a coffee," the pronoun "him" refers to John and serves as the direct object, demonstrating the need for an object pronoun in such contexts.

Unlike many other languages, English does not use different forms for the second person pronoun (you) when it refers to one person (singular) as in:

I love you, my darling one.

Or when it refers to more than one person (plural) as in:

I love you, my crazy teammates.

However, in everyday language, some people do use informal terms to refer to the plural you, such as y’all, youse, and you guys as in:

Given the slang status of these terms, they are generally best avoided in more formal communication contexts.

To indicate ownership, a possessive pronoun is necessary when the pronoun is in the possessive case For instance, in the sentence "That coffee on the table is his," it is clear that the coffee belongs to John Let's examine the three cases and their corresponding pronouns in more detail.

Subject Case refers to the use of subject pronouns when a pronoun acts as the subject or subject complement in a sentence These pronouns are selected based on the appropriate person and number, as outlined in the accompanying table.

Third Person he, she, it they

We will never get tired of bacon

It was he who started the fight

A predicate nominative is a noun or pronoun that follows a linking verb (see page 54) and functions as a subject complement

A predicate adjective is also a subject complement that is an adjective and follows a linking verb.

When a pronoun serves as an object—be it a direct object, indirect object, or the object of a preposition—it is essential to use the correct object pronoun This selection should be based on the appropriate person and number, as outlined in the accompanying table.

Third Person him, her, it them

[You] give us a call when you get there

It won’t happen if we depend on them

(THEM = OBJECT OF THE PREPOSITION)

If a sentence calls for a pronoun to be used as a subject complement (aka predicate nominative) after a linking verb, the subject case of the pronoun should be used

Nannie said, “Believe it or not, the cute little girl in that photo is I.”

However, it is much more common to hear:

Nannie said, “Believe it or not, the cute little girl in that photo is me.”

Many individuals find the grammatical structure of the first example to be awkward and pretentious, favoring the second example instead In everyday conversation, the second example is far more commonly used.

(3) Possessive Case: When a pronoun indicates possession or ownership, it takes a possessive pronoun, selected for the appropriate person and number from the table below.

Third Person his, hers, its* theirs

* We only use the possessive pronoun its when own is also used (That car has a life of its own ).

The bike was mine until I gave it away.

In terms of houses, theirs was the most expensive.

(THEIRS = THEY OWN THE HOUSES) p u n c t u a t i o n T I P Note that possessive pronouns never take an apostrophe, as in it’s, our’s, or your’s

Let’s look at some examples of how pronouns vary in relation to person, number, and case depending on how they function in different sentences.

Subject Finally, I am the champion!

Object My coach gave good advice to me 1 Possessive That sparkling new trophy is now mine.

First Person — Plural we, us, ours

Subject We will never get there in time.

Object Maybe the hosts will give us a break 3 Possessive If not, disappointment will be ours.

Second Person — Singular you, you, yours

Subject You are my sunshine.

Object I love you more than the moon is high 2 Possessive My tan is fading, but yours is still golden.

Second Person — Plural you, you, yours

Subject You are all welcome here.

Object The principal will talk to you next 1

Possessive Yours is the best.

Third Person — Singular he/she/it, him/her/it, his/hers/its

Subject She left and never looked back.

Object The woman had given him the best years 3 Possessive In terms of confidence, his was shattered.

Third Person — Plural they, them, theirs

Subject They got tired of sheltering in place.

Object The nursing home bus took them for tests 2

Possessive Once the vaccine arrived, all of the residents got theirs.

1 Objects of the Preposition = Object Pronoun

Possessive pronoun adjectives, akin to possessive pronouns, serve to indicate ownership when a pronoun acts as an adjective in a sentence These adjectives are chosen based on the correct person and number, as outlined in the accompanying table.

Third Person his, her, its their

My bike has gotten pretty small for me

(MY = POSSESSIVE PRONOUN ADJECTIVE TO DESCRIBE BIKE )

Their house will be put up for sale after it is painted

(THEIR = POSSESSIVE PRONOUN ADJECTIVE TO DESCRIBE HOUSE ) o b j e c t p r o n o u n s u s e d w i t h C O M M O N P R E P O S I T I O N S

The preposition "between" often leads to confusion regarding its usage When using "between," the pronouns that follow must be in the object case, as they serve as the objects of the preposition Understanding this rule can help clarify proper sentence structure and enhance overall grammar.

Sally divided the money between Bill and me

Compound constructions occur when there are multiple subjects or objects in a sentence For instance, in the sentence "Bill and I went to the museum," the pronouns must be in the subject case Similarly, in "John gave the museum tickets to Bill and me," the pronouns should be in the object case Understanding the correct usage of pronouns in compound constructions is essential for clear and grammatically accurate communication.

To determine the appropriate pronoun case for a compound subject, you can perform a straightforward test This test helps identify which pronoun is needed in the subject position of a sentence.

EXAMPLE: Bill and (I, me) went to the museum.

STEP 2 Ask yourself which pronoun reads better: “Me went to the museum” or

STEP 3 The correct answer is “I went to the museum," because Bill and I are both subjects and require the pronoun I to be in the subject case.

The same test applies to compound constructions in the object case, where the compound construction functions as a prepositional phrase containing two objects of the preposition.

EXAMPLE: John gave the museum ticket to Bill and (I, me).

STEP 1 Remove “to Bill and”

STEP 2 Ask yourself which pronoun reads better: “John gave the museum ticket to I” or

“John gave the museum ticket to me”?

STEP 3 The correct answer is “John gave the museum ticket to Bill and me,” because

Bill and me are both objects of the preposition and require the pronoun me to be in the object case

A reflexive pronoun is used when the subject and object of a verb are the same, reflecting back to the subject It is essential to select the correct reflexive pronoun based on the appropriate person and number.

Third Person himself, herself, itself, oneself themselves

You will never forgive yourselves for failing to close the gate

(YOURSELVES RELATES BACK TO YOU)

The oven is timed to turn off by itself.

(ITSELF RELATES BACK TO OVEN) s e c o n d - p e r s o n p r o n o u n s i n w r i t i n g

When writing, the second-person pronouns—you, your, yours, yourself, yourselves—should only be used when directly addressing readers

Now we will introduce you to some new trends in fashion.

It is not appropriate to use you when the reference is indefinite

People have said that eating before swimming can make you sick.

FOCUS ON VERBS

Verbs are essential for conveying action, events, conditions, and states of being in a sentence They indicate the timing of occurrences through tense variations such as present, past, and future While the subject identifies who or what is involved, the verb reveals the nature of the action, making it crucial for expressing coherent and meaningful thoughts.

