Rationale for the Study
Throughout history, languages have served as essential tools for communities to cooperate, survive, and evolve Different species utilize unique forms of communication; for example, oceanic creatures like dolphins and seals use sounds to connect within their groups, while mammals such as lions and dogs communicate through barking and growling Birds, on the other hand, sing to signal for help or attract mates Each species possesses its own distinct language, contributing to the vast array of thousands of languages recognized worldwide.
The most important aspect of human communication is its complex language systems, which have been intertwined with essential elements like movements, gestures, sounds, and symbolic items since ancient times.
Numerous hypotheses exist regarding the origins, timeline, methods, and conditions surrounding the emergence of languages worldwide, making the question of which language was the first to be used a significant topic of ongoing debate.
The quest to uncover the origins of languages has led scientists to explore various theories, one of which is the "Continuity theories." These theories propose that languages did not emerge from a single source but rather evolved from multiple pre-linguistic systems created by our primate ancestors This foundational development allowed for the diverse evolution of languages, influenced by demographic, ethnic, and communication factors, resulting in distinct linguistic paths over time.
Discontinuity theories suggest that languages possess distinct characteristics that emerged during the lengthy evolution of humanity.
Languages are shaped by the interplay of genetic codes and social interactions, influenced by appearances, experiences, and modifications (U1bek, 1998) A key consensus among various theories is that language serves as a multifunctional tool, playing a crucial role in enhancing human communication It fulfills numerous cultural, communal, and societal functions, significantly contributing to human development.
Languages play a crucial role in preserving and transferring cultural elements across generations, as seen in Vietnamese customs that teach children values like patriotism and respect, while American children embrace individualism and freedom Additionally, languages serve as essential tools for fostering shared identities, enabling individuals to connect and contribute to their communities Ultimately, languages are fundamental for human interaction, facilitating communication and social relationships throughout history.
Conversation is the essential tool for humans to exchange information, serving as the fundamental form of communication in social interactions Different ethnic groups exhibit unique traits and methods of interaction, such as the distinct body language, signals, and behaviors observed in Western cultures compared to those in Vietnamese culture.
A thorough examination of language usage and characteristics can significantly enhance the understanding of English learners This study aims to assist learners in recognizing and overcoming potential cultural shocks and communication failures in social interactions.
Nonverbal communication plays a crucial role in enhancing second language communicative competence, yet it has received insufficient focus in teaching methodologies for English teachers and learners (Gregersen, 2007) This study aims to highlight the essential functions of nonverbal communication in human interactions and provide examples to illustrate its significance in language use.
This study examines the nonverbal communication elements, including gestures, facial expressions, and gaze behaviors, utilized by US Presidents during their inaugural addresses The findings highlight the significance of body language in effective communication, enabling English learners to overcome potential challenges and enhance their understanding of global English usage.
Aims of the Study
The main aims of this study will be elaborated as to:
- The different roles of hand gestures and facial expressions in their uses in official events of the US Presidents
- The differences in the uses of dominant and non-dominant hands of the US presidents in relation with their valances to the good or bad things
The findings in this study will be exploited to test the validity of the hypotheses:
- The Presidents have the tendency to use more body movements as elements of body languages than facial expressions
- Different uses of dominant and non-dominant hands of the presidents, according to the nature of the object in the speeches and the valences.
Significance of the Study
In today's globalized business and social landscape, understanding and leveraging cross-cultural interactions is essential Recognizing the significance of culture in international relationships is crucial for effective communication and collaboration across diverse environments.
Research on nonverbal interactions in cross-cultural communication remains limited, despite their significant impact on international exchanges Understanding the influence of culture, along with the timing and methods of communication, is essential for effective interaction across diverse cultures This highlights the growing importance of these factors in global communication dynamics.
Nonverbal communication plays a crucial role in social interactions, and this study aims to explore the cultural differences in its application By analyzing the official Western uses of nonverbal elements, the research seeks to identify their impact on communicators in various contexts The findings will enhance the understanding and effectiveness of these nonverbal cues for English learners and communicators in international settings.
Scope of the Study
This study examines the nonverbal communication techniques employed by U.S Presidents during official events throughout history, highlighting their potential applications in understanding nonverbal interactions.
- Besides, the degrees of possible differences between the applications of nonverbal interactions into social affairs in Western
- Another important expected field of the findings in this study is the portion of content of the interactions to be conveyed by the uses of nonverbal elements in Western.
