Engineering Education in the People’s Republic of China
Report of a Visit
Committee on Scholarly Communication
with the People’s Republic of China Office of International Affairs
Trang 3REFERENCE COPY FOR LIBRARY USE ONLY
Engineering Education in the People’s Republic of China
Report of a Visit
Josern M Pevvir Pea M PeRole and Parmcta Jones Toucutras Editors Committee on Scholarly Communication withthe People’s Republic of China
Office of International Alfaies National Research Council,
PROPERTY OF NAS ~ NAE
SEP 11983 Nahowat Acaory Parse
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MOFICE: the views expressed in this report are those of the menhers of the Engineering Education Delegation and are in no way the official
‘views of the Comittee on Scholarly Communication with the People's Republic of China or its sponsoring organizations the Anerican
Council of Learned societies, the National Acadeay of Sciences, ana the
Social selence Research Council
The exchange visit of the Engineering Raucation Delegation to ‘china wae supported by the National Science Foundation ‘This visit was part of the exchange program between the Committee on Scholarly
Communication with the People's Republic of China and the China Association of Science and Techaology ‘the Comittee was founded in
1966 by the fmerican Council of Learned Societies, the National Acadeny of Sciences, and the Social golence Research Council Sources of
funding for the Comittee include the NSP, the Invernational Communication agency, the Hational Endowsent for the Hunanit Ford Poundation, and the starr Foundation
‘the committes representa American echolare in the natural,
Bedical, and engineoring sciences as vell as scholars in the social Sciences and humanities, In addition to adainiatering exchange
programs, it advises individuals and institutions on means of Ecomunication with their Chinese colleagues, on China's international
activities, and on the state of China's scientific and scholarly
pureuite ‘Members of the Comittee are scholars from @ broad range of fields, including china studies
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D.C-PREFACE
This report on higher education In China containg a wealth of Anformation on undergraduate, graduate, and factory-based engineering
courses of study in universities, technical institutes, and production enterprises in China~ The aaterial vas compiled in the fall of 1978
during the viste co China of the Engineering Education Delegation
sponsored by the Comsitces on Scholarly Communication vith the People’s Republic of China (CSCPRC) At that tine higher education in China was Just being re-established folloving the closing of universities and Fesearch institutions during the Cultural Revolution Rather thao
publish their report 1mediately after the visit, the delegation decided to wait until wore complete inforaation vas available on the nev
curricula The result 18 therefore a fairly comprehensive survey of engineering education in the "key" universities and technical institutes fat the tine when higher education in China vas beginning to take off
‘Tas study ¥EI1 be of apectal interest to Aserican educators who are receiving applications from Chinese students for graduate and
postgraduate atudy and research Other recent publications which are also of interest in this field are the reporte of the U.S.-China
Education Clearinghouse, particularly Higher Education and Research in the People's Republic of China: Institutional Profiles (1981) and AR TatFoduction to Education in the People's Republic of China and
U.S China Educational Exchatges (Hevised Edition, Jamuary 1962) The Yeport of the Stanford University Delegation to China in 1980, Righer
Education tn the People's Republic of China 1# an additional source of Tnforaatan+
Des Pettit and Perrolle were responsible for the tnitfal gathering of matertal trøe che delegation meabers and writing the report Patricta
Teuchitant of the CSCPRC edited the report in its final stages The translations of the curricula In the appendices vere prepared by John
Trang 6[TABLE OF CONTENTS Page List of pelayation Members z "““ sa Guapter Ls setentifie and rechaical plucation in china:
Ghaptex 2: Undergraduate engineering Efusation in china 2
Chapter 4: Graduate, overseas ana factory paves Educational Prograae 2
Shaper 4; gineering collese and university paculeies a
Chapter 5: setentizic and yechnival Mangoser 1n Zsetories 6
Chapter &; an Kesesoment of Chinevs pesearch and pevelopront sẽ
APBeDS1ges
Le maineering colleges and universities Prepared by the Engiuering FJucstson Delegation) “
HỊ: — Meghastcal engineering Curricule (granslatiana!
As _dachanical enginearing Technology ant syatpuenc ‘Guecialty, essing Institute of Technology, 1978 st
Be_Engineering of tuercaplyeics specialty, chinese miversity Of scleme an] sechaplogy Cust, 3278 sz
Gx Mechanics specialty, cust, 1917 an 3978 s6
be_Precision Mngninery gpeciaity, cus “
3 Mechanteal HaauEaccueLus Technology specialty ‘Shanghai cinovony Yniveraity, October 196) “
Fi _wectanice: yanufacturing Technology aad Bguánseat Specsalty, Shacghai zisotong wmiveraity, Decesber 1977 90
G_Lod Liezing Hachinery ana conveyor specials ‘Shanghai jiaoteng University, October 1963 aa
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Le _Wyuravlie 3ranesLssion specsaity ‘Shanghai Siaotony yniversity, December 1917 ue
“ aly 21st Workers" quiversity factory = waz
HAE lect ica poginsering Curricsla (granatattone
ntroduetion ——————4
As _Cureioulim and course List of the Radio engineerin: ‘Specialty, shanghal Jiaotong university, 1363 (3 year) 128
Be _curciculia and coures Ligh of the medio Communications Suecialty, Chengdu Tnatitute of Telecamunicetion
Engingering, 1978 (4 vear 333
cs curriculum of computer science, Fudan university (2 year: 1976-79 and 4 year! 1978-82) lạ
Ds curriculum of the ghanghat No 7 nadia Factory! ‘uly 2let_univeraiey™ 228
1 Recent information (1961) som the Chinnes Elucetion ‘association for intecsational Đxchanaes
As Recent peveloynent of Education in the People's Republi of Chinn [1979-1980 239
Bi_Kegulations concerning scadenic peurees in the People’e Rapablic of Chins 147
Ce organization of the Ministry of education (MOE) ef china 149-3
Pi_svete of Masgenent of institutions of Hànhec
Ex_suatistice 1980 {xcademso Year of chinese nlusation at ail lewis in 152
2s Key universities and colleges of the People'e Republic of China ass
Ws _thinetary of the mgineeting eiicetion pelegstion 19
‘Vis wales Given in Chứng by the Engineering eduestion
Delegation 163
Trang 8ENGINEERING EDUCATION DELEGATION 10 THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OP CHINA Chatman,
Joneph M Pettit, Preaident
Georgia inatituee of Technology 225 worth avenue, H.W
Atlanea, GÀ 30332 Nenbere
Betsy Ancker-Johnsoa
Associate Laboratory Director Physical Research
Argonne National Laboratory 9700 case avenue Argonne, Uh 60439 Richard Ds pause Professor, Departaont of Political soience University of california os Angeles, ch 90024 Bet, chao, Head
Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Departnent
university of 1linois, Urbana~ ‘Champaign
urbana, TL 61801 xan chen, Director
Program in Technology Atsossnent
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
university of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI 48109,
W.a Pabrycky, pean Research Division
Virginia Polytechnic Institute ‘and state University
Blacksburg, VA 24061
oe? Glassman
Departeent of Political science University of Missouri, st Lois St Louie, Ho 63121 Collage of Engineering Washington State University Pullman, HA 99163, ‘thomas P Nughen Department of History and Sociology of science university of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, Pa 19174 Guyfora stever, chairman
AS study 1979 UM Conference on Science ‘and Technology 1528 - 33r4 grraet, No Washington, D.C 20007 Pierre HM Ferrols Staff officer
Committee on Scholarly Communication with the People's Republic of China
National Acadeny of Sclencos 2101 Constitution Aves, NeW
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In September and october 1978, a delegation of elven specialists visite the People's Republic of china to survoy the status of
engineering education The delegation was selected and sponsored by the Committee on Scholarly Conmunication with the People's Republic of China (CSCPRC) The Coanittes was established in 1996 as 2 joint entity of the National Acadeny of Sciences, the Anerican Council of Learned Societies and the Social Science Research Council It operates Within the office of International Affaire of the National Research Council, the administrative arn of the National Academy of Solenc ‘the wational Acadeny of Engineering and the Institute of Hodicine, ‘rt hag a small ataff of Chine specialists and has been active since 1972
in pEoEoLing contacts between Anerican and Chinese scholare ‘Since the Shanghai Communique of 1972 the CSCPRC has sponsored
feach yoar sone four to six delegations to China, each with a specific
Focus on soae aspect of science, social actence, or the Minanities By
tthe end of 1978, ehizey delegations had traveled to China under CSCPRE auspices in that time period, the Committee also sponsored
thirty-seven Chinese delegations visiting the Unites States In 1979, with the advent of diplomatic relations between the U.S and China, the CSCPRC Eegan to sponsor new exchange formats such as symposia, lecture ‘tours and extended research and study visite in China The Comittee also bogan managing, on benalf of the U.S Government, a national program to send eeudents and scholars to china for advanced study and
‘Two American engineering delegations to China were sponsored by the cscpnc in 1978, ours on engineering education and another in
‘earthquake ongineering Sending a delegation to survey engineering ‘education in china had beon under consideration by the CSCPRC for about
two years It vas conceived of aa on interdisciplinary delegation nich would consist both of engineering educators and social scientists
ith expertise in the relationships between education, Kndystrialization, and technological development In late 1977, by
mutual agreenent of the CSCPEC and its counterpart, the China
Association of Science and Technology (CAST), the topic was included in ‘the 1978 program In 1978, a nominating comittes chore the delegates
both by direst nomination and by selection froa among many applications received from individuals at U.S engineering colleyes as a result of a