In construction, verbs are the most intricate part of speech, as their forms are influenced by the subject's role as the speaker (person) and whether the subject is singular or plural (number).

In this chapter, we will explore essential verb qualities, focusing on three key aspects: tense, mood, and voice Tense indicates when an action takes place, while mood reflects the attitude conveyed about that action Additionally, voice reveals whether the subject is performing the action or receiving it Understanding these elements is crucial for effective communication.

Verbs can be categorized into three main types: action verbs, linking verbs, and helping verbs Understanding these categories is essential before delving into the intricacies of verb construction.

An action verb signifies an activity performed by the subject in a sentence Among the vast array of over ten thousand verbs in the English language, action verbs are the most prevalent A key characteristic of action verbs is that some require a direct object, as illustrated in the example, "Tim threw the football."

Others do not—as in Lauren quietly meditated

Linking verbs are unique in that they do not express action but instead rename the subject, effectively connecting it to a subject complement, which can be a predicate nominative or predicate adjective A prime example of a linking verb is the verb "to be" along with its various forms, including am, are, is, was, and were Additionally, linking verbs can describe sensory experiences, such as feel, look, smell, sound, and taste They also indicate states of being through verbs like appear, become, get, grow, prove, remain, seem, stay, and turn.

Whitney is an excellent STEM teacher.

The old rope bridge seems really unstable.

Adam became an emergency room physician.

HELPING VERBS (AK A AUXILIARY VERBS)

Helping verbs in English play a crucial role in forming various verb tenses, including present and past perfect, future, and conditional These verbs accompany the main verb to create a verb phrase The three primary helping verbs are "to be."

The verbs "to have" and "to do" play crucial roles in English grammar When "to be" functions as a linking verb, it acts as the main verb rather than a helping verb Understanding the distinction between these verbs is essential for mastering sentence structure and enhancing clarity in communication.

TO DO can also serve as action verbs.

As we saw in chapter 5, linking verbs require subject pronouns to be used:

The man in the blue coat was I.

It was he who bought the museum tickets

John was promoted to Lieutenant Commander

(PAST PREFECT VERB PHRASE WITH HELPING VERB TO BE)

Nathan has cycled all over Europe

(PRESENT PERFECT VERB PHRASE WITH HELPING VERB TO HAVE)

To explore the intricacies of verbs, we begin with a fundamental action verb that reflects a daily activity—eating Typically, we identify this verb in its infinitive form: TO EAT.

The infinitive form of a verb, such as "to eat," is created by combining the preposition "to" with the base verb Additionally, verbs can take on various forms by adding endings to the base, resulting in variations like "walking," "walks," and "walked." These forms may also involve different spellings, as seen in "eating," "eats," and "ate," depending on specific grammatical factors.

The correct form of a verb is determined by its person, number, and tense Similar to pronouns discussed in chapter 5, verbs are categorized into three person types, each with singular and plural forms These person types are identified using ordinal numbers: first, second, and third.

In addition to the primary helping verbs "to be," "to have," and "to do," modal verbs play a crucial role in conveying possibilities, likelihoods, and permissions For a comprehensive understanding of modal verbs, refer to the detailed explanation on page 73.

They might get concert tickets

First Person: refers to the speaker(s) in the sentence

Second Person: refers to the person(s) spoken to you (SINGULAR, PLURAL)

Third Person: refers to the person(s) spoken about he , she , it (SINGULAR), they (PLURAL)

Third Person he, she, it they

English verbs are relatively simple compared to those in other languages, as they primarily change form only in the third-person singular present tense by adding an "s" (e.g., "eats") This chapter will further explore the reasons behind this change and delve into the topic of verb conjugations.

First Person I eat we eat

Second Person you eat you eat

Third Person he, she, it eats they eat

The verb of a sentence must agree in number (singular or plural) and person

(first, second, or third) with the subject The subject can be singular (pear) or plural (pears) It can be first person (I, we), second person (you), or third person

The irregular verb "to be" serves as a key example of how number and person interact in verb usage Understanding its various forms is essential for mastering English grammar.

TO BE that we use to describe things in the present tense.

First Person I am we are

Second Person you are you are

Third Person he, she, it is they are

If you were writing on the subject of a single woman, you would use—

Subject-verb agreement is crucial in writing, as it ensures clarity and correctness For instance, when describing an individual, one would say, "She is a good chess player," while for a group that includes oneself, the phrase would be, "We are so happy to be here." It's important to match the verb form with the subject's number and person to avoid grammatical errors, such as saying, "You is a good chess player," which would be incorrect If subject/verb agreement is challenging, dedicating time to understanding verb conjugations is essential, as detailed in pages 64-68, where various forms of agreement are thoroughly explained.

An action verb can be transitive or intransitive A transitive verb requires a direct object in order to complete the thought as intended

In this sentence, carried is a transitive verb and umbrella is the direct object Clearly, the fragment Emily carried, without the direct object umbrella, does not make sense

An intransitive verb is also an action verb but without a direct object:

Some verbs can be transitive and intransitive, depending on the other words involved in the sentence Compare these similar sentences:

FOCUS ON ADVERBS

Adverbs enhance verbs by providing dramatic descriptions of actions, as seen in the phrase "Her heart beat wildly." They collaborate with verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs to add depth to the ideas being conveyed.

The word fast is an adverb and, without it, the complete thought is that

A cheetah runs swiftly, demonstrating how adverbs can provide additional information about the action Single words and phrases can serve as adverbs, enriching the description Adverbs typically answer questions about how, when, where, and to what extent an action occurs.

When? We will finish our report tomorrow.

Where? The neighborhood kids usually played there.

Why? The pianist played for extra money.

How often? He got the newspaper daily.

How long? The young lovers embraced briefly.

How much? She ate her peas completely.

To what extent? The teen studied enough to pass.

The above examples all show adverbs modifying verbs, but adverbs can also modify an adjective, another adverb, a preposition, or a clause, as illustrated on the next page.

Adverb modifying an adjective: The poster was highly objectionable.

Adverb modifying an adverb: The baby cried very loudly.

Adverb modifying a preposition: The plane is just below the horizon.

(How much below? Just below.)

Adverb modifying a clause: Unfortunately, the program was cancelled.

(Expresses a feeling about the sentence in general.)

Adverbs do not have a single form or a definitive list, as their identification depends on the context of the sentence and the questions they answer However, there are helpful tips that can enhance your ability to recognize and effectively use adverbs in writing.

• Many adverbs end in -ly and, in many of those cases, the adverb is formed by adding -ly to the adjective counterpart, as in: bad → badly colorful → colorfully.

