LANGUE ET CULTURE
Theories regarding the relationship between language and culture have been significantly shaped by advancements in linguistics and anthropology, particularly through the evolving concepts of both language and culture Historically, the connection between these two phenomena was not considered when culture was merely viewed as a collection of traits It was only when culture began to be understood as a system, and language as an integral part of that system, that the conditions for exploring their relationship emerged Additionally, recognizing language as a social fact was crucial, as it allowed for the examination of the functional relationships between language and culture These conditions were largely established just over thirty years ago, following the influential works of Durkheim in anthropology and Maillet in linguistics.
Analyzing and critiquing various theories related to the relationship between language and culture is a complex task, as the problem is framed differently depending on the definitions of these concepts Additionally, authors have approached the issue at various levels of analysis Instead of providing a chronological overview of different theories, this discussion will explore the diverse perspectives presented in the literature regarding this intricate relationship.
At the beginning of the century, pioneers like Boas and Malinowski recognized the essential role of linguistic studies in anthropology Their focus was primarily on the practical relationship between language and culture, questioning whether one is necessary to study the other in the field Both emphasized the importance of collecting ethnographic material in the indigenous language.
Another important preliminary question raised in the literature concerns the correlations between language and culture regarding their distribution Notably, Baos and Sapir recognized early on that cultures and languages often have geographic distributions that do not align Several genetically unrelated languages can be spoken within a homogeneous cultural area, while the same language may be used by culturally diverse groups This phenomenon is evident in international or widely spoken languages, such as Swahili in Africa, which serves as a lingua franca in various cultural contexts.
Claude Lévi-Strauss a dit que:
To properly define the relationship between language and culture, it is essential to dismiss two extreme hypotheses: one suggesting no correlation between the two, and the other proposing a complete correlation at all levels The former presents a fragmented view of the human mind, which is inconsistent with observations in other areas of psychological life Conversely, if there were an absolute correspondence between language and culture, linguists and anthropologists would have already recognized it, negating the need for further discussion Therefore, my working hypothesis advocates for a moderate stance: there are likely discernible correlations between certain aspects of language and culture at specific levels, and our goal is to identify these aspects and levels.
Numerous studies have examined various levels of language, revealing a dominance of certain linguistic levels in their relationship with culture It is now widely accepted that there is no correlation between the phonological level of a language and the culture in which it is spoken The phonemes selected from a vast array of theoretical possibilities by a culture are based on arbitrary choices.
The concept of culture, whether cultivated or ordinary, is intricately linked to language Language transcends being a mere formal system; it is fundamentally a social practice that serves as a vital emblem of culture It plays a crucial role in both the development and evolution of culture, as it is through language that various cultural components are codified, studied, and taught The lexicon of a language often reflects the unique realities of the society in which it is used, with polite terms indicating social hierarchies and kinship terms referencing family organization Conversely, culture shapes language by providing the shared knowledge and context necessary for meaningful communication and interpretation Therefore, language and culture are inseparable, and the enhancement of linguistic and communicative skills should be viewed as an intercultural practice of language.
In the field of language teaching and learning, there is a growing consensus that mastering a language necessitates a dual competence: linguistic proficiency and cultural understanding.
The focus of this research is on French as a foreign language, necessitating a clarification of the terms "first language," "native language," "second language," and "foreign language." This distinction helps to highlight the similarities and differences among these three types of languages, which in turn sheds light on the cultural obstacles often faced by foreign language learners and, more specifically, by foreign language readers.
1.1.1 Langue première ou langue maternelle, langue seconde et langue étrangère
In discussions about language teaching and learning, terms such as first language or mother tongue (L1), second language (L2), and foreign language (FL) are commonly used The distinction between second language and foreign language raises significant questions, as it goes beyond mere terminological issues that language teachers encounter Understanding these differences is crucial for effective language instruction, particularly for L2 and FL learners Numerous authors have made efforts to clarify these distinctions.
A first language, often referred to as a dominant or majority language, is the language an individual learns during childhood in an environment where it is spoken, and it may not necessarily be their mother tongue In contrast, a foreign language is one that is not a native or first language, learned later in life in a context where it is not widely spoken While distinguishing between first and foreign languages is straightforward, the difference between second languages and foreign languages can be confusing According to Galisson and Coste, the term "second language" lacks pedagogical justification but provides a useful distinction in countries where bilingualism or multilingualism is official, such as Canada, Switzerland, and Belgium, or in Francophone African countries where French holds a privileged status The key difference lies in that foreign languages are typically acquired outside the country where they are spoken Cuq asserts that any language that is not a first language is considered a foreign language.
A second language is inherently foreign but possesses unique characteristics that give it a special status among other learned foreign languages For instance, French as a second language stands out due to its legal and social significance and the degree of ownership claimed by its community of speakers This distinction helps to explain the frequent use of the term "second language" in bilingual or multilingual countries like Canada, Belgium, and Switzerland, in contrast to the term "foreign language," which is more commonly used in countries where languages such as English, French, and Spanish are learned for international communication.
Le dictionnaire ôLe Grand Robertằ (1985) a donnộ la dộfinition de langue comme suit :
A mother tongue is a natural linguistic system, which can be homogeneous or mixed, that an individual acquires within a linguistic community The roles of various components within this community differ based on cultural contexts.
The fundamental difference between creoles and pidgins is that only creoles can serve as mother tongues A mother tongue is not necessarily the language of one's mother; for instance, an American may have Italian as their mother tongue if Italian was spoken in the family, despite having a Greek mother A second language is one learned after the mother tongue, often required within a community, unlike a foreign language, which is typically learned by individual choice and educational decision A second language can be an official language or a lingua franca.
There is a distinction between a second language and a foreign language, both of which are non-native languages A second language is spoken by a segment of the population in the learner's country and holds a privileged status, often being an official or vehicular language Its learning is influenced by the community and social environment In contrast, a foreign language is not widely spoken in the learner's country and lacks cultural presence, making its acquisition a matter of personal choice or educational decision For instance, a Canadian anglophone learning French is acquiring a second language, while learning Vietnamese or Spanish would be considered learning a foreign language The learning processes for both types of language learners are similar, but their exposure and practice opportunities differ significantly Second language learners may not have consistent opportunities to use the language, while foreign language learners often have minimal chances to engage with native speakers and their culture This limited exposure can lead to greater cultural challenges for foreign language learners compared to both first and second language learners.
