The Farlex Grammar Book: Complete English Grammar Rules FARLEX International Copyright © 2016 Farlex International All rights reserved ISBN: 1535231688 ISBN-13: 978-1535231688 Table of contents About the author Preface Editor’s Note English Grammar Parts of Speech Nouns Common and Proper Nouns Nouns of Address Concrete and Abstract Nouns Countable Nouns Uncountable Nouns Collective Nouns Compound Nouns Nominalization (Creating Nouns) Pronouns Personal pronouns Personal Pronouns - Number Personal Pronouns - Person (First person, Second person, Third person) Personal Pronouns - Gender Personal Pronouns - Case Personal Pronouns - Reflexive Pronouns Intensive Pronouns Indefinite Pronouns Demonstrative Pronouns Interrogative Pronouns Relative Pronouns Reciprocal Pronouns Dummy Pronouns Verbs Finite and Non-finite Verbs Transitive and Intransitive Verbs Regular and Irregular Verbs Auxiliary Verbs Primary Auxiliary Verbs Modal Auxiliary Verbs Modal Auxiliary Verbs - Will Modal Auxiliary Verbs - Would Modal Auxiliary Verbs - Shall Modal Auxiliary Verbs - Should Modal Auxiliary Verbs - Can Modal Auxiliary Verbs - Could Modal Auxiliary Verbs - May Modal Auxiliary Verbs - Might Modal Auxiliary Verbs - Must Substituting Modal Verbs Semi-Modal Auxiliary Verbs Infinitives Participles Action Verbs Stative Verbs Linking Verbs Light Verbs Phrasal Verbs Common Phrasal Verbs Conditional Verbs Causative Verbs Factitive Verbs Reflexive Verbs Adjectives Attributive Adjectives Predicative Adjectives Proper Adjectives Collective Adjectives Demonstrative Adjectives Interrogative Adjectives Nominal Adjectives Compound Adjectives Order of Adjectives Degrees of Comparison Comparative Adjectives Superlative Adjectives Adverbs Adverbs of Time Adverbs of Place Adverbs of Manner Adverbs of Degree Mitigators Intensifiers Adverbs of Frequency Adverbs of Purpose Focusing Adverbs Negative Adverbs Conjunctive Adverbs Evaluative Adverbs Viewpoint Adverbs Relative Adverbs Adverbial Nouns Regular and Irregular Adverbs Degrees of Comparison Comparative Adverbs Superlative Adverbs Order of Adverbs Prepositions Prepositional Phrases Categories of Prepositions Common Prepositional Errors Prepositions with Nouns Prepositions with Verbs Prepositions with Adjectives Prepositions in Idioms Idioms that Start with Prepositions Idioms that End with Prepositions Conjunctions Coordinating Conjunctions Correlative Conjunctions Subordinating Conjunctions Other parts of speech Particles Articles Determiners Possessive Determiners Gerunds Gerunds as Objects of Verbs Interjections Inflection (Accidence) Conjugation Tense Present Tense Present Simple Tense Present Continuous Tense (Progressive) Present Perfect Tense Present Perfect Continuous Tense Past Tense Past Simple Tense Past Continuous Tense Past Perfect Tense Past Perfect Continuous Tense Future Tense (Approximation) Future Simple Tense Future Continuous Tense Future Perfect Tense Future Perfect Continuous Tense Aspect Perfective and Imperfective Aspect Aspects of the Present Tense Aspects of the Past Tense Aspects of the Future Tense Mood Indicative Mood Subjunctive Mood Subjunctive Mood - Expressing Wishes Voice Active Voice Passive Voice Middle Voice Speech Reported Speech (Indirect Speech) Grammatical Person Declension Plurals Gender in Nouns Regular and Irregular Inflection Syntax Subjects and Predicates The Subject The Predicate Complements Objects Subject Complements Object Complements Adjective Complements Adverbial Complements Modifiers Adjuncts Phrases Noun Phrases Adjective Phrases Adverbial Phrases Participle Phrases Absolute Phrases Appositives Clauses Independent Clauses Dependent Clauses Noun Clauses Relative Clauses Adverbial Clauses Sentences Compound Sentences Complex Sentences Compound-Complex Sentences Declarative Sentences Interrogative Sentences Negative Interrogative Sentences Imperative Sentences Conditional Sentences Major and Minor Sentences (Regular and Irregular Sentences) Quiz answers Index About the author Peter Herring was born in Boulder, Colorado, and grew up with a passion for reading He attended the University of British Columbia, in Vancouver, Canada, where he majored in English Literature He went on to complete a master’s degree in Anglo-Irish Literature and Drama at University College Dublin in Ireland, where he graduated with honors Peter has worked