• Adverbs that are commonly used with other adverbs include: almost somewhat quite often only very too

• Adverbs that are commonly used with clauses/sentences include: accordingly fortunately/unfortunately generally happily/unhappily hopefully interestingly quickly

In addition to single words and short phrases functioning as adverbs, entire clauses can also serve an adverbial role in certain contexts.

An adverb clause is a dependent clause that functions as an adverb, modifying verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs It contains a subject and predicate, often starting with a subordinating conjunction Adverb clauses can be positioned at the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence, enhancing clarity and detail in writing.

A N A D V E R B i n a S e n t e n c e Use this quick test to easily identify an adverb in a sentence.

STEP 1 Determine the word or phrase that is described/modified/informed (target).

The black stallion in Lane 3 raced quickly down the stretch.

STEP 2 Ask: Is the target a verb, an adjective, or another adverb?

IF NO = MODIFIER IS NOT AN ADVERB

IF YES = MODIFIER IS PROBABLY AN ADVERB, proceed.

STEP 3 Ask: Does the word in question answer any of the questions: How? When? Where?

Why? How often? How long? How much? To what extent?

IF NO = MODIFIER IS NOT AN ADVERB

IF YES = MODIFIER IS PROBABLY AN ADVERB.

If you hurry, you will win one of the best door prizes

Caramel popcorn, although (it is) delicious, is sticky on the fingers.

We’ll get started on the trip after I get the car all packed.

Conjunctive adverbs serve to connect two independent clauses, transforming one into a dependent clause that modifies the main clause By introducing this relationship, conjunctive adverbs enhance the coherence and flow of sentences.

Conjunctive adverbs play a crucial role in clarifying the relationships between clauses The table below categorizes these adverbs by their specific relationship types, providing examples for better understanding.

TIME before, lately, meanwhile, now, since

Bobbie had to leave before dinner was over.

CAUSE/EFFECT accordingly, consequently, hence, then, therefore, thus

Bill retired; therefore, he worked on the textbook from his home office.

ADDITION additionally, also, finally, first, furthermore, in addition, moreover, next, still, besides

Matt is a firearm aficionado; furthermore, he collects hunting knives.

COMPARISON as, like, likewise, similarly Ronan lives in Ireland; likewise, his sister, Lile, does too.

CONTRAST but, still, despite, conversely, otherwise, however, in contrast, in spite of, instead, nevertheless, nonetheless, on the other hand, rather

Logan seemed very tired; nevertheless, he hung in there through dinner.

EMPHASIS certainly, definitely, in fact, indeed, of course, undoubtedly

Doug has a great farm; in fact, it is one of the finest in Burlington County.

RESULT briefly, finally, thus, in conclusion, in summary, merely, quickly, therefore, thus, consequently, then

Rebecca advanced several arguments in support of social reform; finally, she said, “Let’s get started.”

ILLUSTRATION for example, for instance, namely, representatively, typically

Judy wins quilting competitions regularly; for example, she took a top prize last month.

Conjunctive adverbs are essential for linking two independent clauses When connecting an independent clause with a dependent clause, subordinating conjunctions act as the appropriate connectors, a topic explored in greater detail in chapter 8.

Adjectives and adverbs both serve to modify, which can make them seem similar, but their functions are distinct Adjectives exclusively modify nouns and pronouns, while adverbs are used to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs Understanding these differences is crucial for proper usage in writing.

That was a selfish attempt to attract attention

(SELFISH MODIFIES THE NOUN ATTEMPT = ADJECTIVE)

(SELFISHLY MODIFIES THE VERB PHRASE WAS ACTING = ADVERB)

Our waiter was selfishly arrogant

(SELFISHLY MODIFIES THE ADJECTIVE ARROGANT = ADVERB) p u n c t u a t i o n T I P

Use a semicolon when a conjunctive adverb falls in the middle of two independent clauses and a comma when they fall elsewhere.

Sally does not speak Spanish; however, she speaks French.

However, Sally does not speak Spanish, but she speaks French.

Sally does not speak Spanish but she speaks French, however

Bad is an adjective and badly is an adverb Usually seen with the linking verbs

TO GROW, TO FEEL, and TO TASTE, the adjective bad should be used when the verb is a linking verb.

(FELT IS A LINKING VERB = BAD, ADJECTIVE)

(DANCES IS AN ACTION VERB = BADLY, ADVERB)

The term "good" consistently functions as an adjective, while "well" serves as both an adjective and an adverb When "well" is used as an adjective, it specifically pertains to health, but in other contexts, it operates as an adverb.

That idea doesn’t suit him well

Be careful to not use double negatives, which are two negatives in a sentence, such as barely, hardly, never, no, none, not, nothing, and scarcely, especially when used with contractions.

Sally never has any extra time for fun (CORRECT) Sally never has no extra time for fun (INCORRECT)

I didn’t understand anything the speaker said (CORRECT)

I didn’t understand nothing the speaker said (INCORRECT)

FOCUS ON CONJUNCTIONS, PREPOSITIONS, AND INTERJECTIONS

So far, we have explored the essential parts of speech, including nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, and adverbs However, we must also consider conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections, which, while not heavily laden with meaning, play a crucial role in linking and combining words effectively.

Conjunctions play a crucial role in linking words, phrases, clauses, and sentences While there are a limited number of primary conjunctions, many additional words can also function as conjunctions The three main types of conjunctions include coordinating, subordinating, and correlative conjunctions.

Coordinating conjunctions are essential in sentence construction as they connect elements of similar importance The seven primary coordinating conjunctions— and, but, or, nor, for, so, and yet—are the most commonly used in English, facilitating clear and coherent communication.

The dog and the cat hid under the sofa together

(AND CONNECTS THE NOUNS DOG AND CAT)

Neither Meghan nor Lucy has visited the new library yet

(NEITHER … NOR CONNECT THE NOUNS MEGHAN AND LUCY)

The little girl wanted to go on the ride, yet she still had hesitations

(YET CONNECTS THE TWO INDEPENDENT SENTENCES)

(2) A correlative conjunction is a word pair that works together to create equal connections The most common are: either/or both/and neither/nor not/but not only/but also

Either Nemo will eat the cookie, or Summer will grab it.

Neither his car nor his motorcycle was in good working order.

A subordinating conjunction is a word or phrase that introduces a dependent adverb clause, linking it to an independent clause and clarifying the relationship between them The accompanying table categorizes subordinating conjunctions by their relationship types and provides relevant examples.

Always use a comma before a coordinating conjunction when it is used to connect two independent clauses.

My dog is such a good listener, but your dog never listens.