1.1.2 Le franỗais langue seconde (FLS)
CULTURE
À suite de la conférence mondiale sur les politiques culturelles tenue à Mexico en 1982 dans ôla Dộclaration de Mexicoằ, la dộfinition de la culture est comprise:
Culture, in its broadest sense, encompasses the distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual, and emotional traits that characterize a society or social group It includes not only the arts and literature but also lifestyles, fundamental human rights, value systems, traditions, and beliefs.
Cortes defines culture as the heritage of customs, knowledge, and practices that human societies pass down through generations It encompasses the social, religious, and artistic structures that shape a community Culture serves as both a vessel for individuals to express their imagination and creativity, and as a reservoir that influences their way of life.
D’aprốs le dictionnaire ôLe Petit Robert 2006ằ [111], on trouve la dộfinition de la culture comme:
The development of certain mental faculties can be enhanced through appropriate intellectual exercises For instance, a comprehensive set of acquired knowledge fosters critical thinking, taste, and judgment This process emphasizes the importance of knowledge, education, training, and instruction in cultivating these essential skills.
- Ensemble des aspects intellectuels propres à une civilisation, une nation;
-Ensemble des formes acquises de comportement, dans les sociétés humaines et c’est le synonyme de ôcivilisationằ
The term "culture" originates from the Latin word "cultura" and first appeared in the French language in the late 13th century, referring to either cultivated land or religious worship Today, "culture" encompasses a wide range of meanings and various applications.
Il s’emploie ainsi dans des domaines les plus variés et permet de désigner des phénomènes très dissemblables
The term "culture" has various interpretations across different fields For instance, educators refer to "general culture," farmers discuss "intensive culture," journalists address "mass culture," and human resources professionals talk about "corporate culture." Each context highlights the diverse meanings and applications of culture in society.
Le mot culture est ộgalement usitộ dans des expressions telles que ôculture physiqueằ, ôculture scientifiqueằ, ôculture nationaleằ, ôculture populaireằ, ôculture vivriốreằ ou encore ôculture classiqueằ
Vu ces diverses utilisations, réaliser une définition précise et complète de ce terme semble tenir de la gageure
In the realm of social sciences, the diversity of meanings and uses appears boundless In 1952, American researchers A.L Kroeber and C Kluckhohn identified over 150 distinct definitions that have been developed since the mid-18th century by various scientists, including anthropologists, sociologists, and psychologists.
Actuellement, trois sens différents coexistent et définissent la culture:
Dans son sens restreint de culture savante
Elle désigne le développement de certaines facultés de l’esprit par des exercices intellectuels appropriés [114]
Elle évoque généralement la connaissance des œuvres de l’esprit: littérature, musique, peinture, etc
Some believe that culture is unequally distributed, suggesting that some individuals possess culture while others have little or none However, culture is inherent to every human group, which makes this perspective heavily ethnocentric What constitutes culture for one group may not be the same for another, highlighting the subjective nature of cultural values and practices.
Dans son sens anthropologique et sociologique
The term "culture" encompasses a broad and neutral meaning, referring to the collective activities, beliefs, and practices shared by a specific society or social group.
La culture présente quatre caractéristiques [43]:
- C’est un ensemble cohérent dont les éléments sont interdépendants;
- Elle imprègne l’ensemble des activités humaines;
- Elle est commune à un groupe d’hommes, que ce groupe soit important (les habitants d’un continent) ou très faible (un groupe de jeunes);
Culture is transmitted through socialization, primarily from one generation to the next, facilitated by key agents such as family and education In this way, culture serves as a social heritage.
La culture a de nombreux aspects dont certains sont apparents et d’autres cachés ou latents
Explicit culture encompasses all tangible and concrete aspects of a people's life, including their food, housing, clothing, weapons, language, dances, rituals, artistic achievements, and funeral customs.
Implicit culture refers to the underlying system of representations, feelings, and values that provide unity and meaning to explicit culture Commonly referred to as "mentality," this concept highlights the subtle yet significant aspects that shape cultural understanding.
In today's world, human communication is a key topic of discussion among linguists, psychologists, and writers In the 21st century, the era of communication, collective life lacks meaning without interaction with others Language serves as the primary tool for communication, enabling the transmission of culture from one human group to another.
La culture exerce également une grande influence sur la formation du langage Alors, il y a un rapport étroit entre langage et culture
The culture of each country is reflected in its language and literature, suggesting that the lexicon encompasses unique cultural and traditional elements Language units, particularly proverbs and expressions, largely convey cultural values, highlighting the intrinsic connection between language and the identity of a nation.
The authors of this article focus on Iranians studying the French language, emphasizing that knowledge of culture and language are inseparable They argue that understanding French culture is essential for learning the language, and highlight the importance of cultural transmission through education.
Pour Ghamari, ôon considốre toutes les langues comme langue paternelle des êtres humains et l’apprentissage d’une langue étrangère ouvre la voie à l’évolution de la culture humaineằ [46]
In today's globalized world, the importance of learning a foreign language has significantly increased due to cultural curiosity and intellectual exchange As a result, there is a growing interest among educators in promoting foreign languages, shifting from their traditional focus on cultural promotion over the past few decades.
RAPPORT ENTRE LA LANGUE ET LA CULTURE
According to the definition provided by Petit Larousse, culture encompasses a collection of customs and artistic, religious, and intellectual expressions that represent a community, distinguishing it from other groups and societies.
Culture is often studied in two dimensions: material and spiritual The material aspect encompasses the concrete and tangible works created by humans, while the spiritual dimension represents the set of values formed by human beings.
In this study, we emphasize the significance of spiritual culture, highlighting that culture is shaped through the spiritual and linguistic connections among individuals within a society Essentially, the concept of culture emerges from the knowledge, experiences, and beliefs that are passed down from one society to another, primarily facilitated by language as a tool of understanding.