Organization of the Study
Part A – Introduction will give us the background and rationale of the study, the scope, aims, significance and design of the study
Part B – Development will make various insights into the theoretical background and data analysis process, with a number of subsequent chapters as below:
Chapter 1 explores the significance and impact of nonverbal communication in social interactions, detailing relevant theories and characteristics It offers readers strategies for effectively incorporating nonverbal cues into their social engagements, while also addressing the advantages and limitations associated with these interactions.
Chapter 2 will explore the intricate data collection and analysis regarding the significance of nonverbal interactions in social contexts, highlighting official examples of gestures employed as nonverbal communication by US Presidents.
Part C – Conclusions will summarize the main findings of this study, the possible limitations and suggestions for the later researches in the same and related fields of languages
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction to Body Language or Nonverbal Communication
1.1.1 Definition of body language or nonverbal communication
Body language is defined as "all communication other than language" (Andersen, 1999, p 2), highlighting its role in conveying additional meanings through physical gestures and movements According to Hsiao and Rashvand (2011), body language serves as a vital tool for communicators to express their intended messages and elicit responses from their audience.
Language can be translated into symbols for international use, exemplified by a man raising his arm to relieve muscle tension, which may signify a desire to answer a question in a classroom setting This illustrates that not all body movements qualify as nonverbal communication Body language, often referred to as "other than words," includes various codes such as facial expressions, vocal changes, touch, personal space, physical appearance, and the surrounding environment This definition confines nonverbal communication to interactions between individuals, thereby excluding the transfer of information among animals or intrapersonal communication.
In nonverbal communication, there are four types of gestures to be used: the illustrators, regulators, emblems, and affect displays (Kelly, Manning and Rodak, 2008)
Illustrators are non-verbal behaviors that complement and enhance verbal communication, using body parts such as hands and gestures to convey meaning more effectively These actions, like smiling, gesturing, or pointing, reinforce the speaker's message and provide clarity, making them especially beneficial for English learners For instance, when asking for directions, a speaker may point to indicate the correct path, illustrating how illustrators can improve understanding in communication.
Figure 1: The Illustrator used in communication (Gregersen, 2007)
Regulators are gestures used in interpersonal communication to indicate turns or procedures in conversation In social interactions, turn-taking plays a crucial role in shaping communication patterns, allowing each participant to grasp the speaker's meaning and intentions Typically, this process occurs unconsciously and seamlessly, facilitating the mutual understanding between the speaker and listener for effective communication.
In conversational exchanges, turn-taking is primarily facilitated by transition signals, which are crucial for maintaining the flow of dialogue Understanding these signals is essential for participants; otherwise, interruptions may occur, potentially limiting the overall meaning and effectiveness of the conversation.
Figure 2:Transition signals used in interpersonal communication (Gregersen,2007)
Emblems are nonverbal behaviors that convey underlying messages and can replace words, with meanings varying across cultures To fully grasp the significance of these elements in nonverbal communication, language learners must understand the diverse meanings of emblems An example is illustrated in Figure 3.
Figure 3 Emblems used in communication (Gregersen, 2007)
Affect display refers to the body language used by communicators to convey personal emotions in real-time, often through facial expressions like smiling, laughing, or crying However, the norms surrounding emotional expression can vary significantly across different cultures.
Figure 4: Affect Display of personal emotion (Gregersen, 2007)
Facial expressions play a crucial role in nonverbal communication, enhancing the meaning conveyed by the communicator According to Knapp and Hall (2006), the face is a vital channel for expressing emotional states and interpersonal attitudes, offering nonverbal feedback on others' comments Scholars suggest that facial expressions serve as the primary source of information after spoken language, making them essential for effective communication Given the face's visibility, we naturally focus on the messages conveyed through the expressions of those around us.
Facial expressions serve as a crucial tool in communication, guiding interactions and enhancing or substituting verbal responses They play a significant role in either advancing or concluding conversations, while also conveying the communicator's thoughts to enrich and clarify the intended message.
Cultural display rules dictate the appropriate expression of emotions in communication, varying across different societies These norms determine how individuals should express feelings through techniques such as intensification, simulation, de-intensification, neutralization, and masking (Ruch, Hofmann, and Platt, 2013) Understanding these cultural nuances is essential for effective and socially acceptable communication.
Facial expressions play a crucial role in communication, with their applications and integration differing across cultures Understanding these variations allows communicators to enhance their effectiveness in social and interpersonal interactions Figure 5 illustrates the diverse forms of facial expressions utilized in communication, highlighting their ability to convey a wide range of meanings.