Tina did not feel like going to the movies, and Jeff didn’t want to go either

TIME after, as soon as, as long as, before, by the time, now that, once, since, till, until, when, whenever, while

By the time Jeff got home, it was too late for dinner.

CAUSE/EFFECT as, because, since, so that, in order (that), that

Patti arranged for a knee replacement because the pain became too much to bear.

COMPARISON as much as, rather than, than, whereas, whether

As much as Rob wanted to travel, the restrictions kept him at home.

CONCESSION although, even though, though

William and CJ both want to go, although William is running a slight temperature.

CONDITION assuming that, even if, if, in case (that), lest, only if, provided that, unless

Rebecca will be an excellent researcher, assuming that she heads in that direction.

LOCATION where, wherever Wherever Christian goes, the other kids want to play with him.

MANNER as if, as though, how

Emma marched into the cafeteria as if she were in charge.

In addition to the above chart, relative adjectives and relative pronouns can also serve as subordinating conjunctions, as shown here:

RELATIVE ADJECTIVES whatever, which, whichever She would sing either song, whichever the group preferred.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS who, whoever, whom, whomever, whose

Lauren promised to help the winner, whoever that turned out to be.

Prepositions are essential words that precede nouns or pronouns to create prepositional phrases, which modify nouns, adverbs, or adjectives For instance, in the phrase "the woman in love," the preposition "in" connects the noun "woman" to the descriptive context These words establish relationships between different elements in a sentence, such as linking a noun to a verb, adjective, or another noun An example is the preposition "to," which appears before the noun "store" to indicate a direction or destination.

Nannie returned the broken toy to the store.

A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition followed by a noun and other related words, such as "to the store," where "store" serves as the object of the preposition This phrase indicates a directional relationship, but prepositions can also establish various other types of relationships.

Direction: Nannie returned the broken toy to the store.

Time: The mail usually arrives before 11:30.

Location: The principal stood at the podium.

Manner: She made her paisley backpack by hand.

Cause/Effect: He caught a cold from the cold.

Amount: The teacher’s starting salary is over $30,000. p u n c t u a t i o n T I P When a sentence begins with a dependent (subordinate) adverb clause, add a comma.

Since we arrived so late to the restaurant, we lost our reservation.

Even though we worked nonstop, we did not make our due date

Simple prepositions, often single words, play a crucial role in English grammar The most commonly used simple prepositions include about, after, against, among, around, as, at, before, between, by, during, for, from, in, into, like, of, on, out, over, through, to, under, with, and without Understanding these prepositions is essential for constructing clear and coherent sentences.

Other prepositions include: aboard above across along alongside amid amidst amongst astride atop bar behind below beneath beside besides beyond but come concerning

When using prepositional phrases, it's essential to employ object pronouns, as these phrases always include an object This is particularly important with prepositions such as after, between, for, from, to, and with.

Our team captain agreed with Erin and me that we needed a deadline extension.

Tina handed the ice cream cone to Jeff and me, including various flavors and toppings We enjoyed the treat outside, sitting on a bench near the park, savoring every bite Despite the warm weather, the ice cream was refreshing and satisfying, making our day even better.

Compound prepositions, which consist of two or more words, play a significant role in the English language Some of the most commonly used compound prepositions include "according to," "adjacent to," "as far as," "in addition to," and "thanks to." These phrases help clarify relationships between different elements in a sentence, enhancing overall coherence Examples like "due to," "in spite of," and "regardless of" illustrate their versatility in expressing cause and effect or contrasting ideas Understanding and using these compound prepositions can improve both written and spoken communication.

Interjections express strong emotion, such as joy, surprise, anger, or enthusiasm

A word (or phrase) is usually used in isolation in an exclamatory way

Interjections are usually one word or a short phrase.

Bravo! You are the new champion.

An interjection is a unique type of exclamatory sentence that typically lacks a subject or predicate These expressions can encompass a wide range of words and short phrases, integrating various parts of speech Examples of interjections include "alas," "amen," "bingo," "bravo," "wow," and "ouch." They serve to convey emotions or reactions in a concise manner, enriching communication with enthusiasm or surprise.

Although most interjections use an exclamation point, if they appear within a sentence, use a comma after it

Oh, I cannot believe she said that!

FOCUS ON PUNCTUATION AND FORMATTING

In spoken communication, the lack of punctuation and formatting tools limits the ability to emphasize points, relying instead on hand gestures like "air quotes." Conversely, written communication utilizes punctuation, capitalization, and formatting elements such as italics and underlining to enhance meaning and clarity, making these tools essential for effective expression on the page.

A variety of marks can enhance the visual presentation of words, playing a crucial role in conveying meaning A well-known illustration of this concept is the phrase: "Let's eat," which highlights how punctuation can significantly alter interpretation.

Proper punctuation is essential for clear communication, as illustrated by the difference between "Let's eat, Grandpa" and "Let's eat Grandpa." The correct use of punctuation can significantly alter the meaning of a sentence Here are the sixteen most commonly used punctuation marks, along with key considerations for their effective application.

: colon (/ ) (\) forward and backward slash

• at the end of a sentence (unless the sentence is ended by a question mark, an exclamation point, or an ellipsis)

Angela led the session on building resilience

• at the end of an abbreviation

(Note: It’s also common to see state abbreviations without periods, which is also correct.)

• as a decimal in numerical expressions

Drew lives exactly 6 9 miles from campus.

• outside a parenthetical aside that comes at the end of a sentence

Linda loves Ted (the puppy)

• inside a parenthetical aside that is a stand-alone sentence

Linda loves Ted (But Robert gets night duty )

• inside ending quotation marks (single or double)

Julie wrote, “Montclair really is the Brooklyn of New Jersey ”

• before coordinating conjunctions when connecting two independent clauses

They moved to California , and they never left the state again.

• after introductory words, phrases, and clauses

In an emergency , the EMTs will report to work when called.

• to separate two or more adjectives describing the same noun

The long-distance runner took a long , steady drink from his water bottle.

• to set off words, phrases, and clauses in the middle of a sentence that are nonessential to the meaning of the sentence

A German Shorthair Pointer, my personal favorite , won best of show.

John, who is a farmer , works a lot.

The green car, which is my favorite , is very expensive.

• to separate three or more items in a list

The customer asked for sliced ham, a pound of cheese, and two pickles

(Note: See the “Oxford Comma” box on page 94.)

• Do not use a comma with essential phrases and clauses

The car that is green is my favorite

(ESSENTIAL PHRASE = SPECIFIES A PARTICULAR CAR)

The new computers working with the latest updates are fast

(ESSENTIAL PHRASE = SPECIFIES WHICH COMPUTERS)

• in transitions between main text and quoted text

“Noise pollution can be a problem,” Julie wrote.