Language is often viewed as a means to express ideas and perspectives, serving not only as a tool for knowledge but also as an instrument of thought and culture One of its primary functions is to articulate beliefs and thoughts externally In essence, language is the most effective medium for accessing any culture, as it acts as both a vehicle and a product of all cultures, facilitating cultural exchange and understanding.
Language serves as a universal vehicle, enabling the expression of a wide range of subjects closely related to human experience, including literature, art, science, myths, rituals, and behaviors, through the intermediary of words.
A vehicle must adapt and evolve with its users to remain relevant, acting as a suitable bearer of the new meanings, values, and responsibilities they generate This continuous creation of neologisms can be interpreted as a sign of cultural adaptation.
He is a producer of cultures, as it is through his mediation, exchange, and communication among individuals within the group that collective representations and attitudes are formed and transformed.
Language serves as a social practice and a socio-historical product, deeply intertwined with culture Words act as constructed receptacles, providing unique entry points for cultural content that becomes embedded within them, ultimately enriching the ordinary semantic dimension of signs.
The national language of each country reflects its beliefs, customs, and overall culture, demonstrating a reciprocal influence between language and national culture On one hand, language and vocabulary develop in accordance with national culture, while on the other hand, they are shaped by the national language of each country Additionally, a new perspective suggests that the cognitive system is inseparable from linguistic structure, indicating that language plays a crucial role not only in expressing social realities (culture) but also in shaping those realities, thereby reflecting human relationships.
Lévi-Strauss defined humans as speakers, highlighting that language is a fundamental aspect of culture Culture represents what humans contribute to nature, transmitted not biologically but through learning It encompasses societal rules, techniques, sciences, and arts, all of which constitute culture Importantly, language serves as the medium through which these elements are communicated, making it an essential component of cultural transmission.
The intricate relationship between language and culture is a complex issue that requires thorough examination This article focuses on how this connection impacts the teaching of foreign languages, particularly in the context of French language learners in Iran We explore the influence of language and culture on foreign language education, highlighting recent experiences from French teachers Despite having acquired linguistic knowledge, many students struggle to express themselves in French after completing their studies, indicating a gap between language proficiency and practical communication skills.
Ce qui signifie que des éléments extra-langagiers qui se concrétisent davantage dans la culture ne faisaient pas l’objet d’attention des enseignants.
PLURILINGUISME
Current developments in the teaching of modern languages are reshaping the meanings of many established concepts within the discipline, even those that seemed well entrenched in professional understanding after years of collective effort A notable example is the term "competencies," which is undergoing new semantic challenges just as a consensus had been reached in educational documents.
Few key terms remain unaffected by these changes The concept of "oral expression" has lost its pedagogical clarity, leading to a clear distinction between continuous oral expression and oral interaction The term "bilingualism" reveals its limitations, as it simultaneously refers to a social practice (the use of two languages in the same geographical area), an individual competence (the mastery of two languages by one person), and a pedagogical approach (teaching school subjects in two different languages).
Should we be concerned or merely adhere to commonly accepted practices? Perhaps we should embrace the dynamic nature of language teaching, viewing current challenges as signs of its vitality It’s encouraging that the existing confusion around certain concepts compels us to clarify our discussions instead of relying on terms that have become increasingly tenuous This necessity is particularly evident when it comes to the term "multilingualism."
Although the profound changes in the exact scope of the term "plurilingualism" are not yet clearly visible in discourse and practice, developments in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages by the Council of Europe have significant implications for this topic Typically, "plurilingualism" refers to an individual's knowledge of multiple languages, albeit with ambiguities surrounding the term "knowledge." Rightly associated with the defense of linguistic and cultural diversity in Europe, the promotion of plurilingualism has become a driving force in language policy in our country The European recommendation for all Europeans to know at least two foreign languages in addition to their mother tongue has transformed into an objective within the French education system, making the learning of at least two foreign languages mandatory for nearly all students during part of their common schooling and for all general education programs Initiatives aimed at promoting French in Europe and worldwide are deliberately and explicitly aligned with a plurilingualism dynamic.
Multilingualism refers to the condition of an individual or community that concurrently uses multiple languages based on the context of communication This ability allows individuals to effectively utilize various linguistic varieties according to the situation at hand.
C’est ce concept qui fonde actuellement la politique linguistique d’un pays ou d’une communauté L’Europe, par exemple, vise au plurilinguisme des habitants
Le modèle avoué est un individu doué de compétence plurilingue, s’appuyant sur plusieurs langues pour communiquer et s’exprimer
Multilingualism refers to an individual's ability to draw on a repertoire of skills and knowledge in multiple languages to navigate diverse communication situations effectively.
This definition challenges the prevalent view that language learning and teaching should solely aim for the highest level of proficiency in each language.
Multilingualism is defined as a unique, naturally balanced, and evolving skill, where proficiency levels in various languages and different language activities—both comprehension and expression—are rarely identical and are expected to evolve throughout an individual's journey.
Multilingual and multicultural competencies go beyond merely adding monolingual skills; they enable combinations, alternations, and versatility across different contexts This allows for code-switching during communication and the use of bilingual speech forms A richer repertoire facilitates strategic choices in task accomplishment, leveraging inter-linguistic variation and language shifts when circumstances allow.
The CEFR defines plurilingual and pluricultural competence as an integrated skill that encompasses a comprehensive linguistic repertoire rather than a mere collection of separate communication abilities tied to individual languages.
The Council of Europe has developed comprehensive and well-argued definitions of plurilingualism, based on the latest research findings Aiming to provide member states with insights and tools to better manage their educational language policies, the Council advocates for a language teaching approach that transcends the mere juxtaposition of isolated language instruction It introduces a holistic concept of language education, emphasizing the interconnectedness of plurilingualism, plurilingual repertoire, and plurilingual competence.
Déjà le Cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues présente l’approche plurilingue en explicitant des fonctions:
The plurilingual approach emphasizes that as an individual's linguistic experience expands from their family language to that of their social group and beyond, they do not compartmentalize these languages and cultures Instead, they develop a communicative competence that integrates knowledge and experiences from all languages, allowing for correlation and interaction among them.