Signals readiness Smiles and flashes used in greeting
Smiles temper a negative message Conspiratorial wink
Eyebrows meet to communicate confusion Happiness
Face intensifies emotion Face neutralizes emotion
Figure 5 Various Facial Expressions of the communicators (Source: Gregersen, 2007)
Often referred to as "the window to the soul," the eyes play a crucial role in interpersonal communication, capturing more attention than other body parts This emphasis stems from our unconscious recognition of their expressive capabilities, which significantly aid in both sending and receiving messages during face-to-face interactions.
By the fact that the eye has higher probability of being noticed in communication, it has more prominent interaction signal to convey meanings
Richmond and McCroskey (2000) highlight the importance of eye behaviors in managing interactions, capturing attention, and demonstrating interest in shared information Two primary types of eye behaviors are identified: eye contact and eye gazing Eye contact happens when individuals engage in communication by looking directly into each other's eyes, whereas gazing refers to any instance of one person looking at another (Andersen, 1999).
Gazing plays a crucial role in communication, serving five key functions: regulating conversation flow, monitoring feedback, reflecting cognitive processes, expressing emotions, and conveying the nature of interpersonal relationships (Knapp & Hall, 2006) Each of these functions contributes to contextualizing verbal messages and enhancing the overall understanding of the information being shared.
Theories, Structures and Significance of Nonverbal Communication
1.2.1.1 Ray Birdwhistell's Theory on Kinesics (1970)
The theory of Nonverbal Communication emphasizes the individual's ability to interpret and create meaning through bodily movements in social interactions This approach analyzes the patterns and repetitions of body movements, viewing them as integral components of social communication.
The theory of Kinetics explores how personal movements and expressions influence communication and reflect individual moods It highlights that these nonverbal cues can significantly impact interpersonal interactions, allowing communicators to convey deeper meanings beyond words By integrating nonverbal movements into their communication, individuals can enhance their message and foster better understanding with their audience.
1.2.1.2 Edward Hall‘s Theory on Proxemics
In his 1966 theory of nonverbal communication, Hall emphasized the significance of multichannel effects and the impact of distance on communicators He identified distance as a crucial factor influencing the transmission of meaning to the receiver Central to this theory is proxemics, which refers to the way physical space between individuals affects interactions in various activities.
Proxemics is a theory that examines how individuals behave and respond to spatial distances during interactions with others It explores the various ways space and distance influence social communication, which can vary significantly across different cultures Understanding the types of spaces and distances in Proxemics can lead to diverse effects on communication outcomes.
There are three types of space that influence communication: Fixed Feature Space, which consists of unmovable objects like rooms and walls; Semifixed Feature Space, which includes movable objects that can enhance communication outcomes; and Informal Space, which refers to the personal environment where communication occurs and can differ across various cultures.
Distance in communication can be categorized into four types: Intimate distance (0-18 inches) is reserved for close relationships, such as family and loved ones; Personal distance (1.5 to 4 feet) is appropriate for formal interactions like interviews; Social distance (4 to 12 feet) is typically used in casual conversations; and Public distance (over 12 feet) is ideal for formal settings, such as conferences or meetings with large audiences.
Edward Hall's theory emphasizes the significance of distance in communication, influencing how individuals relate to one another, perceive topics, and interact It highlights the impact of cultural differences on the use of distance in communication Additionally, Hall identifies various factors that participants can leverage to influence others in specific contexts.
1.2.1.3 Paul Ekman and Wallace Friesen‘s Theory on Kinesics (1969)
This article explores a theory focused on the significance of hand and facial movements in communication Understanding these nonverbal cues can enhance readers' comprehension of individuals' moods, personalities, and actions during interactions By analyzing the interplay of facial and hand gestures, participants can gain deeper insights into the meanings conveyed in communication The theory outlines three methods for interpreting the nonverbal behaviors of communicators, providing a framework for better understanding interpersonal exchanges.
1 Origin - source of the act (innate, species-constant, or variant)
2 Coding - the act-meaning relationship (arbitrary, iconic, intrinsic)
3 Usage – a degree of non-verbal communication to what does the behavior do, how does it convey information (communicative act, interactive act)
Also according to Ekman and Friesen (1969), there are five types to embraces all the nonverbal behaviors of the communication:
Emblems: the movements of the body with the effects to convey the meaning to the participants of the communication without saying
Illustrators encompass eight distinct types of nonverbal behaviors that enhance verbal communication Baton movements emphasize key points in the message, while ideographic gestures clarify the direction of thoughts Deictic movements serve to point out specific content, and spatial movements help identify the surrounding space Rhythmic movements convey motion, and kinetographic gestures illustrate the communicator's physical actions Pictographic gestures create visual representations, whereas emblematic movements symbolize verbal messages effectively.