as an editor since 2009, lending his passion for words to scientific research projects, non-fiction publishing, and The Free Dictionary He lives in Dublin, Ireland, with his wife and son About the editor Nick Norlen is the managing editor of The Free Dictionary, where he oversees all editorial projects After graduating with honors from La Salle University in Philadelphia, he worked as a reporter before joining the Farlex team in 2008 He lives in Newtown, Pennsylvania, with his wife and daughter, whose first word is his favorite word Preface Grammar is without a doubt one of the most daunting aspects of the English language, an area riddled with complexities, inconsistencies, and contradictions It has also been in a state of flux for pretty much its entire existence For native speakers of English, as well as for those learning it as a new language, grammar presents a very serious challenge to speaking and writing both accurately and effectively Having a single, reliable, go-to reference guide should therefore be indispensable to those trying to learn, improve, or perfect their speech or writing This book is that guide: a clear, unambiguous, and comprehensive source of information that covers all the relevant topics of English grammar, while still being easy to understand and enjoyable to read Every topic in the book has been broken down into basic units Each unit can be read and understood in its own right, but throughout the book you will find cross-references to other sections and chapters to help make it clear how all the pieces fit together If you’re having trouble understanding something, try going back (or forward) to other related topics in the book Finally, it must be mentioned that, because English is such a flexible, inconsistent language, the “rules” that are often bandied about are usually not rules at all, but rather guides that reflect how the language is used Accordingly, the guidelines contained within this book are just that— guidelines They are not intended to provide constrictive or proscriptive rules that confine everyone to a particular way of speaking or writing Learning how the English language works will enhance your engagement with speech and writing every day, from the books you read, to the e-mails you write, to the conversations you have with friends and strangers alike As such, mastering grammar is not an exercise that is confined to the classroom While it is certainly important to learn the structures, styles, and rules that shape the language, the key to truly learning English is to read and listen to the way people write and speak every day, from the most wellknown authors to the people you talk to on the bus Take the information you find in this book and carry it with you into the world -P Herring Editor’s Note This book is written according to the standard styles and spellings used in American English While major differences between American and British English are usually addressed, some information in the book might not coincide with the styles, tendencies, or preferences of other English-speaking communities 10 declarative sentences, negative · 594 declension · 487 definite articles · 363 degrees of strength · 240 delexical verbs · 158 demonstrative adjectives · 200 demonstrative determiners · 200 demonstrative pronouns · 57 dependent clauses · 570 dependent prepositions · 317 determiners · 366 determiners, demonstrative · 200 determiners, distributive · 367 determiners, interrogative · 202 determiners, possessive · 374 determiners, pre- · 368 diathesis · 466 direct objects · 180, 524 direct questions · 60 direct speech · 474 distributive adjectives · 367 distributive determiners · 367 ditransitive verbs · 84, 524 · 94 double negatives · 261 dummy pronouns · 70 dynamic verbs · 146 E each · 368 each other · 68 either · 368 elliptical sentences · 253 emphatic mood · 458 empty subjects · 72 empty verbs · 158 enough · 242 ergative verbs · 83 evaluative adverbs · 267 1025 every · 368 exclamations · 382 exclamatory sentences · 592 existential there · 70 expletive pronouns · 70 F factitive verbs · 180 familial roles · 16 FANBOYS · 349, 585 farthest · 224 feminine · 495 fewer vs less · 27 finite verbs · 79, 516 first conditional · 177, 602 first person · 45, 482 flection · 385 focusing adverbs · 254 fragments, sentence · 606 free indirect discourse · 476 free