A pluralistic approach is defined as one that engages in activities involving multiple linguistic and cultural varieties This approach contrasts with a singular approach, which focuses solely on one specific language or culture in isolation Based on this definition, four didactic approaches can be identified Two of these have established a tradition of at least forty years regarding their principles: intercultural approach, integrated didactics of taught languages, intercomprehension among related languages, and language awareness.
Until the 1960s, foreign languages were primarily reserved for the educated elite and specific professions, but today they are integral to daily life They facilitate access to information, simplify travel, and are essential in education and the workplace It is widely recognized that knowledge of foreign languages is crucial; however, the pressing question remains: which languages should one learn?
Addressing the question of what communication looks like today leads us to consider its future evolution Once we understand the current landscape, we can explore strategies for effective preparation and adaptation to upcoming changes in communication methods.
DIVERSIFICATION DE L’OFFRE LINGUISTIQUE
Once other subjects are consistently taught in a foreign language, it is essential to evaluate whether the current level of language instruction should continue Various factors suggest that a portion of the time previously dedicated to this language could be redirected towards different objectives The hours saved in the schedule could be utilized to introduce additional languages.
1.5.1 Différenciation des objectifs d’apprentissage selon des langues
The goal of 21st-century education should be to expand the communicative reach and cultural horizons of every citizen Given the limited hours allocated for foreign language instruction, achieving multilingualism requires differentiated objectives for the various languages taught By the end of their schooling, students should ideally master their first foreign language at a receptive and productive level of C1, a second language receptively at C1 and productively at B1, and a third language at a receptive level of B1.
1.5.2 Mobilisation des connaissances acquises pour la compréhension d’autres langues
The communicative scope can be expanded by leveraging the similarities among languages By building on existing linguistic knowledge, courses can be designed to enable students to decipher written and spoken texts in related languages, allowing them to grasp essential topics and messages effectively.
1.5.3 Nouvelle réflexion sur la succession des langues
The current question regarding the order of foreign language teaching in schools highlights the importance of not only imparting practical linguistic knowledge but also introducing students to diverse linguistic systems and cultures Effective language education should focus on targeted instruction that directly enhances language acquisition, as seen in traditional foreign language teaching methods Additionally, younger learners benefit from cognitive development, which facilitates faster learning and greater exposure to languages, particularly English, leading to valuable implicit learning Therefore, it is essential to evaluate whether the current sequence of languages, with English as the first foreign language, truly supports the goal of fostering multilingualism.
CONTEXTE GÉNÉRAL
Francophonie is not merely a relic of the past; it plays a crucial role in Vietnam's future It transcends mere statistics, embodying a commitment to preserving cultural identity and soul This perspective is emphasized by Margie Sudre, a former French Minister for Francophonie and European Parliament member.
Selon Michel Tétu, la francophonie désigne l’ensemble des populations ou des groupes de locuteurs qui, dans la vie quotidienne, utilisent partiellement ou exclusivement le franỗais comme langue de communication [76]
The term "Francophonie" refers to the collective of French-speaking populations and was first used by French geographer Onésime Reclus in 1880 It encompasses both linguistic and geographical aspects, highlighting the global presence of the French language.
De plus, la revue ôAnnộe Internationale de la Francophonie 2004ằ[23] a dộfini comme suit, les termes: ôfrancophonieằ, ôFrancophonieằ, ôespace francophonieằ:
Francophonie encompasses all speakers, groups, and peoples who use the French language to varying degrees French may serve as a mother tongue, a second language, or a means of communication and cultural expression, highlighting its diverse roles in the lives of its users.
La Francophonie, with a capital "F," refers to the political alliance of states and governments that convenes every two years at a summit to establish the strategic directions and programs of the International Organization of La Francophonie, which is led by the Secretary-General of La Francophonie.
The Francophone space is not only a geographical or linguistic reality but also a cultural one, encompassing all individuals who feel a connection to the French language and Francophone values This term, while seemingly vague, is undoubtedly rich in meaning and encompasses a wide range of diverse situations.
The initial judgment of Margie Sudre highlights the unique context of Vietnam within the Francophonie, emphasizing not only Vietnam's connection to Francophone values but also the future implications of this relationship While the legacy of colonization has been absent from Vietnam for over 50 years, it still plays a role in shaping contemporary Vietnamese identity The complex colonial history with France contributed to the emergence of this identity, particularly during the first modernization of the country from 1858 to 1945, as noted by Huu Ngoc, a writer, journalist, and expert on Vietnamese culture.
The Francophone space is not just a geographical and linguistic reality, but also a cultural one that unites individuals who feel a connection to the French language and Francophone cultures As noted by 19th-century geographer Onésime Reclus, "We accept as Francophones all those who are or seem destined to remain or become participants in our language."
Although the presence of the French language in Vietnam dates back to the 19th century, the number of French speakers remains modest, constituting only 0.7% of the Vietnamese population, or approximately 500,000 individuals The current status of the French language in Vietnam is the result of a long historical relationship between France and Vietnam, which can be understood through four key stages.
The first phase spanned from the 17th century to the mid-19th century, lasting several hundred years This period was marked by the arrival of French merchants and missionaries, who were supported by Vietnamese authorities.
This stage is characterized by three key events: the spread of Christian propaganda, the emergence of the national language (Quoc-ngu), and the involvement of a group of French soldiers who assisted Lord Nguyen Anh in establishing the Nguyen dynasty.
The second phase is known as the French colonial period, lasting over 80 years (1858-1945) This era marked the first wave of modernization for the Vietnamese and the spread of the French language The colonization process was accompanied by cultural assimilation, as the French sought to impose their Judeo-Christian civilization and modernity Alongside the basic benefits of medicine and education, they introduced new cultural elements and developed existing mining operations Consequently, French schools were established in Vietnam.
The third stage marks the decline of the French language in Vietnam, spanning from the Indochina War (1945-1954) to the 1970s and 1980s This era coincides with Vietnam's declaration of independence following its struggle against American imperialism.