widely circulated announcement The delegates woro chosen because of Uhelz present or past affiliation with engineering education or eneir expertise in China studies, education, and industrialization Nine of the eleven delegates were engineering graduates, present or former ‘engineering professors, or administrators, Three vere members of the
National Acadeny of Engineering Five spoke Chinase, Two wero born
Trang 10our delegation's visit to the PRC vas very propitiouely timed other engineering delegations in the past had gained sone insight into engineering education, such as the 1974 ater Resources Delegation, hosted by the Chinese Society of Hydraulic Engineering, and the 1977 đalagatton of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, hosted by the Chinese Electronics society, By the fall of 1978, however, higher education in china wag gevting back into full swing after several years of change and uncertainty As with vireually all Other policy areas in china, chairman Mao Zedong's death and the Gountall of the so-called "gang of four” in 1976 marked the beginning Of a watershed in educational Work, It took two full yeara, novever, for the major policy conflicts to play thengelves out and Lt ie only with the start of tne 1978-79 acadeaic year that a "nev" systen of higher education (consisting in large part of a return to the pro-cuitural Revolution systea) could be said to be fully in
Operation our delegation was able, therefore, £0 learn a great deal
about the ze-established system which appeara to have a long-tera fucure, We found universities, research institutes, and industrial
fenterprices restoring their high academic and tochnical standards of
pre-1966 and discussing bold and ingortant plane for the future: In the current atmosphere in China in which science and technology
fare being given full play, our hoses were especially frank and infomative in their conversations with us In addition, the
anticipation of moving to new levels of scientific and technical
‘cooperation between the United States and China, following the visit of Des Frank Prese, then science advisor to President carter, to China Ln Suly 1978, made substantive discussions nore relaxed and open than in
‘the past.’ rapecially important, no doubt, was the fact that Chinese Institutions were, at the tine Of our visit, in the midst of selecting
the Firet group of students to atudy in the United States Chinese interest in our delegates’ fields of expertise and the inetittions we
represented was therefore exceptionally high ‘da the other hand, in contrast to what may be learned by visiting
other countries, gathering even the most basic information in China
often romaine difficult and frustrating The reasons for these Gieficulties are many and understandable Gathering statistical
information in China i not as extensive as is the norm in our society; such atatiatica vhen they exist tend to be closely guarded aa ¢ reeult both of political traditions and of the charged atmosphere of
Doreaucratic politics Most individuala we met appeared to have Le
Ancomation than we expected about what goes on outeide their own bailiwick of Linttationa on dissenination of information in general
‘There wae perhape sone apprehension by individuals that revealing shortcominga might jeopardize their institution's position in
U.S.-China educational excnanges Finally, the virtual apeence of duplicating machines impedes the quick production of copies of
Trang 11‘our delegation vas received by the Chinese Kinistry of Education and spent from september 8 through October 2 in China, with our time Aiviged among six cities: Beijing, Chengdu, Shanghai, Hefei, Nanjing, land ghenyang Wa visited elaven universities and enjineering
colleges In order to learn more about research and the euploynent of
‘engineering graduates, we visited aix research institutes and eleven factories In order to becone better informed on educational policy,
manpower planning, and science and technology planning, we held eight Gafferent mectings with government officials at the national and
provincial levels the full itinerary is presented in Appendix V It should be noted that in order to narrow its invastigations toa
ore manageable scope, the delegation confined its survey to two main areas: electronics and machine-building in gost cities, therefore, the delegation was split into two groups for site visies Our schedule
was nevertheless very full, perhaps overly do One is faced with the Atlema of visiting Driefly at a large munber of institutions, or
aking longer visite at fewer institutions But prior to such an initial visit ve would aot have been able to make an adequately informed selection of which institutions to visit longer Our hosts
wore generous in exposing us co virtvally all of the institutions ve hhad chosen to visit We vere particularly grateful for visits to
Chengdu, which had only recently been "opened" to foreign visitors and the Hefei site of the inportant Chinese University of Science and
‘Technology, where no Americans had previously visited [AB is customary vith CSCPRC sponsored delegations, some of our
delegation presented lectures in various cities Visited ‘These were always well attended by engineere from a broad range of institutions
Particularly gratifying wes the evident interest, not only in technical
matters and in engineering education specifically, but nore broadly in the organization and financing of research and developaent in the
united States and in the history of american technological evelopment, Appendix Vz liste the telke given by our delogat
Tt is our hope that this repore will serve a variety of purpos
while we are concerned primarily with engineering education, ve hope to share our increased perspective on china as an inportant world area,
with one-fourth of the world's population The report addresses engineering education, but in a political national setting where it Le
[part of higher education generally and a part of the scientific and Eechnical enterprise of the nation, at # tine vhen modernization of
science and technology Aas been flagged ae the key to the overall
modernization of china In cur study of the employment of engineers in Andustey we learned much and the report attempts to give sone
indication of the level of technology in China, its products,
production, and research and developuent The report comments upon Governmental planning as related to education and production in a
Trang 12‘the report touches on recent Chinese history and its important
effects on engineering education One cannot understand the cUrrent foe of engineering education without comprehending major trends and
events since 1949, such ag the Impact of goviet technical advisors in
China in tho 1950s, the onset of the Great Proletarian cultural Revolution in 1966, the political conflicts of the early 1970s, and
Hinally the current era which follows the death of Chairman Mto in
Septenber 1976 ‘These historical periods must he understcod in considering the
educational background of engineering students who may be coming to
Averican universities in the student exchange program which is currently underway While we expect that the student exchange in
engineering will be primarily in one direction, nanely Chinese studenta coming to the United States, engineering education in China has some
pointe worth further examination and consideration by Anerican ‘engineering educators In the United states the ancunt of laboratory
land practical work for engineering students hae gone through various periods of ebb and flov In China the sane effects can be seen,
Fanging from heavy caphasta on theory in the distant past to an extreme @uring the Cultural Revolution, vhen nearly half the three-year
‘curriculum was devoted to manual labor not necessarily related to the Field of etuay Currently the curriculum includes a smaller amount of
practical work, which emphasizes the production of apparatus to be used
for sold by the school Finely, it te hoped that this report will be of some value to
Chinese engineers and engineering educatore thengelves We are auch indebted to then for their hospitality and we would enjoy feeling that
Trang 13“STR OVERVIEW OF POLICY AND ONGANTZATION —
I Current Policy in science, technology and Education ‘educational syate Ta sanagsd entirely by the government
‘toward higher education are intimately Linked to overall
policies of economic developuent and to production planning The State bureaucracy in china is both a conauner and a producer of
Skilled sanpover There are ao private educational institutions, and there ie no private employment sector for graduates of thoes
Anetituttons Educational plans are thus essentially sanpover plan
Which, in turn, are an integral part of overall economic plans ‘the bola new directions of aconesic policy which have become
cxyetallizea in the two years following the death of Mao Zedong in the fall of 1976 have significantly redefined educational aine for the current period china's national goals, at present, are enbodied in the call for “the four modernizationa™ (in agriculture, industry, Selence and technology, and national defense) in order for china to beeene a "sedern socialist state” by the year 2000 the higher education ayaten is to provide the akilled manpower for production,
management and research in pursuit of those goals In addition, institutions of higher education are one component or the
organizational franavork for carrying out scientific research and
technological development ‘the new governnental commitment in china to the development of
science and technology as the key to modernization in the other throw
fain sectora ves expressed formally in the convening of National Selence Conference of unprecedented scale in March 1978 The six
thousand conference delegates vere presented with a draft eight-year
plan to 1985 and a more general twenty-three year plan (to the yesr 2000) for scientific end technological (SeP) davelopaent The details
of these draft plans have not been sake public, but their broad ines
vere enunciated in sajor conference speeches by China's top Xeaderghip: Prenier Mua Guofeng; Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping, the key
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After well over a decade during which the value of training @ scientific elite and of engaging in anything but the most directly
production-related research was seriously questioned and in many cases completely denied, higher education and research and development have
been assigned a lovel of priority which even exceeds the peak periode
