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THE ARTS This PDF document was made available CHILD POLICY from www.rand.org as a public service of CIVIL JUSTICE the RAND Corporation EDUCATION ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT Jump down to document6 HEALTH AND HEALTH CARE INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS NATIONAL SECURITY POPULATION AND AGING PUBLIC SAFETY SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SUBSTANCE ABUSE TERRORISM AND HOMELAND SECURITY TRANSPORTATION AND INFRASTRUCTURE WORKFORCE AND WORKPLACE The RAND Corporation is a nonprofit research organization providing objective analysis and effective solutions that address the challenges facing the public and private sectors around the world Support RAND Purchase this document Browse Books & Publications Make a charitable contribution For More Information Visit RAND at www.rand.org Explore RAND National Defense Research Institute View document details Limited Electronic Distribution Rights This document and trademark(s) contained herein are protected by law as indicated in a notice appearing later in this work This electronic representation of RAND intellectual property is provided for noncommercial use only Permission is required from RAND to reproduce, or reuse in another form, any of our research documents This product is part of the RAND Corporation monograph series RAND monographs present major research findings that address the challenges facing the public and private sectors All RAND monographs undergo rigorous peer review to ensure high standards for research quality and objectivity Map of Afghanistan Preface The attacks carried out against the United States by radical Islamist fanatics on September 11, 2001, almost instantly thrust the nation into a no-notice war on terror This sudden showdown against a shadowy but determined foe placed a heightened demand on virtually every resource at the disposal of the new administration of President George W Bush The principal ingredients of that war would consist not only of traditional military moves but also of expanded homeland security measures, diplomatic initiatives, efforts to find and embargo enemy sources of financing, and covert intelligence operations Although the war’s initial focus was directed against the immediate perpetrators of the attacks—Osama bin Laden and his al Qaeda terrorist organization—the Bush administration swore that it ultimately would bring pressure to bear not only on that and other terrorist movements around the world but also on state leaders who harbored them This book assesses the planning and initial execution of Operation Enduring Freedom, the first U.S response to the terrorist attacks of September 11 against al Qaeda’s center of gravity in Afghanistan and against the Taliban theocracy that provided it safe haven Since that campaign was largely an air war enabled by U.S and allied special forces and indigenous Afghan opposition groups, the report focuses predominantly on the air portion of the joint and combined operations that were conducted in Afghanistan from October 7, 2001, through March 2002 by U.S Central Command (CENTCOM) Its intent is to derive insights of a strategic and opera- v vi Air Power Against Terror: America’s Conduct of Operation Enduring Freedom tional nature that not only will be of practical use to U.S defense planners in and of themselves but also will offer a backdrop against which to assess the more complex and demanding Operation Iraqi Freedom that took place a year later to bring down the regime of Saddam Hussein Although unbeknown to its participants at the time, Operation