The fourth stage began in the 1980s when Vietnam started to revive the French language During this period, Vietnam implemented its renewal policy, seeking socio-economic development by engaging with foreign countries Consequently, the previously rejected French colonial culture now plays a role in shaping a modern Vietnamese national identity, blending charm and contemporary influences Vietnamese people have come to recognize the value of developing this invaluable heritage through Franco-Vietnamese cultural exchange.
IMPLANTATION DE LA LANGUE FRANÇAISE AU SERVICE DE LA
D’abord, il faut affirmer que c’est la période marquant l’existence du franỗais au Vietnam
The presence of the French in Vietnam began with the landing of French troops in Danang in 1858 This marked the start of over a century of French colonial rule, profoundly impacting Vietnamese society and politics.
80 ans jusqu’à sa proclamation de l’indépendance en 1945
The establishment of the Indochinese Union by French colonizers, known as "Indochina," encompassed three countries: Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia Vietnam was divided into three regions: Tonkin, a directly administered protectorate; Annam, a central protectorate; and Cochinchina, a colony that included cities like Da Nang, Hanoi, and Haiphong, which were also directly governed by the French.
Colonization is a complex human endeavor that encompasses both negative and positive aspects While it is often associated with the darker elements of exploitation and oppression, it also brought about valuable cultural exchanges and advancements It is essential to recognize and appreciate the positive contributions alongside the negative consequences of this historical process.
According to Gộrard Gilles Epain, colonization involves the forceful occupation of foreign lands for the purpose of exploitation, where the colonizers establish their own presence and benefit from the resources of the occupied territories.
D’aprốs le dictionnaire ôPetit Larousseằ (2009), la colonisation est comprise comme ôaction de transformer un pays en territoire dộpendant d’une mộtropoleằ.[112]
The purpose of colonization can involve exploiting actual or perceived advantages of a territory, such as labor, raw materials, or strategic positioning, to benefit the metropolitan country Additionally, it may aim to foster the development of civilization A settlement colony specifically seeks to establish a population from the metropolis in a territory where they originally have no roots.
The French established Indochina primarily as an exploitation colony rather than a settlement According to both French and Vietnamese historians, the Vietnamese people endured numerous tragedies during this period The initial contact with France was characterized by force and exploitation.
French historians argue that the primary objective of the French in Vietnam was to impose their civilization and modernity upon the territory This colonization brought with it the inevitable excesses of intolerance and the exploitation of the vulnerable, sometimes leading to racism It is a misconception to believe that colonizers came solely to build schools and hospitals; rather, they sought to enrich themselves, often employing a particularly abhorrent code of indigenous law that permitted the servitude of the local population, a practice that is both ignoble and highly criticized.
The initial political intent of the French colonizers was to establish an administrative system aimed at preventing the resurgence of Vietnamese nationalism This objective was evident both spatially and temporally, as Vietnam was placed under constant and vigilant surveillance The policy focused on denationalizing the elites, Westernizing them, replacing the traditional administration with French officials, and gradually assimilating the Vietnamese population.
The exact toll of victims remains impossible to ascertain, as documents fail to provide a comprehensive account of burned villages and ongoing summary executions in depopulated areas over many years The brutality of the conquest was exacerbated and prolonged by harsh exploitation, which became even more pronounced after the initial conquest ended The burden of direct and indirect taxes, primarily imposed on the peasant population, funded administrative costs, defense, and equipment expenses.
In implementing their colonial policy, the French reserved the autonomy of villages, using village chiefs as intermediaries between themselves and the Vietnamese people This approach aided the colonial government in both preserving Vietnamese popular culture and maintaining rural areas within an outdated feudal social structure.
For the Vietnamese, the entire administrative, military, financial, and cultural apparatus served to reinforce the colonial system and economically exploit the country for the benefit of French capitalist companies invested in Indochinese enterprises The colony was intended to be a market for French industrial products and a source of cheap raw materials and labor There was a refusal to develop a local industry, with French capital concentrated on producing immediately exportable goods like coal and rubber, and all means were employed to prevent the emergence of a Vietnamese capitalist industry No technical innovations were introduced to traditional rice cultivation, resulting in some of the lowest yields in the world The colonizers exacerbated the exploitation of Vietnamese peasants, maintaining relentless pressure on rice production, even amidst family hardships.
Dans sa Déclaration de l’indépendance vietnamienne le 2 septembre 1945,
Ho Chi Minh a ộtộune citation sur des ôdộrogationsằ au domaine politique et sur des ôdộrogations ộconomiquesằ des Franỗais en Indochine comme suit:
In the political realm, our freedoms have been stripped away, and inhumane laws imposed upon us The establishment of three distinct political regimes in Northern, Central, and Southern Vietnam aimed to dismantle our national unity and hinder the solidarity of our people More prisons have been built than schools, and merciless actions have been taken against our patriots Our revolutions have been drowned in rivers of blood, while public opinion has been suppressed under a veil of obscurantism The forced use of opium and alcohol has been employed to weaken our race.
In the economic realm, our people have been ruthlessly exploited, driven into deep poverty, and our nation has been mercilessly ravaged Our rice fields, mines, forests, and raw materials have been seized, while they monopolized currency issuance and foreign trade They imposed unjust taxes that pushed our compatriots, particularly farmers and merchants, into extreme destitution Furthermore, they hindered the prosperity of our national bourgeoisie and barbarically exploited our workers.
Ainsi, pour les Vietnamiens, la colonisation franỗaise est considộrộe comme assujettissement, esclavage, envahissement et oppression
Despite the losses endured since French colonization, the Vietnamese also began to embrace modernity This period witnessed significant infrastructure changes in major cities across Vietnam, highlighting the country's progress.
Alongside exploitation, the French established fundamental infrastructure in Vietnam, including the Paul Doumer Bridge (now known as Long Bien), the municipal opera, and the national library in Hanoi They also developed a comprehensive road system connecting the North and South of Vietnam, along with railway lines such as the Hanoi-Lang Son route This represents a significant advancement in communication and transportation networks in the region.