of the mid-1950a and the early 19608 Scholarehip, particularly 19 the areas of science and technology, has been given a strong boost of
political attention, prestige and funding which China's scientists Apparently feel vill be sustained for a long period of time, How,
exactly, this new governmental coamitment 1s being implemented will be Anlustrated throughout this report
‘hile all areas of scholarship are to benefit from the new
policies, eight broad priority areas were specifically identified at the National sctencé Conference These include areas which are basic
to econcalc developeent (agricultural set; energy resources; materials
science), areas instrumental to the development of other flelde (conputers, lasers), and three prestige "rontier" areas (apace
Fesearch, high energy physics and genetic engineering) A specitic
manpover goal aentioned at the conference vas to increase the nuaber Of profeesional researchers in China to 800,000 by 1985
‘The National Science Conference wae closely followed by an equally large National Education Conference held in April and Hay, 196 “The fundanontal principle reaffirmed at that conference (in & slogan which our delegation often heard vhile in China) vas that education ahould "serve proletarian politica and be combined with productive labor." while this appears at firet to Imply continuity with policies of the early 1970s, in fact the definitions of
proletarian politics and productive labor have shifted dramatically to Include soderaization policy as part of politics and acleneific
Fesearch and technology development work as part of productive labor Raucational policy thus closely reflects the broad nev modernization goals Teachers and students alike have been assigned great
Fesponsibilities in terms of Sef advancement ‘This exphenis is, of course, most germane to the higher educetion level and to the
Sclentific and technical sector Various parte of this report will [Liuserate the implenentation of the general policy Lines discussed at the education conference
TL Historical Antecedents of current Policy The current eaphasis on sGlence and technology and quality
education aust be understood in the context of continuing educational
policy debates in China Many of these controversial policy questions Rave roots that go back long before 1949 One critical issue haa been
Feltance on foreign learning versus traditional Chinese learning, A second aiieana has been the primacy of moral training versus technical training the post-1949 Communist leadership, # well as their
Imperial and Republican predecessors, have wrestled with thest
‘problens and fluctuated their stand on both iemues zn each instance
policy makers have struggled to devise educational policies that were Coapatible with the technical requiresents of national developaent and
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‘te fixet modern schools established in China were the technical institutes at the giangnan (Xiangnan) Arsenal and the Fuzhou (Foochow) Navy Yard ‘They were eatablinhed to train the technical personnel to create a modern military system for China, Students vere selected for ‘these prograns on the basis of their success on the traditional
examinations, which tested familiarity with the classics, rather than fon the basis of knowledge of or aptitude to study Western science This anbivalence about technical training, much lees Western technical
training, has remained a problem educational policy has gravieated
Dback and forth between greater and lesser conaitnente to techaical
education and greater and lesser willingness to borrow from the Next Since the abolition 1n 1905 of the exanination syetem to recruit
government officials, the Chinese have struggled to devise an education systen that vould meet national needs, Aside from Aieagroonents about needs and priorities, the country has faced critical shortages of resources to finance education, Funds inv in education were funda not available to be invested more directiy in ‘the economy ‘The result of this situation has baen a long series of ‘educational plana to try to meet technical and political requiresents
‘Within che Linitations of available resource: ‘ae the search for sone suitable educational model and philosophy
continued in the early twentieth century, the modern education systen, Including technical training, continued to expand Simultaneous with
‘changes in policy waa a slow but steady growth of enrollmente for technical training Thue, two opposite trends have been in effect in
‘China for some length of time, One trend has been the steady
‘expansion of technical education; the counter trend hae deen many Fluctuations in policy with considerable debate about the importance
fof technical (versus political and cultural) education and the wisdom fof borrowing from the West (vercus self-reliance) Tho subject of historical perspective on contemporary education policies is confused by conflicting images of steady and stable grovth veraua fundanental
poliey shifes ‘when the Communist Party came to power in 1949, its leaders?
firet educational priority was to establion order ia schools and to wrest control of educational institutiona from foreigners,
particularly missionaries Many of China's leading universities, including engineering colleges, had been founded under foreign
auspices ‘By 1953, when order wae fully restored, the initial effort was
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In 1956, in a flourish of optinien and enthusiasm, # decision
was made to apeed up developaent plans This constituted the first “leap-forwara" that has marked China's developaent plane over the
years To acet the increated manpower needs of the economy, plans
were initiated to greatly expand the educational system at all levels The "mint-leap" of 1956 was folloved by more cautious
economic politics in 1957 which, in turn, led £9 a slow down in the growth rates of educational institution
‘This was a period vhen the basic policy choices facing the
Chinese economy and education systen vere being debated ơn the one hand was a strategy of rapid development, atteopting to incre
simleancously industrial and agricultural production, using a labor Intensive strategy of development and relying ơn a larger but leas Well educated manpower pool Ostensibly this strategy of development would rely on political incentives to motivate people to contribute
‘The alternative strategy of development, aodeled closely after the Russian exprience and the Firat Five Year Plan, emphasized industrial
expanaion Using the most advanced technology available, and relying om a small pool of mare highly educated technical personael the latter Strategy was 4 more deliberate and vlower approach to developaent Objectives which tolerated the enargence of certain social
Inequalities in order to ensure more stable growth In 1956 china atteapted to implement the Great Leap Forward
which was to propel China forvard in one a¥ift aovesent Many new Schools, including engineering colleges, were opened, but quality control van given Little attention Host schools, including colleges
‘and universities, were convarted into workshops ax formal educational Work wae virtually abandoned The Leap Forvara vas firet alowed dow then abandoned {n 1960 a8 it became apparent that a helter skelter approach to sodernization would not vork, however conceptually
Appropriate the overall model of development During the period from 1961 to 1965, China reverted to mich more
moderate economic, manpower training and educational policies This as period when greater attention was paid to educational quality than to the rapid expansion of the edvcation syetem, Moreover, teachers and professors vers given greater freedom than in proceding yeara to run educational inetitutiuone and to impose exacting academic Standards on their students these yours essentially were a reaction to the excesses of the Great Leap and with that reaction camo renewed Feapect for formal learning and a greater emphasis on technology and technical solutions to problens The Groat Leap had been premised on ‘the inherent capability of man's promethean qualities to overcone the
Linstations of the material universe The post-Leap approach wae tially conservative because it sought to identify minimal risk
folutions to china'e educational and developsent probleat ‘The aoderation of the early 1960 vas followed by the Great
Proleterian Cultural Revolution, which began in 1966 The Cultural Revolution waa battled out along ideological and political lines with
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‘me higher education sector was one of the major targets for yefora during the Cultural Revolution All colleges and univeraities fand senior middle uchools were closed (the former for five years) and ‘the students were enlisted as activists in the struggle to rectify the Party They waged intensive battles againet their professors and ultintely against the Comuntet Party committees that ran ehe schools An order to force major reforms of these institutions These Rad Guarda, a8 the insurgent youth celled theaselves, criticized the feapharie on formal acadenic achievanent rather than political and aetitudinal oriveria for admiseion and advancement, the self-nerving and elitist attitudes of the students, teachers and aduiniatrators, and the failure to integrate the curriculum with the econoay, and wost
particularly with the needs of the local economies ‘They demanded
Reaching reforms thit would create a nore egalitarian atmosphere in schools, lover the status of teechere, and allow for more openness in
teaching and learning They called for greater educational
‘opportunities for workers and peasants, graater deconcantration of
‘educational facilities, and greater decentralization of edvoational,
Administration In sum, they demanded a reform of the Chine education system to sake it compatible vith the communist or
proletarian culture and society they vere seeking to create in china ‘The many questione of educational policy became mixed up in
internecine quarrels between pro- and anti-Party factions and later botween competing factions waving the Cultural Revolution banner Eventually Chairman Hao vas forced to call upon the People's
Liberation Amy to reopen achools and to restore ofder and £0 put an fend to the factional combat, sometimes even violent fighting, taking place ‘the years from 1970 until Chaizman Ho's death in Baptenber 1976 fare politically complex In many fundamental ways education work