Enduring Freedom proved in many ways to have been a dress rehearsal for the even more eventful campaign that soon followed The research reported here should interest both uniformed officers in all services and civilian members of the defense establishment concerned with strategy and force employment issues raised by the war in Afghanistan The research was conducted for U.S Central Command Air Forces (CENTAF) within the International Security and Defense Policy Center of the RAND National Defense Research Institute, a federally funded research and development center sponsored by the Office of the Secretary of Defense, the Joint Staff, the unified commands, and the defense agencies For more information on RAND’s International Security and Defense Policy Center, contact the director, James Dobbins He can be reached by email at James_Dobbins@rand.org; by phone at (703) 413-1100 extension 5134; or by mail at the RAND Corporation, 1200 South Hayes Street, Arlington, Virginia 22202-5050 More information about RAND is available at www.rand.org Contents Preface .v Figures xi Summary xiii Acknowledgments xxxi Abbreviations xxxv CHAPTER ONE Introduction CHAPTER TWO A Nation Girds for War 13 Ensuring Homeland Air Defense 18 Forming a Coalition 23 Shaping a Strategy 38 Crafting a Plan 49 The Buildup of Forces 62 CHAPTER THREE The United States Strikes Back 73 The Operational Setting 75 Opening Moves 78 From Fixed to Fleeting Targets 94 Closing Ranks with the Opposition Groups 103 The Campaign Hits a Slump .105 vii viii Air Power Against Terror: America’s Conduct of Operation Enduring Freedom The Allied Contribution 116 The Fall of Mazar-i-Sharif and Kabul 119 CHAPTER FOUR A Shift in Strategy 135 Hunting Down an Elusive Quarry .138 Toward the Consolidation of Initial Gains .144 The Battles of Tora Bora and Zhawar Kili .149 The Final Rout of the Taliban 154 CHAPTER FIVE Operation Anaconda .163 Initial Planning 164 A Troubled Start 178 The Showdown at Roberts Ridge 186 Recovering from the Initial Setbacks .192 The Endgame of Enduring Freedom .200 Anaconda Issues 204 Toward Better Air-Ground Coordination 221 CHAPTER SIX Distinctive Aspects and Achievements 247 Data Fusion Comes of Age .253 A New Air-Ground Synergy 258 Humanitarian Relief and Force Sustainment .263 Space Support to Force Employers .274 CAOC Operations 280 The Buildup at Manas 285 New Technology Applications 287 CHAPTER SEVEN Problems in Execution 293 Early Tensions Between the CAOC and CENTCOM 295 The Impact of Rules-of-Engagement Constraints 311 The Trend Toward Centralized Execution .324 Bibliography 397 Myers, Steven Lee, “Marines Build Firepower in the South, Bolstering Their Patrols and Readiness,” New York Times, December 3, 2001 Myers, Steven Lee, and Thom Shanker, “Pilots Told to Fire at Will in Some Zones,” New York Times, October 17, 2001 Myers, Steven Lee, and Eric Schmitt, “Material Seized in U.S Ground Raid Yields Few Gains,” New York Times, October 30, 2001 Myers, Steven Lee, and James Dao, “U.S Stokes the Fire, Adding Gunships and More,” New York Times, November 22, 2001 Nichols, Bill, and Dave Moniz, “Experts Predict U.S Will Fight First Extended Commando War,” USA Today, September 17, 2001 Pae, Peter, “U.S Predicting Fight Will Last Until Well into Spring,” Los Angeles Times, October 22, 2001 ———, “Future Is Now for Creator of Predator,” Los Angeles Times, January 3, 2002 Pape, Robert A., “The Wrong Battle Plan,” Washington Post, October 19, 2001 Perlez, Jane, “Powell Says It Clearly: No Middle Ground on Terrorism,” New York Times, September 13, 2001 ———, “U.S Demands Arab Countries ‘Choose Sides,’” New York Times, September 