He said, “I do not want to go ice skating.”

• to set off certain items in a sentence, including: ã Dates: He was born on October 27, 2019, at 11:55 p.m. ã Titles: The speech by C Everett Koop, M.D., was controversial. ã Addresses: The show emanated from:

New York, New York. ã Geographic Jurisdications: They traveled from Swarthmore, Pennsylvania, to San Francisco, California. ã Informal Correspondence: Dear Sally,

The “ Oxford Comma” (ak a “Serial Comma”)

The debate over the use of the serial comma, which separates items in a list of three or more, continues among grammar enthusiasts Traditionally, the Oxford University Press advocates for its inclusion, exemplified in the phrase: the red, white, and blue flag.

A common practice is to omit that last comma: the red, white and blue flag Given the options, whichever method is chosen should be used consistently

• at the end of a question (an interrogative sentence)

Is that all there is?

Never use a question mark with periods, commas, or exclamation points:

He yelled out, “Is that all there is?”

He yelled out, “Is that all there is?!”

An exclamation point, also referred to as an exclamation mark, is used:

• at the end of an exclamation or interjection to indicate emphasis, volume, or high emotion

Never use a exclamation point with periods, commas, or question marks:

“I really mean it!” he shouted

“I really mean it!,” he shouted

• to show possession for singular and plural nouns

• to show the omission of letters with contractions and other terms

He wouldn’t share his blocks

She was dreamin’ of love.

• to create plurals with single numbers and letters

He just entered the terrible 2’s

You should capitalize all of the T’s.

It is common to see words that end in s not have the extra ’s.

Johann Strauss’’s music is beautiful.

CORRECT Johann Strauss’ music is beautiful

In compound words, add an ’s to the last word.

My brother-in-law’s house is beautiful.

Do not use an apostrophe:

• with any of the possessive pronouns his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs

• with numerical plurals that are not possessive the 1990s

A word form called a contraction uses an apostrophe to shorten certain word phrases, as in could not = couldn’t Common contractions include:

• With forms of the verb TO BE

I’m, we’re, you’re, he’s, she’s, it’s, they’re, where’s, what’s, when’s, why’s, how’s

• With forms of the verb TO HAVE

I’ve, we’ve, you’ve, they’ve, could’ve, would’ve, should’ve

• With the future expression WILL

I’ll, we’ll, you’ll, he’ll, she’ll, it’ll, they’ll

• With the verb DID why’d, where’d

• To express negation with NOT aren’t, isn’t, don’t, doesn’t, didn’t, hasn’t, haven’t, wasn’t, weren’t, can’t, couldn’t, won’t, wouldn’t, shouldn’t, mightn’t, mustn’t, needn’t

• Others let’s (let us), ’tis (it is), ’twas (it was)

Quotation marks are used (in pairs):

George said, “Good night, Gracie.”

• to identify titles of books, movies, and other published works

Emma loved “The Lion King.”

(Note: It is standard practice in publishing to italicize published works.)

• to identify technical, unusual terms, and nonstandard expressions

During the pandemic, the college friends formed a “quaranteam.” c l o s i n g q u o t a t i o n m a r k s

Always place commas and periods inside closing quotation marks When question marks and exclamation points are part of the quoted material, they should also be inside the closing quotation marks However, colons and semicolons should be positioned outside of the closing quotation marks.

“I would like a cup of coffee,” she told the waiter.

She asked her friend, “What did you say to the clerk?”

Jeff asked for “time off”; his boss did not grant it

Single quotation marks are used (in pairs):

• to enclose quotes inside a direct quote

The student wrote, “At summer camp, the motto was ‘ carpe diem ’ — ‘seize the day.’ ”

• to enclose a quote inside a headline

• to separate two independent clauses when the second clause illustrates or explains the first clause

The table was made out of walnut: walnut is one of the most durable hardwoods.

• to introduce an item or list of items following a sentence or an independent clause

The family had many pets: five cats, four dogs, three birds, and two fish.

• to introduce a list of bulleted items or numbered items

Follow these steps: ã Get tissue. ã Blow nose. ã Throw tissue away.

• to introduce a long quote or quotation

The preamble starts as follows:

We the People of the United States aim to create a stronger Union by establishing justice, ensuring domestic peace, providing for common defense, promoting general welfare, and securing the blessings of liberty for ourselves and future generations through the establishment of this Constitution.

• at the end of the greeting in formal correspondence

• in numerical expressions ã Time expressions: 12:01 ã Mathematical ratios: 4:1 ã Certain references: Luke 10:27

• between a book’s title and subtitle

Everyday Grammar Made Easy: A Quick Review of Everything You Forgot You Knew

A colon should not be used:

• between a preposition and a series of objects

The box was full of: toys, balls, and books

• after a phrase that is not an independent clause

She has several favorite colors, including: crimson red, forest green, and canary yellow

A semicolon introduces a pause that is slightly longer than a comma and is used:

• t o join two independent clauses that are roughly balanced and related in thought

The house was quiet; all the children were asleep.

• before a conjunctive adverb (see page 81) that connects two independent clauses

They meant to clean the house; however, they ran out of time.

• before a coordinating conjunction (see page 84) that joins independent clauses when at least one of the clauses contains commas

The kids went to the special Disney theater; and they saw

• to separate a series of phrases or clauses when they contain commas

They planned to visit ballparks in Houston, Texas; Atlanta, Georgia; and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. a v o i d c o m m a s p l i c e s

A comma splice occurs when a comma incorrectly separates two independent clauses To correct a comma splice, you can use a semicolon or colon, create two distinct sentences, or add a coordinating conjunction along with a comma.

The fall months are mild, October is no exception

(1) The fall months are mild; October is no exception

(2) The fall months are mild October is no exception

(3) The fall months are mild, and October is no exception

A semicolon should not be used:

• when a dependent clause precedes an independent clause

While it snowed; the hikers took shelter

• to connect a compound (two-word) adjective when it occurs before the noun modified

He was exhausted from his five mile run.

• in prefixes involving proper nouns

See you in mid October!

• with a variety of prefixes, usually to show clarity semi soft cheese, mini series

Note: Nowadays, it’s common to not use hyphens with some prefixes semisoft cheese, miniseries

• to indicate the age of someone when used as an adjective four year old boy

• with certain family relationships great uncle, great great grandmother

• to indicate a fraction when written in words (not numbers) one fourth, three sixteenths

• to connect the parts of all numbers from 21 to 99 when written in words twenty three, fifty seven

• to mark a break between syllables and compound words that occur at the end of a line of text

They went fly fishing but did not catch a thing.