Continued during this period Schools vere reopened, scadenic instruction vag carriea out, and scientific research was conducted
of course there were aany significant qualiticationa that must be noted Schools were slow to reopen and sone never địa reopen thelr
Aoors; enrollments remained low in Migher education, considerably below the 1965 level; college adaiseion vas based on reccmendations
fom work unite, favoring applicants with strong political and
attitudinal qualifications over those with better academic records) fnd virtually all research was of a narrovly applied nature
here are many allegations about the harmful effect that the “gang of four" had on education during those years the decade 1966-76 has been described as a period when the Chinese education systea suffered great harm the official rhetoric is that the
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of some of its unscrupulous supporters Of course, the basic decision
to close schools in order to reform thea had the full support of Chairman Wao he Cultural Revolution An education certainly began
with the Chairman's approval Noreover, the education aystem and scientific research establishments dia reopen and did reach sone
Accomplishments of note in the early 19708 Thus, much as the "gàng of four" does not deserve exclusive blane for closing down the
‘educational establishaent, they also must be given some credit for the
(4Eforte te reopen echoola in the early 1970s, albeit with some major reforms in offect
‘The "gang of four* and their supportere probably do deserve nore fully the responsibility of maintaining a climate of political
tension They seen to have been reluctant to allow things to
stabilize, possibly fearing that it might lead to a reduction in the
power they acquired ea a reault of the Cultural Revolution on the Sducation system Perhaps the most serious allegation about their
Ineluence 1s the inability to get the system working snoothly after
the reforms vere inetituted ‘Once agein China hae entered 4 period of renewed eaphaats on
acadenie achievenent, intensive scientific research effores and Academic excellence In many respects current education policy
nirrore policies of the Firat Five Year Plan ana the early 19604
‘Once again, econeaic developaent, rather than political transformation, hae been aade the Mighest national priority, and
Science, technology and higher education are viewed aa the only meana available to achieve a modern society Tn other respects, hovever, the current era beare certain faniliar signe of earlier crash
campaigns, such am the Great Leap Forward, to accomplish soderntzation Gosia To sone extent, China once agein ie attempting a Great Leap, only this time science and foreign technology are serving as the anjor
source of energy to carry this period of the revolution forvard Perhaps the strongest evidence for this observation vas the
preasure witnessed by our delegation to expand university enrollments, In many Feepects this echoes the tactics of the 1956
“leap” and the Great Leap of 1958 On both occasions the prospect of virtually unlimited econoaic expansion justified the policy of
expanding tertiary enrollments to seet the greatly increased
projection of manpower needa and to satiety popular demand for higher education ‘These enroliment increases in the higher education sector
aray scarce nvestaent resources avay from the economy and deprive the feconouy of Anvestaent capital In this sense, the regime may have £0 Feelee the pressure to allow higher education enrollments to expand freely if both eduation quality and investment capital are to be maxinized Of course this latter policy carries with it an adniesion Of Limited economic growth potential and disappointaent for many
talented young man and women who undoubtedly will vant to gain A place An the new technological elite by gating « Mgher education Thus, ‘even during perioa of tine when there ie a very substantial
Trang 19
reality of acute scarcity of resources as « init on her sbility to
allow advanced technioal training to grow and flogrieh? Tit,” She organisation of Seieneitic snd techniesl “Education
ie higher sducacion iyxEee Tả China along Wiehell other state
sanaged sectors of chinese society, Se imbedded in a large and complex olitical and saciniatrative structure pach operational and
Siaindstrative unit ssintaine « meltipiicley of bureaucratic ties with
Sther unites por s number of feasons cor delegation aid not gain œ ory precise Snage of how esch unit we visited interacts with other
Unite’ in the burenscratic structures thie was not our primary goal
Bormous conceptasl differences, exist in the Uae of such crgenieational and authority-releted ters ae *uanages,” "laade,"
Sitne,« “appeoveny" "fande") and, despive the corsent staoephere of relative frankness in china, Siscussion of mactore of institutional Felationshipe renain understandably seneitive, What did emerge vas œ fenae thác sạch anatitution operates in relationships ranging from Sloe consultation to ootright edainetrative authority and that there Ấy Tnetitotlondl autonoay in very few aatteres It in’ clear,
Xarhesnore, that the ways in which most decisions sze recched are variable, Flexible, inforeal ana complex, ahd the process, by which Gccisions are acco outside « particular institution but affecting the Gieelturion generally appear fo elude most individuals within the
inetitition Tn grows terms, chine'a ingtititional framework consists of &
aria of "wervical™ aectors and shorizoneei” geographical
Saninistrative levels in the Righer edvcation sector, the relevant Sininistretive levels are Limited eo the national or contral level and the provincial level (anere sprovineial™ level units include Lerge
sminieipalition auch aw Beijing, Hanjin and Shanghel) in addition to Speaking with education effieltie at the nations! level in Bedding, our delegation spoke with provincial level adninetratore in Shanghat,
Ghongao {aicmuan province)s Shenyang (eitoning province), tanjing {Giangeu province) and Setet (anhal province): The “verticel™ eectors
consist finarily of china‘a various ainisteies, most of which are oriented toward economic production (erges coat, metEelsua, metallurgy Sha agriculture) the aniatry of röqcaton (108) provides, of cour the atin structure of the söhcacionAl system, some of the productive Rintstrien, hovever, are closely involved in the training of technical
Pernonnel for theit own neeae, and share vith the HOE the managonent EFmany colleges the delegation visited institutions: (Eactorien sự
weil am colleges and one research institute) affiliated with the Ministries of Foot and Telecemmunicetions and with the Ficet snd Fourth wisigtries of nachine-aetlaing (aachisery and electronicr, Fespoctively)- in acdition ve vielced a noaber of esearch inatitate tno the chinese University of Science and Technology, = centeat
government agency of quasi-ninisteriel wate
‘Trees, in 1979, since our delogation’s visit and the initial drafting of this report, Chinese economic and educational goals
Trang 20~
At the tine of our delegation‘ viest to china, there were 460 tult-tledged (undergraduate) instititions of higher sducstion,® on the basis of where these cất into the governsental administrative bureaucracy, they fall into three distinct categories: institutions sader direct MOE adainistration; Anstitutions under central
Aâmiaiatratten (by ministries ond agencies other whan che MOE); and Snetitutions under provinclal-level aaainiatration- ‘The Ministry of Education, contrary to vhạt one aight assume &
riorl, exercises direct and prinary adniniatrative responeibiLiey đ5Ết Giúy 35 inatitutions, alehough XE ie involved to sone extent in ‘11 institutions of higher education, Theae institstions which axe
Tun directly by the WOE are mostly comprehensive oF polytechnic Universities, institutions geared epecifically to broad national needs and therefore often prestige universitien, Demples are, Bei3i0g
Oniversiey, Nanjing University, Pudan Onivarsity and Qinghua
University: Othaz miniseries and central government agencies such as the Chinese Acedeny of Sciences (CAS) run their on institutions of higher @ducetion in order to fulfill their om skilled manpower neada, Me Yearned, tor instance, that the Ministry of Post and Telecenmunications Tune two colleges, one im Beijing (which ve Wietted) and one in Nanjing and han intentions of re-opening to Sthera which ft used to run in chengohun and Chongging the Fourth Hintetry of Machine-Dailding rune the Chengde Telecomminicat ions College (which ve visited) and the Northwest Telecommunications College in Xi'an The Piret Ministry of Machine-Duilding rune 25 Colleges.” the Chinese Acedeay of Eelences rune four inseitutions, the Eninese Untveraity of Science tn Wate! (which we visited), Haerbin University of Science and technology, chengau University of Science land Technology and zhejiang Univereicy An hangehou, No figures have been cited on the total number of these (non-NOE) sainistry-Led" Anetitutione, but theiz number can bạ eetiaated at about 100-
‘FFE vas reported in January 1979 that an additional 169 Anetitutions would be eatabliahed of which 153 would be nav and 16
dlder institutions which had been shut down Twenty-eight were Aescribed ae being “oriented to the whole country and large regions" (1.e-, presumably ministry-Led) while 141 aze
provinclel-Level institutions, In terms of fields, their Aistribution ia as follows: 45 in eagineering; 13 in agriculture
fand forestey (including agrotechnical institutions in Sichuan, Renan and Xinjiang); 77 teachers colleges; 16 medical colleges; 10 sconomice institutes; 3 physical culture colleges and 2 are
Academiea It i Delieved that these schools may have a curriculum of shorter than four years (perhape two or three Years) Shanghai education officials had entioned to the Aelegation that such colleges aight be established New china
Trang 21
Provincial governsants also run institutions of higher education in order to meet nangover neede es defined by provincial-level
econoaie plans These probably nunber around 300, although precise ‘figures have not Deen cited for China as a whole For example, 1? of ‘the 32 institutions in Sichuan province are run by the provincial government; in Jiangei, 19 of 33 ingtitutionsy in Liaoning, 17 of 28; fan im Shanghai, 8 of 24 (The cities of Shanghal, Beijing and
TManjin have an adninetrative status equivalent ro that of provine ‘Another major distinction which must be made anong inetitutions