indirect speech · 476 frequency adverbs · 247 furthest · 224 future continuous tense · 438, 455 future indicative · 459 future perfect continuous tense · 443, 456 future perfect progressive tense · 443 future perfect tense · 441, 455 future progressive tense · 438 future simple tense · 435, 455 future tenses · 433 G gender · 46, 495 gender neutral · 43, 46 generic you · 55 generic you and they · 55 genitive case · 49 gerund phrases · 376, 545 gerunds · 80, 376 1026 gerunds vs infinitives · 380 good vs well · 157, 193 gradable adjectives · 221, 241 gradable adverbs · 287 grading adverbs · 240 grammatical number · 44 grammatical person · 45, 482 H have · 94 helping verbs · 89 here · 236 hierarchy of grammatical structure · 505 hyphenated compound nouns · 33 I idioms · 166, 607 idioms that end with prepositions · 340 idioms that start with prepositions · 334 idioms, prepositional · 332, 334, 340 imperative mood · 457 imperative sentences · 600 imperfective aspect · 449 impersonal pronouns · 55 impersonal you · 55 implied objects · 182 indefinite adjectives · 56 indefinite articles · 363 indefinite pronouns · 53 indefinite you · 55 independent clauses · 568 indicative mood · 459 indirect objects · 310, 524 indirect questions · 60, 594, 597 indirect speech · 478 infinitive mood · 458 infinitive phrases · 546 infinitives · 79, 134 infinitives of purpose · 252 inflection · 385 1027 inflection, irregular · 498 inflection, regular · 498 intensifiers · 245, 369 intensive pronouns · 51 interjections · 382, 606 interjections, primary · 382 interjections, secondary · 383 interrogative adjectives · 202 interrogative adjectives vs interrogative pronouns · 204 interrogative determiners · 202 interrogative pronouns · 60 interrogative sentences · 595 interro-negative sentences · 598 intransitive verbs · 82, 309 inversion · 91, 98, 260 inversion, subject-auxiliary · 91 inversion, subject-verb · 595 irrealis moods · 456 irregular adjectives · 219, 500 irregular adverbs · 277, 501 irregular comparative adverbs · 285 irregular inflection · 498 irregular plurals · 492, 499 irregular sentences · 605 irregular superlative adverbs · 290 irregular verbs · 86, 503 it · 70 it, anticipatory · 72 J job titles · 16 L less vs fewer · 27 light verbs · 158 linking adverbs · 263 linking verbs · 153, 181 linking verbs vs action verbs · 156 long adjectives · 219 M 1028 main clauses · 568 major sentences · 605 marginal modal verbs · 130 masculine · 495 mass nouns · 25 may · 121 may / might · 129 middle voice · 472 might · 123 minor sentences · 605 misplaced modifiers · 143, 538 mitigators · 243 mixed conditional · 604 modal auxiliary verbs · 101 modal verbs · 101 modal verbs, marginal · 130 modifiers · 534 modifiers vs complements · 532 modifiers, compound · 207 modifiers, dangling · 143, 539 modifiers, misplaced · 143, 538 modifiers, squinting · 539 monotransitive verbs · 84, 524 mood · 456 mood, emphatic · 458 mood, imperative · 457 mood, indicative · 459 mood, infinitive · 458 mood, realis · 456, 459 moods, irrealis · 456 must · 126 must / shall / should / will · 129 N names · 15 negative adverbials · 258 negative adverbs · 258 negative declarative sentences · 594 negative interrogative sentences · 598 1029 negative phrases · 93 negative sentences · 594 negative sentences, forming · 93 neither · 57, 368 nominal adjectives · 205 nominalization · 35 nominatives of address · 16 non-conjunctive adverbs of purpose · 252 non-continuous verbs · 148 non-count nouns · 25 non-defining clauses · 576 none · 57 non-finite verbs · 79, 516 non-gradable adjectives · 241 non-grading adverbs · 240 non-progressive verbs · 148 non-restrictive adjectives · 189 non-restrictive appositives · 565 non-restrictive clauses · 576 non-restrictive relative clauses · 576 noun adjuncts · 542 noun clauses · 572 noun phrases · 188, 548 nouns · 11 nouns of address · 16 nouns of direct address · 16 nouns, closed compound · 33 nouns, collective · 29 nouns, common · 15 nouns, compound · 31 nouns, concrete · 18 nouns, concrete countable · 19 nouns, concrete uncountable · 20 nouns, count · 21 nouns, countable · 21 nouns, mass · 25 nouns, non-count · 25 nouns, predicate · 527 nouns, predicative · 527 1030 nouns, proper · 15 nouns, synonymous · 311 nouns, uncountable · 25 number · 44 O object complements · 180, 190, 529 objective case · 48, 525, 528 objects · 524 