(Note: Hyphens should not be used as dashes Also, spaces should not be inserted to precede or follow a hyphen.)

EN DASH AND EM DASH

The en dash, which is longer than a hyphen, is designed to match the width of the letter N, while the em dash exceeds the length of an en dash and corresponds to the width of the letter M.

An en dash is used:

Read pages 3– –13, then write a short summary.

• to connect already hyphenated terms low-sugar– –high-fiber foods

An em dash is used:

• to replace commas in an offset word, phrase, or clause to improve readability

They wanted to buy the house, but— —just minutes before they got their offer in— — a competing offer was made.

• in place of parentheses to create more informality

He sold his truck— —his one true love— —because he needed cash badly.

• in place of a colon to bring emphasis

The student finally heard from the University— — admitted!

• to add an aside or to add a contrast

He was very tired— —even though he slept all day— —and decided to go to the party.

• to indicate omitted content (usually with two or three em dashes in succession)

She used words in her rant against the authorities, including —— ——

Parentheses are used (in pairs):

• to enclose information intended as an aside, which is related to but not essential to the main idea being expressed

The couple bought a new Aspen ( a VW )

• to indicate an optional ending book( s )

• to group factors in numerical expressions

Brackets are used (in pairs):

• to insert supplementary information without changing the meaning of the surrounding text

Chris moved to the next topic [Slide 6].

• in a quotation to show divergence from spelling or punctuation used in the source material

She said, “[T]his heritage was reflected in its form.”

• to indicate omitted word(s) from a quoted passage

“I pledge allegiance to the United States of America.”

• to suggest hesitation or a shift in expression

I’d like to go No, I better not.

• at the end of a sentence to indicate a complete thought that trails off

The living conditions left a lot to be desired

When using parentheses at the end of a sentence, place the period outside the closing parenthesis However, if the information within the parentheses is a complete sentence, the period should be positioned inside the parentheses.

The professor did not agree (even though it was a good idea)

The professor did not agree (Even though she thought is was a good idea )

• to show connected concepts town/gown, den/study, work/life

• to stand in for the word or with alternatives yes/no, his/her, if/when

• to stand in for the word per in ratios miles/hour, P/E, teaspoons/gallon

• to facilitate certain informal abbreviations (without the use of periods) w/o (without), c/o (care of), m/s (manuscript)

• to serve as a delimiter or an operator with certain numbers fractions (3/4), dates (01/01/21, 1998/9)

• to show poetic line breaks when written in prose

Jack and Jill / went up a hill / to fetch a pail of water.

Sure! Please provide the content of the article that you would like me to rewrite.

The traditional slash used as a character is referred to as a forward slash (//) in technical coding and writing (and web addresses—http://) The backward slash (\\) is also periodically used in such contexts; however, the back slash is not generally used as a punctuation mark.

In addition to punctuation, the visual presentation of letters and words can significantly influence meaning This can be achieved by using capital letters and modifying font styles, such as italics, bold, and underlining.

The rules for capitalizing the initial letters of words are straightforward Use initial capitals:

• with the first word of every sentence, which is called sentence case

In the beginning was the Word.

• with the first word of a quoted sentence

Piglet asked, “How do you spell love?”

• with the first-person, singular pronoun I

• when the first-person, singular pronoun I is used in a contraction form

• with a person’s title when used before a name

• with the first word of titles of publications and creative works—except for articles, prepositions, and conjunctions—which is called headline (aka title) case

The World According to Garp

There is a growing trend in formatting publication titles to adopt sentence case, where only the first word and proper nouns are capitalized, moving away from traditional headline case.

The Cat in the Hat  The cat in the hat

• with acronyms (usually without periods)

• the four seasons spring, summer, fall winter

• the first word of a list after a colon in the middle of a sentence

They had emergency supplies: flares, water, a candle, matches, and ponchos.

• with titles (in lieu of quotation marks)

• with foreign words and phrases laissez faire, Bon apétit!

• to identify a word as a word

The writer’s favorite word is word.

• with words meant to mimic sounds

The cow goes mooooo, and the bee goes buzzzz.

You should generally avoid using ALL CAPITAL letters in your writing, unless you do so intentionally

Using ALL CAPS in written communication can come across as shouting, which may be perceived as rude or offensive This is particularly important to consider in texts, emails, and other electronic messages where context is limited To enhance clarity and tone in both digital and printed media, various typographical modifications can be employed to influence interpretation and meaning.

• as one option used in distinguishing document titles, subtitles, and headers

“There is a reason for it all.”

Underlined type (also called underscored type) works essentially the same as bolded type to highlight words

Editor’s NoteYou need to sign all five pages.

COMMON PITFALLS

MISUSE OF SAME-SOUNDING WORDS

Understanding grammar can be challenging, especially if you're not confident in the details, making it hard to identify your own mistakes and areas for improvement This chapter presents numerous common errors, particularly those arising from confusing similar-sounding words like "their" and "there." Each example highlights incorrect usage in red on the left and the correct form in bold on the right Pay close attention to instances where the red example may seem correct to you.

Homophones are words that sound the same but have different meanings—fare and fair Homographs are words that have the same spelling but have different meanings—lead

Homonyms are words that either sound alike or are spelled the same but have different meanings, such as the noun "bat" and the verb "bat." This linguistic phenomenon showcases the richness of the English language, where context determines the interpretation of these words.

She agreed to except the job offer | She agreed to accept the job offer.

The verb "accept" means to take or receive, making it the appropriate choice in certain contexts In contrast, "except" is typically used as a preposition or conjunction, and when it functions as a verb, it signifies exclusion.

The gym teacher excepted the student from the day’s workout requirements.

The teacher gave good advise | The teacher gave good advice.

Advice is a noun; advise is a verb.

People who advise sometimes give good advice.

She had a positive affect on the kids | She had a positive effect on the kids.

The term "effect" primarily functions as a noun, referring to a result or outcome, while as a verb, it means to accomplish or bring about something Conversely, "affect" is predominantly used as a verb, signifying the act of changing or influencing something Understanding the distinction between these two terms is crucial for effective communication.

The ruling affected the outcome.

If you want to have a positive effect, you need to affect things in a positive way!

Note: When used as a noun, often in psychology, affect suggests feeling or emotion.

The magician’s trick was an optical allusion | The magician’s trick was an optical illusion

These are both nouns, but use of allusion is pretty rare, as it means a casual or reference to something.

The poet used the word “trick” as an allusion to magic.

They made alot of money that summer | They made a lot of money that summer.