Of nigher education tạ between the @8 select institutions, designated key" (zhongaian) by the Chinese governnent, and the rest-4 We
were told thet the HOE directly operates 25 key institutions Hany of
‘the other key institutions aleo appear to be centrally adsinistered (the First Ministry Of achine-suilding, for instance, rune five)
although sone are provincially run, such as shanghai Normal
University The policy of designating "key" institutions is a return to the pre-1966 period {when about 60 institutions were designated ae
uch) and signifies, above all elae, priority funding Most of the Gneticutiona we visited vere Key inatitueions and adainstratora there stated that funding waa not a major problem for them at thie point At these institutions, plans for enrollment groveh, equipsent and
building acquisition, and faculty development were uniforaly anbitious ‘AIL institutions of higher education have some ties to the HOE,
‘and all necessarily cone under the general oversight of the province (or municipality in che cases of Beijing, Tianjin and shanghai) in
which they are located Tt ie the extent of these ties and the policy
OF administrative areas in which they apply that makes a given Anetitueion centrally or provincially managed or an HOE oF other type
Of institution ‘The aaniniatrative situation ie further complicated by the fact that each educational institution interacta most
frequently with the provincial (municipal in the three major cities) Bureau of Education which operates simultaneously as an ara of both
MOE and the provincial governaent “In addition, institutions under the purview of a non-MOE ministry (such as metallurgy) are also under
the oversight of the provincial bureau of that ministry (e.g., the Bureau of Metallurgy), which, in turn, ie the operating ama of both the ministry and the provincial government Because of this dual function of the local bureaus, it is difficult to sort out whether an Anstitution ie primarily responsive to the local government or to the inlatzy sector In either casa, the local bureau (of education or whatever) appears to be the pass-through and imediate oversight
‘organisation for either central funding ‘The anaver to who “rune” an Ingeivution is presuaably related to whose budget it falis into ›
Ấ TT T679, Chúneae sources referred to 69 "kay" universities Delieved that the addition was the Chinese People's University It is
(Wenain Daxue) in Beijing appendix IV (<) lists the "key”
universities and colleges ae of 1901,
Trang 22cage
Insofar as colleges and universities are consumers of state resources (operating and capital funds, teaching and research
smanpover, research and teaching equipment, buildings and space) ai Well as producers of state resourcen (technical aanpower for teaching
and research and development, and acientific results), their
Activities fall under the purview of the goveranant 's central and
provincial economic plans low these two levela of planning are articulated vith each other íø not well know, but the many references
‘we heard to local manpower needs suggest that the process is clear to educational authorities Planning seons, actually, to consist of an
ongoing process of negotiation anong admintatrative levels and
bureaucratic sectors until some compromise or conseneus is reached in response to competing denands There are provincial planning
Comissions and a (central) state Planning Comission, whose task it is to "balance" demands, nesds, resources and capabilities at the provincial and central levels, ‘reapectively ‘The State Planaing Conmission carries authority which supercedes that of both the
provincial planning commissions and the various ministries and other
Hv The Organization of Research and Development, Research and developsont in China also fall entirely within the
purview of government activity: policy tovard research, such Setting priorities, planning, financing, as well as research activity
Atsel£, are all carried out by governmental units, many of then
adninistered at the national Levels ‘The most iagortant national bureau overseeing ackentific and
technical activities in china ie the State Science ana Technolosy Comaission phía Comission works closely with the state Planning Commlasion to coordinate and formulate soience and technology policy Te was established in 1956 (by analganation of earlier bodies with related concerns) and, after being defunct for a decade, vas restored in late 1977 the Comission is now headed by Vice Premier Fang Yi Fang's elevation to Politburo status in the Communist Party in August 1977 i a further reflection of current importance of science policy
and of the Se? Comission ‘At the sub-national level, provincial se? commissions serve a
sintlar policy function, balancing competing demands and constraints of local circumstances, and operating a subordinate agencies of the State Sem Conmiseion The provincial units had alao been phased out
uring the Cultural Revolution and were only recently re-established: The actual work of ecientitic and technical research takes place
primarily within three sajor areas of China's vast institutional Structure: under the juriediction of the Chinese Acadeay of Sciences
(Cas); under various (aany of them industrial) ministries; and at Anetitutions of higher education the Chinese Acedeny of Selenees, & ‘government agency of quasi-ninisterial status but with close tien to
the SeF Conaiseion, rune a growing number of research institutes (about 100 by 1979) A number of institutes vhich had been closed
Trang 23a
tablished in nevly developing fields The Institute of Plasma Physics and the Institute of Theoreticel Physics were spun off, for example, from the Institute of Physics in 1976 Now that basic sciences have regained, and perhaps surpassed their earlier
Amortance, the inetiestes of the CAS are the aajor locus of basic (China's industrial ministries, such as those of metallurgy,
petroleum and post and telecoamuntcations, aleo run iaportant research Institutes xnowledge of their work outeide china ham been mich more
Limited to date than our information on the Neadeay-ron institutes (one reason for thie 1s that Chinese preas coverage of their activities has been Limited In addition, those institutes have, to date, played 2 linitad role in the international scholarly exchanges which have provided the West with a first-hand glance at many of the Acadeny-run Anstitutes the Engineering Education Delegation, for instance, visited only one such industrial institute, the Tools Research
Institue in Chengdu, run by the First Ministry of Machine-Building
Xt can be safely assumed that the prinery function of the industrial Anetitutes has been to meet the production needs of tha industrial
enterprises and that their research has bean primarily of an applied
ature and vill continve in that mode, ‘the thizd major sector in which scientific research ie conducted
An china Le that of the universities In the early 19708,
universities functioned on a very restricted basis, and very Little Yeseareh waa carried out on campus Since early 1978, however,
Trang 24USDERGRADUAPE ENGINEERING EDUCATION IW CHINA
‘The institutional structure of higher education in china currently consists of about 600 colle
four year curricula In addition china is in the proce
Geveloping graduate education to unprecedanted levels and sending students abroad to the West and Japan in programe which may have an ven sore substantial long-range impact on the developaent of science fand technology in China than the training of chinese technical and Scientific manpover in the soviet Union in the 1950s, This emphasis fon advanced training 12 coupled with a broad prograa of hai
fechnical education for tnáustrial personnel in institutions often
Feferred to as ‘July 2st Universities or College In this chapter basic undergraduate education in ongineoring
wil be tacuseed Chapter 3 focuses on gradvate education in China and abroad and factory-baeed technlcal manpower training
E Recruitment of Undergraduates One of the Sost significant and widely publicized reforns of the
Chinese education ayaten in the current perioa has been the
fondamental revision of the university admissions process At every
Anstitution of higher education va visited, the increased attention being given te acadenle ability, rather than political attitude and Fecomendation, aa the basis for admission to university was
eaphasized our hosts repeatedly called attention to the national,
policy of raising academic atandards and improving the quality of @ducaton A university adnissions policy that was based primarily on
Academic achievenent waa one of the major ateps taken to rai Scadeaic standards in order to epeed up the modernization of the country ‘second general reform that dealt with university admissions was the policy of admitting students to university directly from
midale achool without an intervening period of industrial or Agricultural labor thie policy was intended to bring the sot able
Students directly to university, to train tham for scientific and technical roles, and to draw then more quickly into the high skill jobs where their services will be most needed One important
Trang 25-~
school 18 to reduce the influence of work unite in both the city and countryside in the adnission process Previously the recommendation Of the work unit of young college applicante was a major factor in Adnision Direct admission from aisdle school renoves this form of Societal screening and reinforces the #ignificance of the exaainetion process (AC the Cine of our delegation's visit, the new exeninations had doen administered twice, the firet time was in November-Decenber 1977 for adaission in February 1976 This group of examinees and
Succesaful applicants actually constitutes the entering clase of 1977 ‘the second adainistration of the examination was in July 1978, ‘Tate exanination vao still being graded and evaluated during ovr visit, with the final selections yet to be made and the entering cl
of 1978 adaitved to study ‘The 1977 exam covered four subjects: mathenat ice, Chines
Language and Literature, politics, and physica and chealstry Liberal arte studenes substituted an examination in history and geography for the physics and chemistry exan A total score of 400 points wa
possible supplenentary foreign language exam was also administered but the score was not Ancluded in the composite, Presumably the
foreign language exam vas intended to serve an advisory role f five-part exam, vith a possible