objects of prepositions · 525 objects of verbs · 524 one another · 68 open compound nouns · 33 order of adjectives · 211 order of adverbs · 292 origin · 306 Oxford comma · 351 P paired conjunctions · 352 parallel structure · 354 participle clauses · 559 participle phrases · 559 participle phrases, passive perfect · 560 participles · 80, 139 particle phrasal verbs · 163 particle-prepositional phrasal verbs · 163 particles · 361 parts of speech · 10 passive perfect participle phrases · 560 passive voice · 470 past continuous tense · 425, 453 past indicative · 459 past participle phrases · 559 past participles · 80, 140 past perfect continuous tense · 430, 454 past perfect progressive tense · 430 past perfect tense · 427, 454 past progressive tense · 425 past simple tense · 422, 453 1031 past tense · 419 perfect aspect · 452, 454 perfect participle phrases · 559 perfect simple aspect · 455 perfective aspect · 449 person · 45 personal pronouns · 43 phrasal adjectives · 207 phrasal verbs · 162, 166, 361 phrasal verbs, preposition · 163 phrases · 543 phrases, adjectival · 553 phrases, adjectival prepositional · 299 phrases, adjective · 553 phrases, adjunct · 541 phrases, adverb · 556 phrases, adverbial · 556 phrases, adverbial prepositional · 299 phrases, appositive · 564 phrases, infinitive · 546 phrases, negative · 93 phrases, noun · 188, 548 phrases, participle · 559 phrases, prepositional · 298, 525 phrases, verb · 544 plural-only collective nouns · 30 plurals · 44, 492 plurals, irregular · 492, 499 plurals, regular · 499 positive degree · 215, 281 possession · 374 possessive adjectives · 374 possessive apostrophes · 375 possessive case · 49 possessive determiners · 374 postnominal adjectives · 189 postpositive adjectives · 189 pre-determiners · 368 predicate · 514 1032 predicate adjectives · 192 predicate nominatives · 527 predicate nouns · 527 predicate pronouns · 527 predicate, parts of the · 516 predicate, simple · 515 predicates, compound · 515, 582 predicative adjectives · 192 predicative nouns · 527 prenominal adjectives · 189 preposition phrasal verbs · 163 prepositional idioms · 332, 334, 340 prepositional phrases · 298, 525 prepositional verbs · 317 prepositional verbs vs phrasal verbs · 318 prepositions · 295, 307 prepositions of agency · 306 prepositions of connection · 306 prepositions of direction or movement · 305 prepositions of instrument or device · 306 prepositions of place · 304 prepositions of reason or purpose · 306 prepositions of time · 303 prepositions, dependent · 317 prepositions, objects of · 525 prepositive adjectives · 189 present continuous tense · 409, 452 present indicative · 459 present participle phrases · 559 present participles · 80, 139, 409 present perfect continuous tense · 416, 452 present perfect progressive tense · 416 present perfect tense · 412, 452 present simple tense · 406, 452 present tense · 404 primary interjections · 382 pronouns · 40 pronouns, demonstrative · 57 pronouns, dummy · 70 1033 pronouns, expletive · 70 pronouns, impersonal · 55 pronouns, indefinite · 53 pronouns, intensive · 51 pronouns, interrogative · 60 pronouns, personal · 43 pronouns, predicate · 527 pronouns, reciprocal · 68 pronouns, reflexive · 43, 69, 182 pronouns, relative · 63 proper adjectives · 194 proper nouns · 15 proverbs · 608 Q quantifiers · 369 question mark · 595 question word questions · 596 question words · 596, 598 questions, reported · 61 quotation marks · 474 quoted speech · 474 R realis mood · 456, 459 reciprocal pronouns · 68 reflexive pronouns · 43, 69, 182 reflexive verbs · 182 regular adjectives · 500 regular adverbs · 277, 501 regular inflection · 498 regular plurals · 499 regular sentences · 605 regular verbs · 86, 502 relative adverbs · 272 relative clauses · 575 relative clauses, non-restrictive · 576 relative pronouns · 63 reported questions · 61 reported speech · 478 1034 reporting verbs · 474, 478 restrictive adjectives · 189 restrictive appositives · 565 restrictive clauses · 576 restrictive relative clauses · 576 restrictive vs non-restrictive attributive adjectives · 189 rhetorical · 597 royal order of adverbs · 292 run-on sentences · 586 S second conditional · 177, 603 second person · 45, 482 secondary interjections · 383 semantically weak verbs · 158 semicolon · 263, 586 semi-modal auxiliary verbs · 130 semi-modal verbs · 130 sense