(1920), Hanọ-Vinh (1905), Hué-Danang (1906), Saigon-Nha Trang
(1919) Les Franỗais crộốrent ộgalement certains instituts de recherche scientifique, comme l’institut Pasteur de Saigon (1891), l’institut d’ocộanographie à Nha Trang (1896), l’ộcole franỗaise d’Extrờme-Orient de Hanọ (1898) [62]
LANGUE FRANÇAISE À PARTIR DE 1954 JUSQU’À 1975
La victoire de la révolution d’Aỏt 1945 signifie la fin de la période coloniale franỗaise au Vietnam C’est la Dộclaration d’indộpendance du Vietnam le
2 septembre sur la place Ba Dinh, Hanọ qui a confirmé la naissance de la République Démocratique du Vietnam
During this period, the Vietnamese faced new challenges, particularly the conspiracy and aggression from external enemies, notably the return of French colonists to Indochina in 1946 Under the leadership of the Workers' Party of Vietnam, headed by President Ho Chi Minh, the Vietnamese people began to fight for their independence After approximately nine years of resistance, the French colonizers ultimately accepted defeat following the events at Dien Bien Phu in May 1954 and the signing of the Geneva Accords in July 1954 Consequently, Vietnam became divided into two by a demilitarized zone.
17 ème parallèle, avec la mis en place de gouvernements idéologiquement opposés:
Au Nord, la République Démocratique du Vietnam, à partir du septembre
In 1945, Vietnam adopted a communist regime led by Ho Chi Minh, receiving material support from China and the USSR Meanwhile, in the South, the Republic of Vietnam, governed by Saigon, upheld a nationalist regime backed militarily by the United States Consequently, the Vietnamese people endured nearly two decades of fierce warfare in their struggle for national independence.
Following the defeat of French colonists, the withdrawal of American forces from Vietnam occurred with the signing of the Paris Agreement in 1973 This marked a significant victory for the North Vietnamese troops, known as the Viet Minh, who ultimately defeated the Saigon government in the South In 1976, the proclamation of Vietnam's reunification was announced, heralding a new era for the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.
At this stage, understanding the political and social situation in Vietnam is crucial, as the North experienced the war of independence while the South faced a new national regime and increasing American influence Consequently, the teaching of French in the North began to decline, with successive government reforms leading to a gradual replacement of French by Vietnamese in the educational system The status of the French language diminished significantly, relegated to the role of a foreign language, a trend mirrored in the South as well.
The American presence led to the decline of the French language in schools; however, it continued to be taught in Catholic schools, French high schools, and universities until 1958.
2.3.1 Langue franỗaise au Sud – Vietnam
French is taught as a foreign language in Vietnam, holding the second position in the educational system Historically, French served as a vehicular language due to colonization, but significant changes occurred with the arrival of Americans in Southern Vietnam Diplomatic relations between France and Vietnam deteriorated in the 1960s, leading to a decline in the status of the French language Despite the intact French educational infrastructure, Vietnamese began to be recognized as the primary language of instruction in elementary and secondary schools, with French only present in French and Catholic institutions While French faced a setback, it was uncertain whether English would completely replace it in Vietnam's educational system After 1954, Vietnamese was established as the official language of instruction, particularly in elementary and secondary education, while French remained a subject as the first foreign language At the higher education level, French continued to maintain its relevance.
The shift in language within the educational system is influenced by various factors, including the administrative necessities of the time The arrival of Americans and the English language significantly altered the status of French; however, French programs continued to be integrated into Vietnamese education, maintaining the same number of hours for literature and composition from elementary to higher levels This persistence can be attributed to the Vietnamese acceptance of Western cultural innovations, acknowledging the need for modernization that Confucian doctrines could not fulfill.
At the Franco-Vietnamese University, we emphasize the importance of our youth acquiring a rich cultural background while maintaining the French language as a gateway to the civilized world Engaging with French writers, speakers, musicians, painters, and sculptors allows us to deepen our understanding and appreciation of French civilization, which is essential for our cultural development.
From 1965 to 1972, a significant shift occurred in South Vietnam with the emergence of a movement promoting English language employment in American companies This development sparked a growing interest among Vietnamese individuals in learning English During this period, English gained equal status to French in general education, leading to a decline in the use of French Furthermore, French increasingly lost its status as a vehicular language, facing competition from the rise of Vietnamese in higher education By the 1960s, French had become just one of the foreign languages offered at universities, often with limited class hours per week.
While the introduction of English was primarily aimed at the American administration and military in Vietnam, it did not signify the replacement of French Despite the strengthening of the American administration in Southern Vietnam, the Vietnamese education system, particularly at the higher education level, increasingly adopted English across various disciplines Nonetheless, French maintained a significant presence among the Vietnamese, especially in the fields of science and technology, such as literature, medicine, and law.
Between 1954 and 1975, the status of the French language in education underwent significant changes, shifting from a nearly exclusive position to a secondary role, influenced by private, primarily religious institutions and French establishments Although the situation of French during this period was not comparable to that of the 1950s, the language was not entirely lost in public education.
During this period, American dominance replaced French influence in the country, leading to a significant shift in the student demographics at educational institutions As a result, Vietnamese students increasingly filled the ranks previously occupied by French students In secondary schools, from June 1954 to June 1956, the percentage of Vietnamese students rose from 63% to 81%, marking an increase of 18% In primary schools, the proportion of Vietnamese students grew by only 6%, from 62% to 68%.
Cependant, un des ộlộments contribuait à la survie du franỗais au Sud du Vietnam, c’est la prộsence des ộlốves eurasiens dont le pốre ộtait presque franỗais
Despite the presence of cultural centers in major American cities that played a significant role in promoting and teaching the French language to adults, the situation of the French language remained unchanged The uncertain fate of French continued until 1975, following the reunification of the country, marking the beginning of a new chapter that will be discussed later.
2.3.2 Langue franỗaise au Nord – Vietnam
Unlike the social context in the South, the establishment of the new Democratic Republic in the North followed a nine-year war that led to the country's partition Under the government's management, the French language was replaced by Vietnamese in the educational system Following the declaration of independence, French completely lost its status as the medium of instruction across all educational levels, making way for widespread literacy movements and the study of Quốc Ngữ.