cumulative score of 500, The physics and chemistry examinations ware Aivided into two separate examinations for science majors and the history and geography examinations wore eplit for Liberal arts applicants Again, foreign language exam waa required but not
Included in che composite score In 1977 approximately 5.7 million students took the standardized
examination, from which 278,000 ware enrolled in universities This group included many applicants vno had completed middle school during the prior ten years and for whom there had been no possible entry to university ss long as political criteria and the recommendation of one's work group were of primary iaportance Approxinately six million studente took the 1979 examinations and the number of
Successful applicants had not yet been announced during the delegation visit ‘This figure still included aany former middle achool graduate: but probably out more deeply into the zanke of current gradustes, There ia considerable pressure on atudenta to take the examination and fon school administrators to urge their graduates to compete, even in
the face of very difficult odds and unlikely prospects for success ‘Formal requirements for taking the examination are few
Applicants must be 25 years old, unmarried, and senior middie school graduates of the equivalent We were told that political factors, Such as clase background, were not a criterion of eligibility to take
‘the examination, although individuale with weak political credentials lect theaselvea out of the examination and application
Te Tae been reported that the foreign lanugage exam grade was part Of the 1979 exam score, reflecting the ‘portance now being given
Trang 26gradere are paid a supplementary stipend for their We were assured that grading was completely standardized ‘although it did not appoar that any measures vere boing taken to fensure that comparably exacting and equitable standards were applied
fo all atudenta in each provinc Performance on the examination was very uneven across the nation
reflecting the differing levels of educational developaent in the country Pujian, Beijing, shangha and Jiangeu stodente performed Dest, in that order, while students from Kel Honggel (Inner Mongolia) and Yunnan raceived the lowest average acores Although no data were Offered, it is reasonable to asgune that considerable differences within each province exieted ao well Certainly urban and rural areas
‘cannot be expected to have scored comparably ‘Although the examination was a unified national test, the
adnission process actully wis carried oxt on a provincial basis
Hach province was assigned a target number of students to be enrolled in the universities, A tentative passing grade on the examination và
fixed for studenta fron that province Por example, the city of
Shanghai, which has provincial status, had 110,000 students taking the fexan to f411 an expected 11,000 places in colleges and universitis ‘The passing grade on the exam was set initially at 320 polate, 17,000 examinees scored the minimum of 320 on the exam These exen passera
were then subject to a physical examination given at several big hospitals within the city Yatrly specific national standards were
apparently applied on the physical Lass than two percent of tho taking the phyaical exam were excluded on medical grounds; Kany of the persone selected out may recuperate from their physical atlaente and handicaps and, we vere tol, these individuals would be alloved to Fenain in the pool of successful exam paesera in future adniseione
competitions ‘Academic and physical exam passers are also subject toa
political evaluation ‘this evaluation takes the fora of a political Gossier compiled about the individual by the grassroots organization
that Le sending the applicant on to university in most oases, and Increasingly 90 in the future, this evaluation originates crom the middle school A small but indeterminate nuaber of individoals are excluded for political reasons, We were unable to elicit specific ushers about how many persons might be so excluded, nor could we get a clear statement about vhat sort of actions or Dehavior might lead to
political exclusion We ware told that « person who vas a follower of fhe "gang of four" and who refused to acknowledge that Link, would be
subject to exclusion In any case, at each turn we vere assured that every effort was mado to mininize the importance of political criteria
find to maxiaize acadeaic critieria ae the basis for adnission a addition to giving examination scores the greatest woight,
Trang 27as
tthe policy of “serving the people” which obligated the individuals to suppress any personal preference and to appear to opt for the least
attractive and sost arduous assignment, ‘The actual process of enrollment to collage and universities wa
done on a provincial basis universities in a particular province were carried out at the sane It would appear that adaiseions for all
tine at the provincial level The applicants in that province still Zemalning in the pool, having received a passing grade on the exam and
not having heen excluded for hesith or political reasons, are ranked im order of their exam grades This 1ist t# divided into eeveral
roughly equal sized groups Applicants in the first group, with the ‘highest test scores, are then aanitted to particular departments 1n particolar universities, usually on the basis of the applicant's
Preference If the appiioent cannot be aduitted to an institution of is choice, he 1 adaitted to an institution desigated by the
‘educational authorities Every applicant from that group 1s adnitted to soue college of university Before the applications from the group
with the next highest range of scores is considered this process continues until all of the university places in the province have been filles ‘Tae test score needed to be adnitted to different institutions and departaonts varies Naturally, the acadeaically elite "key Gniveraitiea" require Aigher scores At the Shanghad Mechanical Engineering College, the only non-key university we visited, we were told that minimum test scores of 350 to 400 points now were necessary for admission to a key university Moreover, different departuente within « university require different minimm scores to gain
Admission, depending on the reputation of that department and the Feaulting competition or example, Fudan University, whose math Gepartnent has a very hình reputation, required a teat score of over 4400 for adniscion to that department Minimum scores in other
Geparenents vere lower, but none was lower than 320 Every province is assigned a quota of studente who will go to
university both within and outelde of their hone province Sichuan studante, for example, vere allotted 20,000 places in univeraits
throughout China If students in a particular province perform better ‘than expected on the examination, the nunber of places allotted to
then in universities fe increased Every university hae a quota of students from outside the
province who must be admitted, In the case of provincially run Universities, particularly non-key universities, this nunber may be negligible Provincially managed universities enroll students Primarily froe within that province We were told that the quota of ‘Students from each other province 1a set by the Mintatzy of
Education since examination performance le uneven from province to Province, this resulte in uneven sdaiesions standards even at the hation'a nose elite universities the justification given for this
Anequity 1a that it helpe to compensate for the uneven standards of secondary education in the country and to reduce the uneven level of
Trang 28Provinces with a larger number of Key universities and centrally run universities, which tend to be the more educationally advanced
Provinces, accept sore students from outeide their province than they nd out to atudy Liaoning, for example, sant 15,000 studente to
univeraity in 1878 14,000 enrolled in universities in Liacaing, While 1,000 enrolled outside the province At the sane tine Liaoning Accepted 3,000 studente from other provinces to study at universities in that province Again, this system helps to break down disparities between the provinces ‘the current plan (at the tine of our visit) 12 to return youths trained at centrally run universities to their native
Provinces for work assignaeate, possible In part this my be a reaponse to the perceived need for ‘There ie considerable pressure to expand adaissions ae quickly
technical personnel and say be a ritualized responge to achieve 1985 enroliment targets ahead of achedule still another factor in the Picture mist be heavy denand for higher education anong Chin's youth Clearly, as technical education becones sore clearly Adentitsed az the only, or certainly the ost important route for personal success, denand can only go up Moreover, even vith the projections for expansion of higher education by 1985, the total ngnhạr of places available will reaain vary few and the opportunity for it will continue to be ecarce, In the face of all of these Presgures, 1¢ 1s not surprising that there vas discussion of Peraitting a nore vapid expansion of university edniseions For
‘example, in ghanghai che delegation was informed that discussions vere faking place to increase enrollment by 7,000 to A total of 10,000 and
‘to drop the passing score on the examination to 306 ‘The major change in university adaiseion policy has been to
canphaetze performance on the unified national examination rather than
political performance and the recomendation of work unite thie ‘ed to sone important changes in the composition of
‘Presumably the sumber of lesa academically
qualified political enthusiasts is dow and they have been replaced
With dndividuale selected on the basis of acadaaic merit alone ‘The impact of this change in adaiesions policy on the class
composition of the entering clase {a impressive, Tor example, we ware fold that before the institution of the examination ayetem Qinghua university adaitted 50 percent of its students from factory vorker and poor peasant families, 40 percent from families of other sorte of
Norkers, and 10 percent from bourgeois and well-to-do peasant families If these figures are taken to be broadly representative
‘they can be compared vith the class background of the current entering
‘clase at Pudan Gnivereity Here 50 percent of the new studenta are from worker and peasant families, 35 percent are the offspring of
intellectuale, and 15 percent are from bourgeois and affluent agricultural backgrounds Not surprisingly, a system that stresi