verbs · 149, 155, 192 sentence fragments · 606 sentences · 580 sentences, complex · 588 sentences, compound · 584 sentences, compound-complex · 590 sentences, conditional · 602 sentences, declarative · 592 sentences, elliptical · 253 sentences, exclamatory · 592 sentences, imperative · 600 sentences, interrogative · 595 sentences, interro-negative · 598 sentences, irregular · 605 sentences, major · 605 sentences, minor · 605 sentences, negative · 594 sentences, negative interrogative · 598 sentences, regular · 605 sentences, run-on · 586 sentences, simple · 568 1035 sentences, single-word · 606 serial comma · 351 shall · 110 short adjectives · 218 should · 112 silent speech · 477 simple aspect · 453, 455 simple past tense · 422 simple predicate · 515 simple present tense · 406 simple sentences · 568 single-word sentences · 606 singular · 44 singular they · 47 solid compound nouns · 33 spaced compound nouns · 33 speech · 474 speech, direct · 474 speech, free indirect · 476 speech, indirect · 478 speech, quoted · 474 speech, reported · 478 speech, silent · 477 squinting modifiers · 539 state verbs · 148 stative verbs · 148 stative verbs that take gerunds · 379 subject complements · 49, 527 subject, renaming the · 154 subject-auxiliary inversion · 91 subjective case · 48, 528 subjects · 508 subjects, compound · 582 subjects, empty · 72 subject-verb agreement · 24, 509 subject-verb agreement · 354 subject-verb inversion · 595 subjunctive mood · 461 subordinate clauses · 570 1036 subordinating conjunctions · 356 such · 57 suffixes · 35 superlative adjectives · 223 superlative adverbs · 288 superlative adverbs, irregular · 290 suprafix · 38 synonymous nouns · 311 syntax · 505 T tag questions · 596 tense · 397 that · 57 there · 70, 236 there, existential · 70 these · 57 these/those · 201 they, generic · 55 they, singular · 47 thin verbs · 158 third conditional · 177, 604 third person · 45, 482 this · 57 this/that · 200 those · 57 to be · 148 toward · 235 towards · 235 transitive verbs · 82, 309 tritransitive verbs · 85 U uncountable nouns · 25 ungradable adjectives · 222 ungradable adverbs · 287 V verb phrases · 544 verb tenses · 90 1037 verbs · 73 verbs followed by both gerunds and infinitives · 381 verbs of cognition · 151 verbs of emotion · 150 verbs of possession and attribution · 150 verbs of progression · 156 verbs of states or qualities · 151 verbs of the senses · 155 verbs, action · 146 verbs, ambitransitive · 83 verbs, auxiliary · 89, 94 verbs, causative · 178, 181 verbs, conditional · 175 verbs, copular · 153 verbs, delexical · 158 verbs, ditransitive · 84, 524 verbs, dynamic · 146 verbs, empty · 158 verbs, ergative · 83 verbs, factitive · 180 verbs, finite · 79, 516 verbs, helping · 89 verbs, intransitive · 82, 309 verbs, irregular · 86, 503 verbs, light · 158 verbs, linking · 153, 181 verbs, modal · 101 verbs, modal auxiliary · 101 verbs, monotransitive · 84, 524 verbs, non-continuous · 148 verbs, non-finite · 79, 516 verbs, non-progressive · 148 verbs, phrasal · 162, 166, 361 verbs, prepositional · 317 verbs, reflexive · 182 verbs, regular · 86, 502 verbs, reporting · 474, 478 verbs, semantically weak · 158 verbs, semi-modal · 130 1038 verbs, sense · 149, 155, 192 verbs, state · 148 verbs, stative · 148 verbs, thin · 158 verbs, transitive · 82, 309 verbs, tritransitive · 85 viewpoint adverbs · 270 vocatives · 16 voice · 466 voice, active · 467 voice, middle · 472 voice, passive · 470 vowel sounds vs consonant sounds · 363 W weak contrast · 265 wh- questions · 596 what vs which · 203 whom · 60, 525, 576 whose vs who’s · 204 will · 105 will / can / could / would · 129 will / shall · 128 would · 107 Y yes/no questions · 596, 598 yon/yonder · 201 you, generic · 55 you, impersonal · 55 you, indefinite · 55 Z zero conditional · 176, 602 zero derivation · 38 1039 ...The Farlex Grammar Book: Complete English Grammar Rules FARLEX International Copyright © 2016 Farlex International All rights... might not coincide with the styles, tendencies, or preferences of other English- speaking communities 10 English Grammar Grammar refers to the way words are used, classified, and structured together... mastering grammar is not an exercise that is confined to the classroom While it is certainly important to learn the structures, styles, and rules that shape the language, the key to truly learning English