15, 2001 Perlez, Jane, David E Sanger, and Thom Shanker, “From Many Voices, One Battle Strategy,” New York Times, September 23, 2001 Peterson, Scott, “A View from Behind the Lines in the U.S Air War,” Christian Science Monitor, December 4, 2001 Priest, Dana, “Zinni Urges Economic, Diplomatic Moves,” Washington Post, September 14, 2001 ———, “Team 555 Shaped a New Way of War,” Washington Post, April 3, 2002 Priest, Dana, and Bradley Graham, “U.S Deploys Air Defenses on Coasts,” Washington Post, September 12, 2001 398 Air Power Against Terror: America’s Conduct of Operation Enduring Freedom Pomfret, John, “Taliban Accepts Surrender Deal,” Washington Post, December 7, 2001 ———, “Kandahar Bombs Hit Their Marks,” Washington Post, December 12, 2001 Pomfret, John, and Rajiv Chandrasekaran, “Taliban Faces Tribal Revolt,” Washington Post, November 15, 2001 Purdum, Todd, “Leaders Face Challenges Far Different from Those of Last Conflict,” New York Times, September 15, 2001 Rashid, Ahmed, “Al Qaeda Has Network of Sleepers Across North America,” London Daily Telegraph, September 15, 2001 ———, “Taliban in Key Defeat as Rebels Turn to Ex-King,” London Daily Telegraph, September 25, 2001 “Rendezvous with Afghanistan,” New York Times, September 14, 2001 “Report of Air Force, Navy Wrangling Misses the Mark,” Washington Times, November 13, 2001 Revkin, Andrew C., “New Sensors Report, ‘I Know They’re In There, I Can See Them Breathing,’” New York Times, November 22, 2001 ———, “U.S Making Weapons to Blast Underground Hideouts,” New York Times, December 3, 2001 Reynolds, Maura, “Russia Seeks to Unite Against a ‘Common Enemy,’” Los Angeles Times, September 15, 2001 ———, “Russia Mulls Options to Help U.S.,” Los Angeles Times, September 18, 2001 Reynolds, Maura, and Paul Richter, “U.S Opposes Any Deal with Taliban Forces,” Los Angeles Times, November 20, 2001 Richburg, Keith B., and William Branigin, “U.S Jets Expand Afghan Strikes,” Washington Post, October 29, 2001 Richburg, Keith B., and Molly Moore, “Taliban Flees Afghan Capital,” Washington Post, November 13, 2001 Richburg, Keith B., and William Branigin, “Attacks Out of the Blue: U.S Air Strikes on Taliban Hit Military Targets and Morale,” Washington Post, November 18, 2001 Bibliography 399 Richter, Paul, “Experts Weigh Risks of Air, Ground Campaigns in Afghanistan,” Los Angeles Times, September 14, 2001 Richter, Paul, and Peter Pae, “U.S Concedes Taliban Battle Will Be Tough,” Los Angeles Times, October 25, 2001 Ricks, Thomas E., “Pentagon Issues Order to Elite Units in Infantry,” Washington Post, September 17, 2001 ———, “Warplanes Begin Deploying to Gulf, Central Asia,” Washington Post, September 20, 2001 ———, “Former Soviet Republics Are Key to U.S Effort,” Washington Post, September 22, 2001 ———, “Land Mines, Aging Missiles Pose Threat,” Washington Post, September 25, 2001 ———, “Rumsfeld Confident of Use of Saudi Bases,” Washington Post, October 4, 2001 ———, “Next Phase to Include More Troops,” Washington Post, October 9, 2001 ———, “U.S to Target Elite Taliban Assault Force in Next Phase,” Washington Post, October 14, 2001 ———, “U.S Arms Unmanned Aircraft,” Washington Post, October 18, 2001 ———, “Target Approval Delays Cost Air Force Key Hits,” Washington Post, November 18, 2001 ———, “In the South, U.S Faces a Guerrilla War,” Washington Post, November 21, 2001 ———, “Bull’s-Eye War: Pinpoint Bombing Shifts Role of GI Joe,” Washington Post, December 2, 2001 ———, “Rumsfeld’s Hands-On War,” Washington Post, December 9, 2001 ———, “A War That’s Commanded at a Distance,” Washington Post, December 27, 2001 ———, “Battle Sends Broader Message of U.S Resolve,” Washington