acadenic achievement will give an advantage to children froa those families where acedenic success 0 most likely to be prized In
Trang 29a
academically able and perhaps less politically active group and giving ‘the children of intellectuale an advantage in securing adniseions to « luniveraity In any case, even with expanded enrolinente places in univeraity zenein scarce: About one in twenty exaaination takers are sitinately adnitted to university, and given earlier attrition at various stages of secondary education, only about one in a hundr
college age children enters an institution of Mgher Learning Tr cuericsiun
‘Ge the Basie of the Engineering Education Delegation'a
pbeervations at engineering colleges in Chine, current carriculua can bbe described as being in a state of flux, readjustment, and compromise Detween undercurrents of various curricular modele of the past Prior to 1949, the higher education aysten in China reflected a variety of Western influences, with heavy Anerican inpact in the fields of engineering In the 1950s, the Chinese systen received an overlay aravn from the Soviet model, which involved specialization of
Gnstitueions undar the land of industrial ministries and tended toward
very narrow focus in curricula A typical curriculum prior to the Cultural Revolution was of
five year's guration, for a total of about 3,200 classroom hours Nhen colleges reopened in the early 1970s, the curriculum vae shortened to three yesrs and included more tine than over before
Aevoted to “productive labor" outaide the educational institutions and to political study-2 in ite current phase, with the exception of 2 few special five-year prograns, the curriculum 1s four yesrs in
duration, for a total of about 2,400 hours, ‘An acadenic year typically consiste of two 22 week senesters
(Uneluding examination periods), one month of work outeide the
college, and one sonth of vacation Several colleges ve visited also
offered special remedial courses to compensate for vhat 1s considered Inadequate prior preparation under the regine of the early 19704
"basic" courses 1n science and engineering and “politics and
philosophy" are offered in the firet tvo yeara In the third and fourth years, students concentrate on a specialty and work, generally
full-time, on a design project in their final seaester Many of the professors and administrators we spoke to felt that the curriculum is Perhapa a bit overapecialized and that “specialties” are too numerous,
and, accordingly, some consolidation of the specialties is planned, In very broad terms, in comparison with the current anerican system of
‘engineering education, there 4e mich sore eaphasia in China on foreign language training, and on the inclusion of a aystamatic practical work
‘component in the curriculun ơn the other hand, the typical chinese ‘engineering curriculum inclides 4 mach more Limited range of courses outeide engineering and fewer electives within the engineering major ‘Te curriculum 1a mich more rigid
‘Tor Faporte on the three year curriculum, see, for instanc G #ugllarello and ¥ Rouse, “Impressions of the People’s Republic of
China: Engineering Education,” Mechanical Engineering 97(4), Aoril, 1975, pp 28-29, and Chong-ttung Zee, "Chinese Engineering Education: A
Trang 30a
It should be noted that fields are defined somewhat 4itferently
from the way they are in the United States In particular, matters
related to heat and thereodynanice, vhich are normally treated in chanical engineering departaents in the United states, are sore
Likely to be found in electrial engineoring departnente in china Electronics, on the other hand, is normally covered in a separate
Sopartnont, while electrical engineering typically refers to power ‘engineering
‘The delegation found ít generally difficult to obtain printed information regarding progras of study Ag far aa ve could
Goteruine, there is no equivalent in China of @ college catalogue, falthough it hao boon stated in the Chinese press that institutions of Aigher education ought to sake available to applicants more
Anformation about thelr curricula in order to guide prospective students! preferences Meabere of the delegation, dia, however,
obtain copies of some curricula for specialties both for current years (1977 and 1978) ana, as a reference point, for 1963 in both electrical
engineering and machanical engineering, the two main areas of interest Of the delegation (See Appendices II and 111) This information
‘tuggeate that the broad Lines of the curriculum are generally similar for both points in time, with perhape alightly sore eaphasie currently fon basic courses in science and engineering in the case of the
Slectronies specialty In the field of electronica, the delegation was given the
five-year curriculum in Radio Engineering at Jiactong University in Shanghai for 1963 and the current (1978) Radio Communications
‘curriculum at the Chengdu Institute of Telecommunteation Engineering
‘The table below sumarizes the distribution of houra devoted to the Aitferent types of courses
TABLE 1 Electronice curriculum 1963 and 19783 Shangbal Waotong Chengdu Inetitte of Tele
Qniveratty (1963) communication mgineering (1976) Radio Engineering Radio Communications (four Hours spent ont comon courses 720 (21.86) 545 (24.201
Basic science cour: 750 (22.78) S90 (22.28)
Basic technical courses 1238 (37.18) 315 (40.78)
Specialty courses 07 (a8 200 (8.98)
‘rota 3015 howre 2250 hours
Trang 31
+
In the f1eld of sechanteal engineering, aenbers of the delegation were given copies of the Mechanical manufacturing
‘Technology curriculum at Jiaotong University for both 1963 and 1977,
‘Table 2 sumaarizes the distribution of hours devoted to the aifferent types of courses, ‘TABLE 2 Mechanical Manufacturing Curriculum 1963 and 19774 Shanghai giasteng university (1977 ~ four year program)
‘common core cour Basic science 728 (224) S60 (208) 528.5 (22.68) 545.5 (23.68)
Basic engineering specialty courses 1255 (38A) 688 (208) 735-5 (344) 456.5 03.68
otal 3299 houre 2214 hours
Core courses include courses 4n “polities" vhích should be
understood to cover a wide range of courses from political philosophy, to history, economics and international affairs
Hix, Practtoal Experience: Laboratories, Workshops and Factories ‘The colleges visited by the delegation all had basic Taboratory
facilities for heir etudente Although che equipment was not
HT ved See
‘equivalent teaching laboratory in the United states, shops and electronic measuring equipment such as oncilloscopes, mostly essential sachine
Chinese made, seened to be widely available Digital computing facilities are fast developing and it vas not clear that atudent uaage
vas extensive Generally teaching and research laboratories were seperate Typtcally, slightly over 10 percent of curriculum tine 4¢
devoted to laboratory work in engineering I addition, colleges operate production workshops for the
studente to engage in "productive labor,” manufacturing equipeent for luge at the college or even for supply to industrial or educational lunits outside the college puring thelr firet and second years, the students work In these workshops on such ivens aa turret heeds, fluid control devices, trananiesions, cizcutt panels, printed circuits, ‘optical equipment parts and electronic components Zhe etudenta productivity ie understandably low but the fact that it wae expected
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In their third and fourth yoars, the students usually spend theiz month of productive labor in a nearby factory, often run by the sane ministry that runs the engineering college There is no
‘expectation that the eEodente would then necessarily work at that factory upon graduation, although that seems to occur in some cases,
Although the students" exposure to practical work appears to be rather Specialized, it ia clear that this component of engineering education is a very useful one This gystenatic hands-on education is sore widespread than for Asarican engineering students and prepares sngineering graduates to be rather immediately productive in their firse jobs
TW Placement of Graduate Ks noted in Chapter One, job placesent of college graduates is
carried out in accordance with a series of intertwined manpower plans Within particular industrial sectors, localities and provinces and for the nation as a vhole, Tavolved in this proceaa are the education ministries ond provincial bureaus, the industrial ministries and
bureaus, provincial selenee and technology units and the State science and Technology Comnlesion, the provincial planning commissions and,
Gltinately, the State Planning Comission ‘Techtical manpover 1s obviously a scarce commodity in china and
tthe competition for manpower supplies anong various unite of the state 4s intense, It ie probably very significant that industrial
intatries run their om institutions of higher education his, no Goubt, provides them with better control over the allocation of trained manpower to their om sector Within an industrial sector, however, competition still reasins azong individual production,
esearch and educational units seeking to ect their needs ‘Thus, while there are channels for allocation of graduates
across sectoral and provincial Lines, the bulk of college graduates
Femain (a) within their province and (b) within their sector planned allocation of manpower, While it has obvious pitfalls in eer of
matching fully supply and deaand, sakes it possible to train manpower nore narrowly in anticipation of snginesring needs It is in thie context, thea, that the narrowness of the curriculum aakes more set ‘than ie vould in our omm educational syste In contrast, however, 10 fone is being trained for unanticipated needs or to deal flexibly with Dew and changing fields Nor is anyone being trained to asoune
eventually managerial positions in Chinese industry such potential
Trang 33GRADUATE, OVERSEAS, AND FACTORY BASED EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
1c Graduate education T, Current Graduate Enrollnent and Pi:
In late 1977 the Ministry of Hdvcation and the Chinese Academy of sclences announced the resumption of graduate studies in china and din February 1976 the Chinege Acadeay of Social Sciences also announced ‘that graduate prograns would be conducted at ten of its research
4neti tutee,1 ‘By the sumer of 1978 more concrete plans for graduate study
were announces stating that in the fall approximately 9,000 studente