Adapters: the behaviors to facilitate the release of body intention Those behaviors can also be used to help the individuals to adapt to the new environment
Regulators: the behaviors to control or coordinate the interaction The participants can base on those behaviors to take turns to act or communicate in the environment
Affect displays: are the presentations of the feelings or emotions of the communicators Those behaviors can also describe the tendency of the individuals to react in a particular environment
Nonverbal communication plays a crucial role in establishing context and enhancing verbal interactions (Harrison, 1973) It provides essential background for communication, influenced by factors such as the participants' behaviors and attire Additionally, nonverbal cues can regulate and complement verbal exchanges, making them more effective and meaningful.
Nonverbal behaviors play a crucial role in verbal communication, influencing how messages are received and understood Actions such as nodding or smiling signal active listening and comprehension, while speakers may adjust their tone or pace to maintain engagement Incorporating pauses can also encourage listeners to remain focused on the conversation These subtle cues, known as back channels, operate on the periphery of communication, enhancing the overall interaction without being the primary focus.
Nonverbal communication serves as a powerful message in itself, where a smile conveys joy, a frown indicates happiness, and a wrinkled nose can suggest deception in the context of "I love you." Additionally, hand movements can express farewells without the need for words The meanings of these nonverbal cues are often influenced by cultural contexts and may vary significantly across different cultures.
1.2.3 Structure and Properties of Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication shares key properties with verbal communication, including structured rules, intentionality, awareness, and control in public contexts However, these properties may differ slightly from those of verbal communication (Andersen, 1999; Burgoon, Buller, & Woodal, 1996) To effectively convey meaning, nonverbal messages must adhere to specific rules, similar to spoken language The consistent properties of nonverbal communication mean that violations of these rules can significantly alter their intended meanings.
All spoken communication is intentional, allowing individuals to select their words carefully during conversations Similarly, while nonverbal communication is also intentional, research suggests that much of it is unintentional (Ruch, Hofmann, and Platt, 2013) For example, a person may aim to convey calmness and maturity after the loss of a pet, yet their facial expressions may still reveal sadness, demonstrating unintentional emotional communication.
People often pay more attention to verbal communication than to nonverbal cues, as they are more conscious of the words they speak While individuals can recognize aspects of their nonverbal communication, such as clothing, gestures, and facial expressions, they may not always use these elements effectively Interestingly, liars frequently fail to realize that their body language and facial expressions can reveal signs of fear, despite their attempts to conceal the truth (Hurley & Frank, 2011).
Significance, Benefits and Limitations of Nonverbal Communication
1.3.1 Relationships between verbal and nonverbal communication
Ekman and Friesen (1969) identified six ways in which verbal and nonverbal communication interact Nonverbal communication can effectively replace verbal communication in various contexts by repeating, contradicting, complementing, accenting, and regulating spoken messages.
Replacement in nonverbal communication refers to the ability of gestures, like nodding, to substitute for verbal responses For example, when asked for agreement on a topic, a simple nod can effectively convey "yes," eliminating the need for spoken words.
Nonverbal communication can enhance verbal messages by repeating them, such as nodding for "yes" or shaking the head for "no." Additionally, it can serve as a substitute for verbal communication in various situations.
Substitution in nonverbal communication allows individuals to convey meaning without words, while repeating requires verbal expression, enhanced by nonverbal cues However, verbal and nonverbal messages can sometimes conflict; for example, a person may verbally express a positive opinion while their facial expressions suggest otherwise This contradiction often arises from social hesitations or the need to suppress true feelings during interactions.
Nonverbal communication enhances verbal interactions in social settings, as individuals may express having a tough day while their body language and facial expressions reveal the stress of hard work The combination of physical cues, such as shoulder movements and facial expressions, alongside spoken words, allows listeners to better understand the speaker's true feelings and experiences.
Nonverbal communication can enhance verbal messages by emphasizing key points For example, when a speaker describes a process, gestures can illustrate specific steps, helping the listener follow along more clearly These movements not only clarify the message but also highlight the significance of the spoken words.
Nonverbal communication plays a crucial role in regulating verbal interactions by guiding turn-taking and role selection among communicators It enhances backchannel communication, allowing individuals to organize and manage conversations more effectively By utilizing nonverbal cues, participants can improve the overall effectiveness of their dialogue.