Post, March 5, 2002 400 Air Power Against Terror: America’s Conduct of Operation Enduring Freedom ———, “In Mop Up, U.S Finds ‘Impressive’ Remnants of Fallen Foe,” Washington Post, March 20, 2002 ———, “Beaming the Battlefield Home,” Washington Post, March 26, 2002 ———, “Un-Central Command Criticized,” Washington Post, June 3, 2002 ———, “Errant U.S Bomb Hits Civilians,” Washington Post, July 2, 2002 ———, “War Plan for Iraq Is Ready, Say Officials,” Washington Post, November 20, 2002 Ricks, Thomas E., and Vernon Loeb, “Initial Aim Is Hitting Taliban Defenses,” Washington Post, October 8, 2001 ———, “Special Forces Open Ground Campaign,” Washington Post, October 19, 2001 Ricks, Thomas E., and Alan Sipress, “Attacks Restrained by Political Goals,” Washington Post, October 23, 2001 Ricks, Thomas E., and Doug Struck, “U.S Troops Coordinating Airstrikes,” Washington Post, October 31, 2001 Ricks, Thomas E., and Bradley Graham, “U.S Special Forces on the Trail of Taliban Leaders,” Washington Post, November 14, 2001 Ricks, Thomas E., and Bob Woodward, “Marines Enter South Afghanistan,” Washington Post, November 26, 2001 Ricks, Thomas E., and Vernon Loeb, “U.S Claims Advantage in Battle,” Washington Post, March 7, 2002 Ricks, Thomas E., and Bradley Graham, “Surprises, Adjustments and Milestones for U.S Military,” Washington Post, March 10, 2002 Ricks, Thomas E., Kamran Khan, and Molly Moore, “Taliban Refuses to Surrender bin Laden; U.S Develops Options for Military Action,” Washington Post, September 19, 2001 Robbins, Carla Anne, Greg Jaffe, and Robert S Greenberger, “SmallScale Steps Could Be Key in Military’s Reaction to Attacks,” Wall Street Journal, September 17, 2001 Bibliography 401 Robbins, Carla Anne, and Jeanne Cummings, “Powell’s Cautious Views on Quick Strikes and Faith in Coalitions Shape Bush Plan,” Wall Street Journal, September 21, 2001 Robbins, Carla Anne, and Alan Cullison, “U.S Is Prepared to Support an Assault on Kabul by Northern Alliance Forces,” Wall Street Journal, October 23, 2001 Rose, Matthew, “News Media Showed Tendency to Misfire During Early Phase of War in Afghanistan,” Wall Street Journal, December 24, 2001 “Rumsfeld Warns Against Leaks,” Washington Times, September 13, 2001 Safire, William, “Inside the Bunker,” New York Times, September 13, 2001 Sands, David R., and Tom Carter,” Attacks Change U.S Foreign Policy,” Washington Times, September 12, 2001 Sanger, David E., “Bin Laden Is Wanted in Attacks, ‘Dead or Alive,’ President Says,” New York Times, September 18, 2001 ———, “Bush Is Deploying Jet Bombers Toward Afghanistan,” New York Times, September 20, 2001 Sanger, David E., and Eric Schmitt, “U.S Puts Afghan Strike Ahead of Full Plan,” New York Times, September 22, 2001 Sanger, David E., and Michael R Gordon, “U.S Takes Steps to Bolster Fighting Terror,” New York Times, November 7, 2001 Scarborough, Rowan, “Military Officers Seek Swift, Deadly Response,” Washington Times, September 12, 2001 ———, “Officials Talk of Military Response,” Washington Times, September 13, 2001 ———, “Intercepts Foretold of ‘Big Attack,’” Washington Times, September 22, 2001 ———, “Rumsfeld Cautions Against Mass Strike,” Washington Times, September 26, 2001 ———, “Bombing Plan Spares Civilian Structures,” Washington Times, October 4, 2001 402 Air Power Against Terror: America’s Conduct of Operation Enduring Freedom ———, “Pentagon Will Not Rush Manhunt,” Washington Times, October 9, 2001 ———, “U.S Gunship Attacks Taliban Troops,” Washington Times, October 16, 2001 ———, “U.S Splits Afghanistan into ‘Engagement Zones,’” Washington Times, October 18, 2001 ———, “Pentagon Insiders Criticize Tactics, Missed