The term "a lot," meaning many or to a great extent, is often misspelled as one word It is important to remember that "a lot" should always be written as two separate words Additionally, the verb "allot," which means to apportion, is sometimes incorrectly used in place of "a lot."

The team was already to depart | The team was all ready to depart.

All ready is a phrase used as an adjective to mean prepared Already, as one word, serves as an adverb that is used to describe something that happened previously.

I had already departed by the time the team left.

Nothing will altar my plans | Nothing will alter my plans.

Alter is a verb signifying to bring change, while altar is a noun that refers to a special place in which religious rites are performed

The bride and groom met at the altar.

I would just assume leave the party | I would just as soon leave the party.

The phrase "I would sooner leave the party" implies a preference for departing rather than staying The confusion arises from the misinterpretation of "sooner" as "assume," which lacks significance in this context.

I assume you want to leave the party.

White House should begin with capitol letters | White House should begin with capital letters.

The word capitol, ending in -ol, has a very narrow meaning that refers to a building used for legislative purposes either at the state or federal level.

The state legislature meets in the capitol.

He gave the sculptor a wonderful complement | He gave the sculptor a wonderful compliment.

The word complement refers to a part that makes something complete

A compliment is a word of praise or admiration

The wine was a perfect complement to the beef fondue.

The price of admission was complementary | The price of admission was complimentary.

Complimentary can mean free It can also mean praising, as in:

The teacher was very complimentary of the student’s performance.

In contrast, complementary suggests a good fit, as in:

Their work styles were complementary.

The coach was confidant in her players | The coach was confident in her players.

This sentence calls for an adjective, and confident is an adjective that means having assurance Confidant, on the other hand, is a noun identifying a person in whom others can confide.

The coach served as a confidant to the injured player.

She has a guilty conscious from not studying enough | She has a guilty conscience from not studying enough.

One’s conscience, a noun, is characterized as an inner voice or feeling that serves as a moral guide In contrast, conscious is an adjective that affirms an awake or alert state

The patient is now conscious of her surroundings.

I want to skip dinner and go straight to desert | I want to skip dinner and go straight to dessert.

These are both nouns Desert (with one S) is a vast, sandy expanse

Dessert is a tasty end-of-meal treat

After dessert, let’s take a desert ride in the four-wheeler.

I speak correctly everyday | I speak correctly every day.

When the words of the adverb phrase every day are combined in one, it becomes an adjective (everyday).

I try to be accurate in my everyday speaking.

They moved in to a new place | They moved into a new place.

The preposition into should be spelled as one word In and to as separate words are not meaningful in a phrase Spelling into in two words (in to) is a misspelling.

Its my belief | It’s my belief.

It’s is a contraction—a shortened form of it + is—and is the correct form for this sentence Its is the possessive form of the inanimate pronoun it

The bird tweeted its tune.

Lets get out of here | Let’s get out of here.

"Let’s" is a contraction of "let" and "us," making it the appropriate choice for this sentence In contrast, "lets" serves as the third-person singular form of the verb "to let."

The babysitter lets the child sleep late on Fridays.

Common mistakes occur when using "it's" and "let's," making it essential to understand their meanings Remember that "it's" is a contraction for "it is," while "let's" combines "let" and "us." Recognizing these distinctions can help improve your writing clarity.

The toddler’s shoes were too lose, and he tripped | The toddler’s shoes were too loose, and he tripped.

Although they may seem alike, "loose" and "lose" have distinct meanings "Loose" is an adjective that refers to items that are not tightly fitted, such as toddler shoes In contrast, "lose" is a verb that describes the act of misplacing something or failing to win.

I’m all in If I lose, I will lose it all.

Weak leadership led to low moral among the troops | Weak leadership led to low morale among the troops.

Morale is a noun referring to attitudes within a person or group, while the word moral is an adjective meaning ethical

The teen was faced with a moral dilemma.

The peek of the mountain seemed so far away | The peak of the mountain seemed so far away.

The term "peak" refers to the highest point or pinnacle of various contexts, such as mountains, contagions, or human performance In contrast, "peek" is a verb meaning to take a quick glance Additionally, "pique," pronounced the same way as "peek" and "peak," denotes a feeling of irritation.

The new dad peeked in the nursery to see if the baby was still asleep.

Her experience was too personnel to share with others | Her experience was too personal to share with others.

Personnel—a collective noun referring to the people who work in an organization—is confused in this example with personal—an adjective describing something private to an individual

The office personnel were out in force.

Holding firm on this is a matter of principal | Holding firm on this is a matter of principle.

In this context, "principle" is a noun that denotes a legal or ethical standard, while "principal" serves as an adjective meaning main and as a noun referring to a position of high authority.

The principal argument was not found to be persuasive.

The recluse came to prophecy an imminent end of the world | The recluse came to prophesy an imminent end of the world.

Prophesy, as a verb, refers to the act of predicting or foretelling, making it the appropriate term in this context In contrast, prophecy is a noun that denotes the prediction or foretelling that results from prophesying.

The prophecy for the future was gloomy.

They all have there own views | They all have their own views.

Their is a possessive pronoun adjective and is the correct word for this usage

The adverb "there" indicates a location, while "they're" is the contraction of "they are," and "they" serves as a third-person plural subject pronoun If you find yourself confused about using these terms, dedicating more time to studying pronoun usage can be beneficial.

Their favorite movie is on TV tonight.

The line for the movie is over there.

They’re waiting in the lobby.

We are better then this | We are better than this.

The word than, a conjunction, is used in comparisons.

Olaf is a better ball player than Al.

The word then, an adverb, is used in time sequence statements.

Al started to play first, then Olaf followed a year later.

I love you to much for my own good | I love you too much for my own good.

The term "too," spelled with two Os, functions as an adverb meaning "also," "very," or indicating an excessive degree In contrast, "two," which includes a W, represents the numerical value of 2 When a preposition is needed instead of an adverb or a number, the correct choice is "to."

Take it to the bank.

Who’s book is that? | Whose book is that?

The question regarding ownership, specifically asking "To whom does this book belong?" requires the use of the possessive form "whose." In contrast, "who's" is a contraction that combines "who" and "is."

Your never going to believe it | You’re never going to believe it.

You’re is a contraction—a shortened form of you + are—and is the correct form for this sentence Your is the possessive form of the pronoun you

Your accomplishments are so impressive.

MISAPPLICATION OF GRAMMAR PRINCIPLES

As noted in chapter 10, one of the challenges with grammar is that it can be difficult to recognize your own errors and opportunities for improvement

This chapter highlights common mistakes people frequently make, particularly regarding usage issues like the confusion between "between" and "among." Each example presents the incorrect usage in red on the left and the correct usage in bold on the right Pay close attention to instances where the red example may appear correct to you.