1.3.2 Studying fields of nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication is a multifaceted field that intersects with various disciplines, including sociology, psychology, anthropology, communication, computer science, and criminal justice Each discipline examines unique aspects of nonverbal cues; for example, psychology delves into the nonverbal expressions of emotions, while anthropology explores interpersonal space in social contexts In computer science, the focus is on the visual and motion aspects of avatars in digital platforms, and communication studies emphasize the content of messages conveyed Despite these distinct areas of study, the boundaries between them are often blurred, with significant overlaps in their practical applications (Matsumoto, Frank, and Hwang, 2013).
Throughout history, evidence shows that all cultures have recognized the importance of nonverbal communication as a fundamental aspect of human interaction (Matsumoto, Frank, and Hwang, 2013) For instance, ancient Chinese culture established specific guidelines for assessing an individual's personality and character based on the size, shape, and positioning of various body parts.
Despite limited evidence linking facial expressions to personality traits, many people today continue to uphold this belief This perspective is mirrored across various cultures, including Greek, Indian, and African societies, where there have been ongoing efforts to explore the connections between nonverbal communication and individual personality or internal perceptions (Matsumoto, Frank, and Hwang, 2013).
1.3.3 Significance of nonverbal communication in social activities
Research shows that nonverbal communication plays a crucial role in social interactions, with studies revealing that 65% to 95% of conversational messages are conveyed nonverbally (Friedman, 1978) This finding contrasts with the common belief that people primarily rely on and value verbal communication when interacting and assessing others (Ekman et al., 1985).
Nonverbal communication is a crucial, often overlooked aspect of interaction, serving as a "hidden dimension" or silent language in social activities (Hall, 1973) Ignoring nonverbal cues can lead to significant misunderstandings and a loss of critical information in communication Therefore, actively observing nonverbal behaviors is essential for effective social interactions and ensuring that the intended message is accurately conveyed.
Despite the lack of formal education on nonverbal communication, this vital aspect significantly enhances our social interactions Most of our understanding of nonverbal cues is developed through real-life experiences with parents, family, friends, and partners Historically, these nonverbal behaviors have been learned informally and implicitly, highlighting the need for greater awareness and training in this area (Hall, 1973; Matsumoto, Frank, and Hwang, 2013).
1.3.4 Applications of body gestures in nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication encompasses various gestures, particularly hand movements, which often align with facial and body movements These gestures serve two primary functions: illustrating the speech content and enhancing the verbal message They are particularly intriguing as they represent forms of embodied cognition, reflecting the speaker's thoughts and cognitive processes (Kinsbourne, 2006).
Gestures play a crucial role in enhancing communication by integrating with physical anatomy and cognitive language skills (Bouissac, 2006) They facilitate a more effective and rapid exchange of meanings that go beyond spoken words (Capirci & Voltera, 2008) Additionally, gestures can increase cognitive load, aiding individuals in organizing their thoughts during conversations (Goldin-Meadow et al., 2001) For example, when asked to count, individuals can count objects more quickly and accurately through the use of gestures (Carlson et al., 2007).
DATA COLLECTION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF NONVERBAL
The uses of Hands and Smiles of the Presidents in Inaugural Addresses
According to Hall (1966), social communication involves four distinct zones: public, social, personal, and intimate Changes in the chosen distance during communication can significantly affect both verbal and nonverbal interactions Adjustments in interpersonal communication may lead to a loss of recognition among communicators, impacting their ability to interpret facial expressions and hand gestures accurately.
Figure 6 Four distance zones in interpersonal communication
This study highlights the crucial role of hands and gestures in nonverbal communication, particularly in the inaugural addresses of US Presidents By analyzing these body language elements, we aim to enhance our understanding of nonverbal communication's significance in social contexts Through official and scientific examples, we explore how these gestures contribute to the overall impact of presidential speeches.
Research indicates that nonverbal behaviors play various roles in social interactions and are influenced by self-presentational emotions Consequently, it is anticipated that Presidents will employ numerous smiles during their inaugural addresses.
& Smith, 1999) Godfrey, Jones, & Lord, (1986) defined that people will smile more in their progresses of ingratiating and when seeking for approval (Rosenfeld, 1966)
As social distance increases, hand gestures become more significant than facial expressions, suggesting that U.S Presidents are likely to utilize more hand gestures than facial changes during their inaugural addresses This trend can be attributed to the association of hand gestures with power and dominance in social contexts, as highlighted in various studies (Spiegel & Machotka, 1974; Dovidio et al., 1988; Dovidio & Ellyson, 1982).