Opportunity,” Washington Times, November 1, 2001 ———, “Air Force Slow to Transfer Special Bomb Kits to Navy,” Washington Times, November 7, 2001 ———, “Air Force Gets Use of Airfield in Tajikistan,” Washington Times, November 10, 2001 ———, “Change of Target Saved Hundreds of Taliban Soldiers,” Washington Times, November 21, 2001 ———, “Special Forces Get Free Rein,” Washington Times, November 23, 2001 ———, “U.S Rules Let al Qaeda Flee,” Washington Times, December 21, 2001 ———, “Military Officers Criticize Rush to Use Ground Troops,” Washington Times, March 7, 2002 ———, “Afghan Operation Termed a Success,” Washington Times, March 12, 2002 ———, “Navy’s P-3 Orion Aircraft Played Prominent Role in Afghanistan,” Washington Times, April 2, 2002 ———, “‘Friendly Fire’ Judge’s Memo Assailed,” Washington Times, July 30, 2002 Schmitt, Eric, “Generals Given Power to Order Downing of Jets,” New York Times, September 27, 2001 ———, “Seeking a Blend of Military and Civilian Decisionmaking,” New York Times, October 24, 2001 ———, “Improved U.S Accuracy Claimed in Afghan Air War,” New York Times, April 9, 2002 Bibliography 403 ———, “U.S Raids Along Afghan Border Seen as Lasting Past Summer,” New York Times, May 6, 2002 Schmitt, Eric, and Thom Shanker, “Administration Considers Broader, More Powerful Options for Potential Retaliation,” New York Times, September 13, 2001 Schmitt, Eric, and Michael R Gordon, “U.S Dispatches Ground Troops and Top Officer,” New York Times, September 21, 2001 Schmitt, Eric, and Steven Lee Myers, “U.S Steps Up Air Attack, While Defending Results of Campaign,” New York Times, October 26, 2002 Schmitt, Eric, and Thom Shanker, “Trouble in Deploying Commandos Is Said to Hurt U.S Air Campaign,” New York Times, November 2, 2001 Schmitt, Eric, and Steven Lee Myers, “U.S Escalating Efforts to Bomb Taliban Caves,” New York Times, November 6, 2001 Schmitt, Eric, and James Dao, “Use of Pinpoint Air Power Comes of Age in New War,” New York Times, December 24, 2001 ———, “U.S Is Building Up Its Military Bases in Afghan Region,” New York Times, January 9, 2002 Schmitt, Eric, and Thom Shanker, “Afghans’ Retreat Forced Americans to Lead a Battle,” New York Times, March 10, 2002 ———, “Taliban and al Qaeda Death Toll in Mountain Battle Is a Mystery,” New York Times, March 14, 2002 Schrader, Esther, “U.S Keeps Pressure on al Qaeda,” Los Angeles Times, January 8, 2002 ———, “War, on Advice of Counsel,” Los Angeles Times, February 15, 2002 ———, “Simple Mission Became 18-Hour Fight,” Los Angeles Times, March 8, 2002 Schrader, Esther, and Paul Richter, “Fighter Jets Assume New Protective Role,” Los Angeles Times, September 15, 2001 Sciolino, Elaine, “Bush Tells the Military to ‘Get Ready’; Broader Spy Powers Gaining Support,” New York Times, September 16, 2001 404 Air Power Against Terror: America’s Conduct of Operation Enduring Freedom ———, “U.S Prepares to Brief NATO on Strategy to Fight bin Laden,” New York Times, September 25, 2001 Seper, Jerry, and Bill Gertz, “Bin Laden, Cohorts Are Top Suspects,” Washington Times, September 12, 2001 Shanker, Thom, “New Blueprint for Military Shifts Priority to U.S Soil, Revising Two-War Strategy,” New York Times, October 2, 2001 ———, “U.S Tells How Rescue Turned into Fatal Firefight,” New York Times, March 6, 2002 ———, “Addressing Worries, Pentagon Says It Can Fight Wider War,” New York Times, March 29, 2002 Shanker, Thom, and Eric Schmitt, “Rumsfeld Asks Call-Up of Reserves, as Many as 50,000,” New York Times, September 14, 2001 Shanker, Thom, and Steven Lee Myers, “U.S Sends in Special Plane with Heavy Guns,” New York Times, October 16, 2001 ———, “U.S Set to Aid Afghan