The social situation in Northern Vietnam during this period starkly contrasted with that of Southern Vietnam While the South was under American influence, the North was aligned with the former Soviet Union and China Soviet-Vietnamese exchanges became a priority in Vietnam's foreign policy, alongside significant relations with China Consequently, ties with France were notably diminished As the North re-entered the war against the Americans, it received substantial support from socialist countries, particularly Russia and China This shift made Russian and Chinese languages central to the country's educational system, leading to the decline of French, a remnant of colonial influence By the 1960s, as highlighted by B Fall, a generation of adolescents viewed French as a historical subject, with their perception of a "white friend" being more aligned with Russians, Bulgarians, or Albanians.
ENSEIGNEMENT DU FRANÇAIS AU VIETNAM
L’implantation de la langue franỗaise au Vietnam est issue du but colonial L’enseignement du/en franỗais est visộ au service de l’administration coloniale
C’est pourquoi, dans le passé, cette langue est considérée comme langue imposée aux Vietnamiens, malgré la langue officielle
Today, although French colonization has receded into the past and French is no longer the official language in Vietnam, the language continues to hold a noble and respected status among the Vietnamese people The ongoing growth of the Francophonie worldwide, with its principles of cooperation and peace, has solidified French's role as a tool for new solidarity and freedom Consequently, the presence of French in Vietnam is not unusual Since 1990, a significant political and linguistic shift has occurred within the Vietnamese government, as foreign military and political constraints, such as colonization and American presence, have ceased.
Cooperation with the USSR is declining, leading to a unique situation in Vietnam where foreign languages are now competing in a non-military context This competition occurs within a framework of voluntary cooperation, moderated by the Vietnamese state.
Since 1994, French has been experiencing a revival in Vietnam through a cooperation program between AUF and the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training, which officially introduced bilingual classes under the "intensive French teaching program." This initiative has been followed by successive agreements between France and Vietnam on French education projects, including "Valofrase" (2007), the establishment of "La Maison des savoirs de la Francophonie" (2009), and the presence of "Espace" (French Institute) These projects have modestly revitalized the use of French in Vietnam, especially in light of the increasing prevalence of English among Vietnamese learners.
Despite ongoing efforts over the years to promote and enhance the French language in France and Vietnam, the outcomes remain surprising, with only about 13,800 students currently enrolled in approximately 520 bilingual classes.
The number of students studying French in Vietnam has decreased since 2005, with only 17,500 students across 650 classes, representing a mere 1% of the youth in the Vietnamese education system and 1% of high school graduates This is significantly lower than the target set in 1994 by Professor Michel Guillou, who advocated for the revitalization of French language education in Southeast Asia, estimating that a threshold of 5% of French-speaking graduates was necessary to ensure the sustainability of Francophonie in Vietnam.
The decline in French language education in Vietnam raises an important question: what are the underlying reasons for this decrease? From the perspective of Vietnamese Francophones and a review of official reports on French teaching in Vietnam, we can tentatively identify several explanations for this trend.
2.4.1 Programme d’enseignement intensif du franỗais À partir de 1994, un projet bilingue francophone a été lancé au Vietnam dans le cadre de coopération entre l’AUPELF et le Ministère de l’Éducation et de la Formation du Vietnam (MEF), en vue de construire la prémisse pour des filières de traduction et d’interprétariat ou d’autres spécialités (gestion, économie, médecin, sciences de l’ingénieur, )
The initiative begins with the establishment of a network of schools implementing an intensive French language program starting at the primary level Students who complete this program will be equipped to master their academic subjects in Vietnamese while simultaneously achieving proficiency in French This dual language competency will facilitate their integration into Vietnamese universities or French-speaking programs both domestically and internationally.
Après 7 ans depuis la naissance, le projet bilingue francophone a obtenu un résultat assez remarquable dont la sortie de la première promotion officielle 1994-
In June 2001, 551 Francophone high school graduates achieved remarkable academic success, with 100% of bilingual students receiving good to excellent grades in the Vietnamese national high school graduation exams Additionally, 87% of these students obtained the internationally recognized Francophone Certificate, which includes assessments in French, mathematics, and physics in French The success rate for entrance exams to universities and national higher education institutions was notably high, with 78.58% of bilingual graduates gaining admission to one or two higher education establishments, reflecting a success rate five times greater than the national average.
En outre, presque tous les bacheliers francophones ont clairement précisé leurs orientations universitaires après la classe de terminale
In Vietnam, 64.67% of students pursue French-language studies, primarily in Vietnam, France, and Quebec, while 35.33% engage in non-French higher education, with 34.18% attending Vietnamese universities in fields such as Architecture, Computer Science, and Finance A small percentage, 1.15%, studies in Singapore and the United States The initial objectives of the program appear largely achieved, as 64.67% of students are engaged in French-language education both domestically and abroad Additionally, 26.3% of bilingual students enrolled in French departments aim to become French teachers, aligning with one of the project's sub-goals.
2.4.2 Situation des classes bilingues à la fin du projet À partir de 2006, des projets des classes bilingues franỗaises au Vietnam ont commencộ à terminer Autrement dit, le MEF du Vietnam a officiellement reỗu et directement gộrộ le programme bilingue ôcomme un sous-systốme à part entiốre dans un dispositif cohérent de l’enseignement général (et de l’enseignement du franỗais, en particulier) du systốme ộducatif nationalằ [62]
Following the complete appropriation by the Vietnamese Ministry, officials are tasked with several responsibilities: ensuring the remuneration of administrators and French teachers involved in the program, maintaining bilingual classes, purchasing new educational materials, preparing new curricula and teaching methods for French as a foreign language, and providing initial and ongoing training for French teachers.
However, the project faced specific challenges that hindered progress In this context, we will outline the two most representative difficulties encountered during the work.
Since the implementation of the intensive French language program, approximately 19 provinces and cities across the country now offer bilingual classes However, there is a significant disparity in the teaching and learning of foreign languages, particularly between English, French, and Russian.