Hall (1966) emphasized that alterations in public distance significantly influence the speaking styles of speakers, particularly Presidents During critical social events, it becomes essential for speakers to amplify their voices, gestures, and body language to ensure clear communication with their audience Each inaugural address should therefore incorporate various forms of nonverbal communication, creating multiple effective channels for conveying information to the audience.
Researchers have analyzed the frequency and impact of hand gestures in the inaugural addresses of Presidents Dwight D Eisenhower, John F Kennedy, Richard M Nixon, George H W Bush, and William J Clinton Unfortunately, due to the unavailability of video recordings, Presidents Harry S Truman, Ronald W Reagan, and Jimmy Carter could not be included in this study.
To assess the effectiveness of nonverbal communication in inaugural addresses, the researcher employed a unique approach by muting the audio to isolate the impact of verbal cues By doing so, the researcher aimed to evaluate the significance of nonverbal cues in conveying meaning The findings of this rating, combined with the analysis results, enabled the researcher to identify discrepancies in communication within the inaugural addresses, providing a comprehensive understanding of the role of nonverbal communication in these speeches.
A thorough analysis of presidential videos revealed that hand gestures were utilized more frequently than smiles during their speeches The data showed that Eisenhower used 11 hand gestures, Kennedy 81, Nixon 12, Bush 84, and Clinton 85 In contrast, smiles varied significantly among the presidents, with Eisenhower and Kennedy not using any, Nixon using 3, while Bush and Clinton employed 23 smiles in their inaugural addresses.
12 times, accordingly This result established the meaning that there was not much difference in the effectiveness of the two forms of nonverbal communication of the Presidents.
The Uses of Left and Right Hands of the Presidents for Positive and Negative Valences
In another important dimension of our analysis of the use of body language of the
In their inaugural addresses, US Presidents often reflect the connection between individuals' dominant and non-dominant sides, revealing how these associations relate to positive and negative emotions This relationship extends beyond laboratory settings, demonstrating that people's emotional responses are not limited to binary choices.
Across various languages and cultures, positive concepts are typically linked to the right side, while negative ones are associated with the left This phenomenon can be attributed to the connections between left-right spatial orientation and positive-negative valence, which extend beyond linguistic conventions A key question emerges: why do these associations persist globally and historically? The left-right conventions in language and culture may stem from inherent 'body-specific' associations between actions and their emotional valence.
The body-specificity hypothesis proposed by Casasanto and Jasmin (2010) suggests that our mental processes are influenced by our physical bodies, leading individuals with different body types to think in distinct, predictable ways This implies that people may unconsciously associate positive experiences with the side of their body they use more comfortably, while negative experiences are linked to the side they find less fluent to use.
This study explores the connection between linguistic and cultural conventions that associate the right with goodness, influenced by the preferences of the right-handed majority In the second section, we will analyze the inaugural addresses of U.S presidents to determine whether they utilize their dominant hand to convey positive messages and their non-dominant hand for negative ones.
This study will analyze the inaugural addresses of US Presidents George W Bush in 2001 and Barack Obama in 2009, focusing on their gestures during these significant events Our analysis aims to demonstrate that US Presidents tend to use their dominant hands to signify positive aspects and their non-dominant hands to convey negative messages.
The transcripts and videos of the 2001 and 2009 US inaugural addresses were sourced from and This study involved coding the spoken texts and analyzing the gestures of both presidents during their respective speeches.
The study aimed to code spoken texts from events by identifying the emotional valences in the spoken clauses By transforming the transcripts of the Presidents' speeches into structured clauses, the research facilitates subsequent analysis The findings, as shown in Table 2.1, indicate that the Presidents employed a mix of both negative and positive emotional expressions.
In the second stage of the analysis, the focus was on examining the gestures of the two Presidents, specifically assessing how they utilized their right or left hands in conjunction with spoken statements that conveyed either positive or negative sentiments The findings presented in Table 2.1 aim to reveal potential correlations between the emotional tones expressed and the use of dominant versus non-dominant hands by the Presidents.
Table 2.1 Spoken clauses used by the two presidents in the analysis
SPOKEN CLAUSES USED BY THE TWO PRESIDENTS WITH VALENCES
Obama Left Positive “You can keep your health insurance ”
“And they will continue to get their checks”
In this phase, the inaugural address videos will be segmented into smaller clips corresponding to the 1,292 clauses, which include both positive and negative statements Each clip will capture the complete range of a clause, from its initial words to its conclusion The author will sequentially view these clips while listening to the speech, ensuring that the clips provide accurate verbal materials The analysis reveals that 940 clauses were accompanied by at least one gesture.