Rebels, Rumsfeld Says,” New York Times, October 19, 2001 ———, “Rumsfeld Says Attacks Seek to Help Rebels Advance,” New York Times, October 23, 2001 Shanker, Thom, with Dexter Filkins, “U.S Planes Hit Taliban Positions Threatening Rebels,” New York Times, October 29, 2001 ———, “U.S Commander, Saying Rebels Need Help, Hints More Troops,” New York Times, November 9, 2001 Shanker, Thom, and Steven Lee Myers, “Rapid Changes on the Ground Lead the Pentagon to Focus on Counterguerrilla Tactics,” New York Times, November 15, 2001 Shanker, Thom, and James Dao, “U.S Ready to Send Additional Troops to Hunt bin Laden,” New York Times, November 21, 2001 Shanker, Thom, and Eric Schmitt, “Marines Advance Toward Kandahar to Prepare Siege,” New York Times, December 5, 2001 ———, “Taliban Defeated, Pentagon Asserts, But War Goes On,” New York Times, December 11, 2001 Bibliography 405 Shanker, Thom, with Carlotta Gall, “U.S Attack on Warlord Aims to Help Interim Leader,” New York Times, May 9, 2002 Shenon, Philip, and David Johnston, “U.S Backs Away from Talk of More Attacks,” New York Times, October 2, 2001 Sipress, Alan, “U.S Debates Whether to Overthrow Taliban,” Washington Post, September 24, 2001 Sipress, Alan, and Steven Mufson, “U.S Lines Up Support for Strike,” Washington Post, September 13, 2001 Sipress, Alan, and Marc Kaufman, “Taliban Opponents Increase U.S Contacts,” Washington Post, September 22, 2001 Sipress, Alan, and Thomas E Ricks, “Military Strike Not Imminent, Officials Say,” Washington Post, September 27, 2001 Sipress, Alan, and Molly Moore, “Pakistan Grants Airfield Use; U.S Pounds Taliban Bunkers,” Washington Post, October 11, 2001 Sipress, Alan, and Vernon Loeb, “U.S Steps Up Strikes on Taliban Troops,” Washington Post, November 1, 2001 Smith, David R., “Iran Warns U.S to Keep Warplanes Out of Its Airspace,” Washington Times, October 2, 2001 Smith, Michael, “Attack ‘Could Come This Weekend,’” London Daily Telegraph, September 15, 2001 ———, “U.S Aims to Take Vital Afghan Air Base,” London Daily Telegraph, September 25, 2001 ———, “U.S Special Forces Beat Retreat as Enemy ‘Fought Back Like Maniacs,’” London Daily Telegraph, October 26, 2001 Soriano, Cesar G., “Elite Marine Unit Makes First Strike on Taliban,” USA Today, November 5, 2001 ———, “Allied Operations Said to Be Dwindling in Afghanistan,” USA Today, May 9, 2002 Spitzer, Kirk, “Green Berets Outfought, Outthought the Taliban,” USA Today, January 7, 2002 Stone, Andrea, “Soldiers Deploy on Mental Terrain,” USA Today, October 3, 2001 406 Air Power Against Terror: America’s Conduct of Operation Enduring Freedom ———, “Pentagon Confirms Errant Bomb Strikes,” USA Today, October 29, 2001 Stout, David, “U.S Bomber Crashes at Sea; Crew Members Are Rescued,” New York Times, December 13, 2001 Strauss, Julius and Dashti Qala, “Waves of Jets Herald the Start of Northern Alliance Offensive,” London Daily Telegraph, October 29, 2001 Struck, Doug, “Rebel Leader Claims to Be Guiding Air Strikes,” Washington Post, October 24, 2001 “Text of Bush Statement,” Washington Post, September 13, 2001 “Text of Joint Resolution,” Washington Post, September 15, 2001 Timburg, Craig, “Anxiety, Uncertainty at Norfolk Station,” Washington Post, September 19, 2001 “Top Brass: Military Spread Too Thin,” Washington Times, March 21, 2002 Tucker, Neely, and Vernon Loeb, “District, Nation Move to High Alert,” Washington Post, September 15, 2001 Tyler, Patrick E., “Bush Advisers Split on Scope of Retaliation,” New York Times, September 20, 2001 ———, “U.S and Britain Strike Afghanistan, Aiming at Bases and Terrorist Camps; Bush Warns ‘Taliban Will Pay a Price,’” New York