In 2007, survey results from approximately forty provinces and cities across the country revealed that 98.2% of students were enrolled in English courses, while only 1.48% were enrolled in French.
En 2005, il y avait 153.000 ộlốves de franỗais en primaire et en secondaire, mais en 2007, il en restait seulement 113.000; le nombre d’enseignants a également diminué de 1.392 à 1.136 [62]
ENSEIGNEMENT DU FRANÇAIS À LA VILLE DE DANANG
This section aims to provide an overview of French language teaching and learning in the city of Danang Specifically, it focuses on the current state of French education in both general and higher education contexts Furthermore, it explores the role of the French language in the socio-economic development of Danang, highlighting its significance in the region's growth.
In the 1970s and 1980s, Danang, like other cities and provinces in the country, witnessed a significant decline in the use of foreign languages such as Russian, Chinese, and French, leading to their near-total disappearance Many French teachers transitioned to teaching other subjects or sought alternative employment opportunities.
Starting in the 1990s, the project to support French language education in Da Nang marked a significant shift towards a more positive and innovative approach to teaching and learning French French was introduced into the school curriculum at various levels, including primary schools such as Phu Dong (10 classes with a total of 286 students) and Hoang Van Thu (10 classes with 197 students), as well as secondary schools like Trung Vuong and Nguyen Hue (234 students total), and high schools including Phan Chau Trinh, Hoang Hoa Tham, and the specialized Le Quy Don Specifically, the program includes 2 general education classes, 1 intensive French class, 3 classes offering French as a second language (LV2), and 1 experimental French class.
En général, il est probable de dire que l’enseignement/apprentissage de la langue franỗaise pendant cette ộtape est assez stable Cependant, à partir des annộes
Since 2000, the number of French classes has significantly declined due to the cessation of support from French partners The enrollment of students choosing French in primary and secondary schools is very low, leading to a reduction in French classes The teaching and learning of French have become ineffective, resulting in a lack of enthusiasm among students for the language In the following section, we will discuss the teaching and learning of French in primary schools, secondary schools, and high schools.
2.5.2 Enseignement/apprentissage du franỗais aux primaires
According to data from the Education and Training Service of Danang, prior to 2005, the teaching of French through an intensive program at the primary level faced significant limitations, with only 2.12% of primary classes in the city offering French language instruction.
483 ộlốves sur 72.790 qui ont appris le franỗais [6] Mais, pendant desderniốres années, depuis l’année scolaire 2010 – 2011, ce nombre a tendance à diminuer considérablement Des élèves n’expriment pas encore nettement leurs motivations
There is a noticeable trend of class-switching among parents, as many are opting out of enrolling their children in French-speaking classes Instead, they are choosing English-speaking classes after completing their studies in first, fourth, or fifth grade.
Students face challenges in self-directed learning at home and often require assistance or guidance from their parents However, the number of parents proficient in the French language is quite limited Consequently, it appears that many students lack effective study methods.
In Da Nang, three French textbooks are currently used in primary education: "Petit Grenouille" volumes 1 and 2, and "Ici et Ailleurs." These resources aim to enhance the French language curriculum for young learners in the city.
In Vietnam, the French language textbooks for first, second, and third grades are notably well-structured and visually appealing, featuring clear writing and vibrant images that capture students' attention The incorporation of songs related to the lessons enhances engagement among learners Interviews with French teachers reveal that the content of these textbooks aligns well with everyday life and effectively addresses the four key language skills: listening, speaking, comprehension, and writing As a result, some students in intensive French programs are able to communicate fluently in French and possess a rich vocabulary by the time they complete their studies.
The French curriculum poses significant challenges for students, particularly those in fourth and fifth grades Many content areas, especially vocabulary and grammar, are difficult to access As students progress to fourth grade, playful activities decrease, and the absence of illustrated songs leads to a more traditional learning approach This shift results in a lack of focus on essential skills such as listening and speaking.
The AUF organization has made significant efforts to enhance teaching and learning activities in French by investing in resources such as textbooks, audio materials, and computers However, in light of today's rapid socio-economic development, this investment remains relatively modest and academic It is essential to incorporate specialized software for teaching activities, similar to English textbooks Additionally, the reduction of play activities and the lack of illustrated songs for the fourth and fifth-grade curriculum negatively impact the quality of French language education One of the major challenges in teaching foreign languages is the lack of adequate resources, including computers, maps, projectors, reference books, and software, which has led to difficulties in primary French instruction This situation highlights the current state of French language education, where learning is hindered by outdated or insufficient textbooks, as students often do not receive complete sets of materials at the beginning of the school year.
En rộsumộ, l’enseignement/apprentissage du franỗais aux primaires n’est pas encore vraiment efficace
2.5.3 Enseignement/apprentissage du franỗais aux secondaires
The effectiveness of French language teaching and learning is hindered by students' motivations However, a small number of students have clarified their motivations, largely influenced by their parents' guidance Parents play a crucial role in their children's French language acquisition, as they aspire for their children to pursue further studies in France or other French-speaking countries after high school.
In recent years, there has been a significant decline in the number of students excelling in French due to two main reasons Firstly, the Danang Education and Training Service has stopped organizing entrance exams for secondary schools, resulting in fewer students from the intensive French program in primary schools Secondly, many students are opting for other subjects instead of continuing with French in secondary education.
At this level, the intensive French language program is significantly more resource-rich compared to other foreign languages Nearly all French classes are well-equipped with audio tapes, prints, and various teaching materials.
However, this is still insufficient; the AUF project needs to enhance its facilities with more modern and larger equipment, such as large engravings, projectors, and CDs, along with a budget allocated for extracurricular activities This aims to improve the quality of French language teaching and learning and to attract more students to participate in Francophone activities There remains a concerning issue regarding the continuity of investment in the project Consequently, it appears that French language teaching and learning has only received a one-time investment from the project, leading to a lack of reference materials and support tools for both teacher research and student self-learning.
En conclusion, l’enseignement/apprentissage du franỗais aux secondaires n’est pas encore préoccupé par des responsables, c’est pourquoi, des résultats sont encorediscutables
2.5.4 Enseignement/apprentissage du franỗais aux lycộes