There ain’t no way | There isn’t any way.

"Ain't" is a colloquial contraction that represents "am not," "is not," "are not," "has not," and "have not." While commonly used in informal contexts, it is regarded as a nonstandard term and should be avoided in formal writing.

Starting a sentence with conjunctions like "and" or "but" has traditionally been discouraged, but modern writing practices increasingly accept this style as a natural form of communication While it is now more common in informal contexts, it remains advisable to avoid this approach in formal writing.

But she will never understand And that made me extremely angry.

AT or WITH or FOR (TO END A SENTENCE) The question posed in this example: Is it okay to end a sentence with a preposition?

Historically, the "rule of thumb" advised against ending sentences with prepositions; however, contemporary practice embraces this usage as a natural form of communication Despite this shift, many still discourage it in formal writing contexts.

Whom are you going out with?

The kids had a choice between three different flavors | The kids had a choice among three different flavors.

Both "between" and "among" are prepositions that indicate a selection from a group of items A common misconception is that "between" is used for two items and "among" for three or more; however, the correct usage is more nuanced "Between" is preferred when referring to two or more distinct individual items.

Discussions between the superintendent, the school board, and the PTA officers are continuing.

Among is the word of choice when referring to a group of three or more unnamed elements

Discussions among all key school constituencies are continuing.

Don’t forget to bring your lunchbox to school | Don’t forget to take your lunchbox to school.

These two verbs involve moving something from one place to another Use bring when the movement is toward your location (as speaker)

Can you bring me the camera?

Use take when the movement is away from your location (as speaker) to a different place

Can you take the camera in for repair?

Can I use your bathroom? | May I use your bathroom?

The word "may" is preferred for requesting permission, making it the more appropriate choice in formal contexts In contrast, "can" inquires about the possibility of an action and is often used in informal conversations to ask for permission, though it may be less suitable in formal situations.

The day was beautiful, the sun was shining | The day was beautiful

A comma splice is a grammatical error that happens when two independent clauses are improperly joined by a comma This mistake can give the impression of negligence in punctuation To correct this, it is advisable to separate the ideas into distinct sentences, ensuring clarity and proper structure.

Alternatively, a colon could be used since the second clause is an illustration of the first

The day was beautiful: the sun was shining.

Or a semicolon could be used since the independent clauses are balanced in construction

The day was beautiful; the sun was shining.

Or a comma and coordinating conjunction can be added.

The day was beautiful, and the sun was shining.

Breaking through the pasture fence, the man had to fix the slats | Breaking through the pasture fence, the horse caused the man to have to fix the slats.

A modifier enhances the meaning of a word, phrase, or clause by adding information, and it is crucial that the word being modified is clear To avoid confusion, ensure that modifiers are directly linked to their target words; otherwise, a dangling modifier occurs, which should be avoided for clarity.

“dos and don’ts” in a sentence? | How should I spell

“do’s and don’ts” in a sentence?

An apostrophe is generally not used to form the plural of singular nouns; however, it can be applied to avoid confusion, particularly with single letters like A’s and B’s For example, "do" may require an apostrophe (do’s) to prevent ambiguity with "dos." Conversely, "don’t" already contains an apostrophe, making the addition of another one (don’t’s) inconsistent and awkward This illustrates a unique exception in apostrophe usage, as noted by the Chicago Manual of Style.

Manual of Style recommends dos and don’ts, and the Associated Press recommends do’s and don’ts.

You don’t have to do nothing before the guests arrive | You don’t have to do anything before the guests arrive.

Using two negative words in a single sentence can lead to confusion, as they tend to cancel each other out and inadvertently create a positive statement Therefore, the use of double negatives is generally discouraged to maintain clarity in communication.

The words each and every both refer to a singular item or person The key difference is that each refers to an individual item or person.

I would like to taste each flavor.

Every refers to a group of items or people treated as one.

I would like to taste every flavor.

The word all is used with plural nouns.

I would like to taste all flavors.

These words come into play when you are dealing with two items or choices

"Either" is utilized for choosing between two options, indicating a selection of one over the other, such as "either this or that." In contrast, "both" refers to the inclusion of two items simultaneously, as in "both this and that." Meanwhile, "neither" is employed to dismiss both options, exemplified by "neither this nor that." Understanding these terms is essential for proper subject/verb agreement in sentences.

If both of the choices are singular, the verb should be singular

Either the dog or the cat has fleas.

If one or both of the choices are plural, the verb should be plural

Neither the dog nor the cats have fleas.

He needs to think farther about the offer | He needs to think further about the offer.

The terms "farther" and "further" both pertain to the idea of distance, but they have distinct meanings "Farther" is used solely for physical distance, whereas "further" applies to figurative or abstract distance.

The boy hit the ball farther than he ever had before.

I got less Snickers for Halloween this year | I got fewer Snickers for Halloween this year.

If the noun that you are describing is countable, then use fewer

There are fewer boats in the regatta this spring.

If the noun that you are describing is general and not countable, then use less

I would like less milk in my cereal, please.

The job was done good | The job was done well.

Although "good" and "well" are often used interchangeably, they have distinct grammatical roles "Good" is an adjective that modifies nouns, such as in "a good meal" or "a good day’s work." In contrast, "well" is an adverb that modifies verbs, as seen in phrases like "the assignment was completed well" or "the meal was well prepared." While there is some overlap in their usage, particularly in health contexts, both "good wishes" and "well wishes" are acceptable expressions of hope for someone's recovery.

To correctly use "good" and "well," remember that "good" is an adjective modifying nouns, while "well" is an adverb modifying verbs For instance, to express that your day was favorable, you would say, "I had a good day," since "day" is a noun Conversely, to indicate that events unfolded positively, you would say, "Things went well," as "went" is a verb.

I hanged the picture on the wall | I hung the picture on the wall.

Hung is the past tense form of the verb TO HANG when the hanging is anything other than the suspension of a person by a rope

The Old West outlaw was hanged in the noonday sun.

HYPHEN | DASH | EN DASH | EM DASH

The hyphen (-) is a punctuation mark used to connect words, such as in "twenty-one," or to break words at the end of a line In contrast, dashes are longer punctuation marks, with the en dash (–) being the width of the letter N and the em dash (—) being the width of the letter M.

While they are often used interchangeably, the en dash is most often used to indicate a range instead of a hyphen.

The temperature will reach 75– –80 degrees by afternoon.

The em dash is most often used to indicate a pause in the sentence

The climber reached a precipice— —now what?