Among this large number of gestures used, there were the left, right or both hands of the Presidents associated with their clauses Among the number of 940 clips, there were
397 of them (36%) were associated with more than one hand gestures, with a number of
In our analysis, we noted that a total of 1,747 gestures were utilized by the two presidents, with over half of these gestures executed using only one hand.
In the second phase of the study, the author analyzed 500 gestures made by presidents during their inaugural addresses from 2001 and 2009 The analysis involved watching videos while listening to selected audio clips, ensuring that the author remained unaware of whether the gestures corresponded to positive or negative sentiments This method prevented any bias from the author's prior knowledge, allowing for an objective assessment of the gestures' meanings and implications in the context of the inaugural speeches.
The study revealed a significant correlation between the valence of spoken clauses—whether positive or negative—and the use of hand gestures during speeches Dominant hand gestures were utilized more frequently than non-dominant ones, with a usage rate nearly double that of non-dominant gestures Positive valence speeches predominantly featured dominant hand gestures, while non-dominant gestures were primarily linked to negative valences Specifically, President Obama's left hand gestures were associated with positive valence clauses, whereas his right hand gestures were predominantly related to negative valence clauses.
President Bush predominantly used right-hand gestures for positive valence clauses, while left-hand gestures were associated with negative valence clauses This observation indicates a clear relationship between the use of hand gestures and the emotional tone of the statements Notably, the strength of this association was similar when compared to the gestures used by other presidents.
This study analyzes the transcripts of inaugural addresses delivered by Presidents Bush and Obama in 2001 and 2009, focusing on the emotional valence of their speeches The author identified clauses conveying positive, negative, and indeterminate emotions, along with the corresponding gestures made by each president The analysis revealed that President Obama predominantly used left-hand gestures to express positive sentiments, while President Bush favored right-hand gestures for similar themes The findings highlight the relationship between hand gestures and emotional expression in presidential speeches, as illustrated in Figure 7, which compares the gesture usage of both presidents.
Figure 7 Comparisons of the uses of left and right hands of the two Presidents
The analysis of hand gestures used by Presidents Obama and Bush reveals a distinct correlation between emotional valence and hand dominance President Obama, a left-hander, predominantly employed left-hand gestures during positive segments of his inaugural address, while his right-hand gestures were primarily associated with negative sentiments In contrast, President Bush, who is right-handed, utilized his dominant hand significantly more for positive expressions, with over twice the amount of gestures linked to positive valence compared to his non-dominant hand for negative contexts.
Conclusion Remarks
This study reveals two significant aspects of body language employed by US Presidents during their inaugural addresses The author analyzes the varying uses of body language between two Presidents to evaluate the validity of the proposed hypotheses.
The study confirms the first hypothesis that presidents tend to use more body gestures than facial expressions during official events like inaugural addresses The analysis of hand movements versus facial expressions supports this finding, as the nature of these large-scale events limits the effectiveness of facial expressions in capturing audience attention and enhancing the presidents' appeal.
Research indicates a significant correlation between body language and the emotional tone expressed by presidents Specifically, they tend to utilize their dominant side for gestures when discussing positive topics, while their non-dominant side is more frequently employed when addressing negative subjects This phenomenon can be attributed to the inherent characteristics of communicators and their body language usage during social interactions, including official events involving presidents.
In this study, the author predicts that presidents utilize hand gestures more frequently than smiles during official events, particularly inaugural addresses, confirming the first hypothesis An analysis of the hand usage of Presidents Bush and Obama supports this finding, as the significant distance between the speaker and the audience necessitated the use of hand gestures to emphasize changes in their speeches.
Research by Spiegel & Machotka (1974), Dovidio et al (1988), and Dovidio & Ellyson (1982) indicates that hand gestures are often more impactful than facial expressions, like smiles, in presidential speeches To effectively convey their messages, presidents tend to exaggerate hand and body movements, which helps audiences recognize changes throughout their addresses Notably, this study reveals that presidents do not consistently smile at their audiences during inaugural speeches.
A study examining the hand gestures of Barack Obama and George Bush during their inaugural addresses revealed a significant correlation between the emotional tone of their spoken clauses and their use of left and right hands The findings indicated that right-handed individuals tend to use their right hand for gestures associated with positive concepts, while left-handed individuals often use their left hand to convey negative ideas, and the opposite holds true as well.
The use of hand gestures in speeches varies based on the speaker's perception of the subject matter, reflecting either positive or negative valence Research indicates that presidents tend to use dominant gestures more frequently when discussing favorable aspects, demonstrating a clear correlation between gesture type and the emotional tone of the speech Consequently, the initial hypothesis regarding the differing use of dominant and non-dominant hand gestures in relation to the nature of the speech content has been validated in the behaviors of the two presidents studied.