Times, October 8, 2001 ———, “After a Lull, Dawn Bombing Caps Night of Heavy Strikes,” New York Times, October 9, 2001 ———, “U.S Names Envoy to Rebels,” New York Times, November 6, 2001 Tyson, Anne Scott, “Why U.S Is Moving So Deliberately,” Christian Science Monitor, October 4, 2001 ———, “Al Qaeda: Resistant and Organized,” Christian Science Monitor, March 7, 2002 ———, “Anaconda: A War Story,” Christian Science Monitor, August 1, 2002 “U.S Grounds Spy Plane,” Washington Post, July 13, 2002 Bibliography 407 “U.S Drops Bomb as Two Afghan Factions Clash,” Los Angeles Times, July 19, 2002 Vandehei, Jim, “Reluctant to Share Terrorist Evidence, Bush Retreats from bin Laden Pledge,” Wall Street Journal, September 25, 2001 Vick, Karl, “Marines Hunt for al Qaeda Materials,” Washington Post, January 2, 2002 Vick, Karl, and Bradley Graham, “Raid Finds Untouched al Qaeda Compound,” Washington Post, January 3, 2002 Vogel, Steve, “’They Said No This Is Our Answer,’” Washington Post, October 8, 2001 ———, “Over Afghanistan, Gantlets in the Sky,” Washington Post, October 29, 2001 ———, “Gas Stations in the Sky Extend Fighters’ Reach,” Washington Post, November 1, 2001 ———, “Al Qaeda Tunnels, Arms Cache Totalled; Complex Believed Largest Found in War,” Washington Post, February 16, 2002 Vogel, Steve, and Walter Pincus, “Al Qaeda Complex Destroyed; Search Widens,” Washington Post, January 15, 2002 Von Drehle, David, “Bush Pledges Victory,” Washington Post, September 14, 2001 ———, “Senate Approves Use of Force; Military Patrols Cities and Ports,” Washington Post, September 15, 2001 Von Drehle, David, and Alan Sipress, “War Won’t Be Short, Bush Says,” Washington Post, September 16, 2001 Wald, Matthew, “Pentagon Tracked Deadly Jet But Found No Way to Stop It,” New York Times, September 15, 2001 Walsh, Edward, “National Response to Terror,” Washington Post, September 12, 2001 ———, “U.S Campaign on Schedule, Generals Say,” Washington Post, November 5, 2001 Watson, Paul, and Norman Kempster, “Taliban Will Unravel If Key Players Gone, Experts Say,” Los Angeles Times, September 20, 2001 408 Air Power Against Terror: America’s Conduct of Operation Enduring Freedom Watson, Roland, and Michael Evans, “America Turns Up the Heat,” London Times, November 7, 2001 Webster, Philip, “Blair Seeks United Democratic Response,” London Times, September 13, 2001 Weiner, Tim, “Rumsfeld Says Ramadan Won’t Halt U.S Attacks,” New York Times, November 5, 2001 Weisman, Jonathan, “Pentagon Denies Taliban Casualty Claim,” USA Today, October 23, 2001 ———, “War’s Deadliest Day,” USA Today, March 6, 2002 Weisman, Jonathan, and Andrea Stone, “U.S Expects Longer War,” USA Today, October 29, 2001 Williams, Carol J., “Afghan Force Maintains High Profile Despite Risks,” Los Angeles Times, May 16, 2002 Wines, Michael, “Russia Faces Fateful Choice on Cooperation with U.S.,” New York Times, September 21, 2001 ———, “Putin Offers Support to U.S for Its Antiterrorist Efforts,” New York Times, September 25, 2001 Woodward, Bob, and Vernon Loeb, “CIA’s Covert War on bin Laden,” Washington Post, September 14, 2001 Woodward, Bob, and Dan Balz, “At Camp David, Advise and Dissent,” Washington Post, January 31, 2002 ———, “Combating Terrorism: ‘It Starts Today,’” Washington Post, February 1, 2002 Briefings Deptula, Major General David A., USAF, “Operation Enduring Freedom—Highlights, Challenges, and Potential Implications: Some Observations from the First 60 Days,” undated briefing charts Dunlap, Brigadier General Charles J., Jr., USAF, “Air and Information Operations: A Perspective on the Rise of ‘Lawfare’ in Modern Conflicts,” presentation at a conference on Current Issues