Implications for The Use of Nonverbal Behavior in Cross-cultural Communication
A solid grasp of intercultural differences fosters common ground and trust, helping to eliminate cultural barriers among communicators and enhance interpersonal relationships For language learners, recognizing all aspects of a language is crucial for effective communication with native speakers This understanding not only facilitates successful interactions but also offers numerous advantages in business transactions, professional environments, academic pursuits, and social activities.
Cultural awareness plays a crucial role in effective communication, especially in international contexts By understanding the nuances of nonverbal communication and how cultural differences influence these cues, individuals can enhance their comprehension of the messages being conveyed This knowledge fosters better interactions and promotes clearer understanding among communicators.
Nonverbal communication, including body language, varies significantly across cultures For Asian English learners, the insights from this study can bridge cultural gaps in communication, highlighting the essential role of body language in fostering effective interpersonal interactions.
Suggestions for Further Studies
The limited scope of this study does not fully capture the significance of body language in interpersonal communication, focusing primarily on the body language of Presidents during official events and inaugural addresses Future research should explore various communication fields, including cultural differences in body language, particularly between Asian and Western cultures, as well as how social changes influence body language use Additionally, examining the political implications of body language among prominent figures and current trends in its application within social and political contexts is essential for a comprehensive understanding.
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APPENDIXES Appendix 1: President Bush’s 2001 Inaugural Address Transcript
President Clinton, esteemed guests, and fellow citizens, the peaceful transfer of authority is a rarity in global history, yet a common practice in our nation By taking a simple oath, we honor longstanding traditions while also embracing new beginnings.
As I begin, I thank President Clinton for his service to our nation
And I thank Vice President Gore for a contest conducted with spirit and ended with grace
I am honored and humbled to stand here, where so many of America's leaders have come before me, and so many will follow
We all play a role in an ongoing narrative, one that connects us to a transformative journey towards a new world that embraces freedom This is a tale of a society that evolved from oppression to one that champions liberty, illustrating a power that seeks to safeguard rather than dominate, to defend without the intent to conquer.
It is the American story—a story of flawed and fallible people, united across the generations by grand and enduring ideals
The grandest of these ideals is an unfolding American promise that everyone belongs, that everyone deserves a chance, that no insignificant person was ever born
Americans are urged to embody the promise of freedom and democracy in both their lives and legislation Despite moments of hesitation and delay in our nation's history, we must remain steadfast in our commitment Throughout the last century, America's unwavering belief in these ideals served as a stronghold, and today, it has become a transformative force, inspiring growth and change in nations around the world.
Our democratic belief transcends being merely a national creed; it embodies the innate hope of humanity This ideal is a collective trust that we nurture and share Despite nearly 225 years of progress, we still have a significant journey ahead.
While some citizens thrive, others question the fairness and potential of our nation Many Americans face limitations due to inadequate education, systemic bias, and their circumstances at birth These disparities can create a sense of division, making it feel as if we inhabit a continent rather than a unified country.
We reject this notion and will not permit it The strength of our unity relies on the dedicated efforts of leaders and citizens across generations I make this solemn commitment: I will strive to create a unified nation rooted in justice and opportunity for all.
I know this is in our reach because we are guided by a power larger than ourselves who creates us equal in His image
And we are confident in principles that unite and lead us onward
America's unity is not defined by blood, birth, or land, but by shared ideals that transcend our diverse backgrounds and personal interests It is essential that every child learns these foundational principles, and every citizen commits to upholding them Furthermore, when immigrants embrace these values, they enhance what it means to be American, enriching our nation as a whole.
Today, we affirm a new commitment to live out our nation's promise through civility, courage, compassion and character
At its core, America embodies a dedication to principles alongside a commitment to civility, which is essential for a thriving society A civil society requires goodwill, respect, fair dealings, and forgiveness from all its members However, some individuals mistakenly think that in times of peace, our political discourse can be trivial, as the perceived stakes of our debates seem minimal.
The stakes for America are significant; if the nation does not champion the cause of freedom, no one else will Failing to inspire children with knowledge and strong values risks losing their potential and ideals Additionally, allowing the economy to stagnate will disproportionately impact the most vulnerable members of society.
We must embrace our shared calling, recognizing that civility is not merely a tactic or feeling, but a conscious choice to prioritize trust over cynicism and community over chaos By committing to this principle, we pave the way for collective achievement and mutual success.
America, at its best, is also courageous