in the Bibliography 409 Law of Armed Conflict, Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island, June 2003 Harward, Captain Robert S., USN, “Operation Enduring Freedom: Special Reconnaissance and Direct Action Operations in Afghanistan, October 6, 2001–March 30, 2002,” Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND Corporation, August 19, 2002 “Joint Air-Ground Operations: Operation Anaconda Background,” undated briefing charts, Directorate of Plans and Programs, Headquarters Air Combat 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Generals Say,” Bloomberg.com, February 20, 2002 410 Air Power Against Terror: America’s Conduct of Operation Enduring Freedom Davis, Major Mark G., USA, “Operation Anaconda: Command and Confusion in Joint Warfare,” unpublished thesis presented to the faculty of the School of Advanced Air and Space Studies, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, June 2004 “Executive Summary of the Battle of Takur Ghar,” Washington, D.C.: Department of Defense, May 24, 2002 Fleri, Major Edgar, USAF, Colonel Ernest Howard, USAF, Jeffrey Hukill, and Thomas R Searle, “Operation Anaconda Case Study,” College of Aerospace Doctrine, Research, and Education, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, November 13, 2003 Galaydick, Captain Scott J., USAF, “Bullet Background Paper on Space AOC Support for Operation Enduring Freedom,” 614th Space Operations Squadron, Vandenberg AFB, California, March 19, 2004 Grossman, Elaine M., “Operation Anaconda: Object Lesson in Poor Planning or Triumph of Improvisation?” InsideDefense.com, August 12, 2004 McIntyre, Jamie, CNN report, March 19, 2002 “Space Tasking Order (STO),” Doctrine Watch No 21, Air Force Doctrine Center, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, provided to the author by the office of the Commander, 14th Air Force, Vandenberg AFB, California, n.d Stephens, Alan, “Afghanistan and the Australian Way of War,” unpublished paper “Talking Paper on 3rd Aerospace Expeditionary Task Force Lessons Learned,” Headquarters 85th Airlift Wing/XP, Ramstein Air Base, Germany, September 19, 2002 “Talking Paper on Push and Pull Logistics Lessons Learned,” Headquarters USAFE/LGXX, September 19, 2002 “Talking Paper on Operation Enduring Freedom 3rd Aerospace Expeditionary Task Force A-4 and Logistics Readiness Cell Perspective,” Headquarters USAFE/LGTR, September 20, 2002 “Unclassified Executive Summary Investigation of Civilian Casualties, Uruzgan Province Operation FULL THROTTLE,” Head- Bibliography 411 quarters U.S Central Command, MacDill AFB, Florida, unpublished text, n.d “USAF Talking Points: The War on Terrorism,” SAF/PA, November 28, 2001 “USAF Talking Points: The War on Terrorism,” SAF/PA, January 16, 2002 “USAF Talking Points: The War on Terrorism,” SAF/PA, March 21, 2002 Wald, Lieutenant General Charles F., USAF, “Memorandum for All USCENTAF Personnel, Subject: Commander’s Intent,” Headquarters U.S Central Command Air Forces, Shaw AFB, South Carolina, May 18, 2000 ... Afghanistan The research was conducted for U.S Central Command Air Forces (CENTAF) within the International Security and Defense Policy Center of the RAND National Defense Research Institute, a... Mission-Capable NMCC National Military Command Center NOAA NORAD National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration North American Air Defense Command NRO National Reconnaissance Office NSC National Security... funded research and development center sponsored by the Office of the Secretary of Defense, the Joint Staff, the unified commands, and the defense agencies For more information on RAND’s International