would be enrolled in 207 institutions of higher education and 146 Fesearch inatitutes from anong 57,000 applicant In January 1979 Le
was reported that the munber of applicants had actually totaled 65,000 of whieh 8,000 had been enrolled in 210 institutions of higher
‘education and another 2,500 in 162 research institutes.? Tt i
hotevorthy that the nuaher of colleges and universities vith graduate
prograna goes well beyond the 89 key universities ‘This enrolisent 1s very significant in terms of the past history
of graduate education in China It already exceeds the total nunber
‘rained in the period prior to the Cultural Revolution, which has been timated at about 15,000 of which approximately 3,000 studied in the
Soviet union and Pamtern Burops.3
‘F—BeTjing sadio, vecenber 1, 1977 the chinese use the tore postgraduate" in their English Language sources for what we
oually oall graduate atudente, the Chinese tera 4e
‘syanjtusheng," Literally "research student." Nev China Neve Agency (Sena), February 26, 1978
2 gown, guly 15, 1978, and NGNÀ, July 19, 1978; NONA, January 10, i
3 chu-yuan cheng, "Selentieic and Engineering Manpower in Communist China” in An Econonie Profile of Mainland china, = compendium of
papers presented to the Joint Econoaic Coamittes, U.S congress, T967 (Rew York: Prager, 1968 reprint)
Trang 34
say
Puture plang for graduate study, aa they were outlined for us during the visie, vere very ambitious Projected figures at
Institutions we visited ranged betveon ten and twenty percent of the otal anticipated enrollment for 1965 If these ratios apply to about one third of china's colleges and universities, and total enrolimenta An fact were to grow as we were told, graduate enrollment in the
mid-19806 could reach about 200,000.4 2, ‘The structure of Graduate study
Since gradiate study vas only Deing reinatituted during our viete, there 18 very Little experience to report Most of what can be aid pertain to plane for the future ‘there did not appear to us to be any explicit national policy pertaining to graduate study, but an energing structure was dimly evident The conduct of revearch under ‘the supervision of senor faculty is seen ae a key elonent of graduate training in engineering and the selencee, and graduate education Will
thue take place both {n universities and ín research inetitutes ‘We were told that thera were no plans to grant degr
According to education officials in Sichuan, institutions are
Geveloping programs of two, three, and four years in duration A tvo year program would include # aolia foundation in basic theory and Practical experience and sone participation in research In thre Your prograne, the requirenente of the two year program aust be met and a thesis (i.e @ piace of original research) ie required Half of
the third year is devoted to course work and the other half is for thesis work In four year programs, most of the additional year is to
be devoted to dissertation research with the expectation that ame Anvention of creative outcone result froa that research Tt 1a
important to stress that these prograns renain quite tentative, since only first-year graduate students vere enrolled at the tine of our
visit, Tt was clear to us that the prograns which were described had been constituted ad hoc The curriculum end ite duration probably depend Largely on the extent of research training needed in a
particular f10ld (and perhaps on the rossarch abilities of the studente) Given the emall numbers in the beginning, graduate etuay
would appear to consist largely of work of a tutorial nature, with senior faculty (professors and associate professors) working vith «
handeul of students Ae 1e the cage with undergraduate admissions, graduate students
fare being selected, we were told, by relying heavily on entrance
‘examinations These examinations are separate for each university (although, for aajor universities, at least, the exam for a given
univereity can be taken Gt many testing centera throughout China) ‘the graduate entrance examinations involve two phases, a general,
TW Faek, subsequent to our visit, educational goals vere severely curtalies by 1985, total undergraduate enrollments aay only Feach Detween 1-5 million and 2 million If graduate students
Fepresent ten percent of enrollments at about a third of the educational institutions, total graduate enrollment would only
Feach 50,000 to 70,000 students Even if current annual new je from current levels to about 15,000,
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examdntiơn o£ broad subject coverage, and a much nore specific
examination in one's specialty (zhuanye) such a¢ computer software or
mathematical logie 3 Graduate study in the universities visited
At the Institute of Post end Telecommunications in pe(3ing,
there vere 20 graduate stidente selected in T378 from 140 applicante ‘for than to follow &
Te was pointed out to us that sone of their study would be remedial work, particularly for
those vho vere graduates of the early 19708 ‘The plan at Qinghia Univeraity in Beijing was to enroll 300 post
graduate students for the 1978-79 acadenic year, chosen froa 1,000 Applicants wao took ‘the University's exam ‘These students were to study provisionally for two yeare, with the possibility of an
Additional two years of study for promising individuals jeijing Tnatituee of Technology planned to enroll 60 new
graduate students in 1978 A three-Year graduate progran of study vas Juste beginning in which etudente were to receive claserooa instruction In basic engineering science during the first two yeare, followed by A
third year devoted to thesis work Me were told that thie program was
‘Aimed at training both college teachers in engineering and scientitie
Tesearchers Before the Cultural Revolution, the Chengdu institute of
‘elecommunication Engineering avarded certificates to 65 graduate ‘Fintentes(ihey Ted'graduatea almost 12/000 undergraduates.) We were
told of plans to enroll more than 3,000 graduates by 1985 ‘The Shanghai Mechanical Engingering College had 36 graduate
studante at the tine of oor visit, Our hosts expected to increase this number £01,000 by 1985, or about 10 percent of the planned total
enrollment ‘The fall 1978 enrolinent of graduate students at Jiact:
Uasveraity in Shanghai vae 150 with plane for enrollments of 3,000 by T
At Fudan university in shanghai ve were told that 66 graduate students had been enrolled "last year™ (it was not clear exactly when
they were enrolled - possibly in the spring of 1978) and that the univereity planned to enroll 200 more for the 1978-79 academic year+
‘The main responsibility of the chinese University of So
‘technology, which {a run by the Chinese Acedeay oF Eciehces, Grain scleneitic peraonnel to meet future needs of the Acadeay
research institutes and to supply qualified teachers for university Anetruction, The undergraduate program located in Hefel 1a a special five year curriculum, the univeraity alao has a graduate campus 4n
Beijing where 107 graduate studente were enrolled in the fall of 1978, ‘The Chinese press has reported that the graduate school alr
fenrolis about 1,000 students, Of the 1,500 new students to be enrolled each year, Detween 15 and 20 percent aze to be at the
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‘The Northeast China inetitute of Technology in Shenyang enrolled 0 graduates In the fall 5£ 1978 She plan was to increase this
nuaber to 2,000 by 1985, which woold be 20 percent of the total
projected enrollment ác An Aseoganent
Ht ie certainly t50 early to assess the state of graduate
education in china, Some coments can be made, hovever, about the
plang and projections that our delegation heard about the current feuphasis and direction of graduate education is certainly to be
applauded Expectations, hovever, as they were described to us,
appear to be overanbitious, given the weak state of the educational {nerastructure The current #upply of teaching nangover and physical
facilities for graduate Anstruction 18 probably adequate to anintain an important graduate level component of modeBt size Such resources fare mạch too scarce, however, co sustain the large graduate enrolinent hoped for by 1985 Advanced and experienced instruction must rely very heavily at present on faculty trained abroad before 1949 and on
Russian trained faculty from the 1950s These senior people are fev in numbers and many are advanced in age Furthersore, laboratory
facilities, essential to graduate education, are still extrenely Limited.” ‘their expansion, either on the basis of imported equipment
for domestic production will take quite a fev years and « large capital investment In the interim, it is clear that overseas education ( ‘the following section) ia a necessary stopgap measure both as a short run conplesent to graduate level training in China and for the
Gevelopuent of teaching sanpower for graduate level instruction after
thei return in china TK, Qvergeas Education
T, few Polley Direetione
TA n2 mem T98, Tes than two aonthe before the arrival of
four delegation 4n China, ít vas announced that China was preparing to ‘bend unprecedented numbers of ite atudents end scholare abroad The
rnost curpricing piece of nove was that many of these would be sent to the United states as well as to Japan, France, Great Britain and the
Federal Republic of Germany, countries with which china already had Aiplomatic relations and agreanente in the areas of cultural and educational exchanges or scientific and technical cooperation
Chinese planners hope that ten thousand students or advanced scholere V411 haye been trained or will be in the process of being trained
abroad by 1985 ‘To place these projected figures in perspective, china sent
students to the united States rather steadily froa about the turn of the century to 1949 ‘The annual contingent ranged from about 200 to
400 in the 1920s and 19308, and reached peaks of around 1,000 in the Late 19408.5 after 1949, as part of its international policy of
Trang 37-25-
‘the Dulk of ite studente to the Soviet union and to Eastern European countries (probably about 90 percent to the soviet Union).© ‘Their ‘umber are estimated to have been about 7,500 to the USER by 1960 (of Which about 200 were graduate student) and about 11,000 by the
‘sLd-19608.7 he peak year vas 1955, vben over 2,200 students were
Bent to the Soviet unton.® ‘The actual implementation of the new policy of sending students
abroad may in fact turn out to be aoacwhat sore measured and gradual thân is suggested by the ataoephere of impulsiveness vhich prevailed when our delegation wae in China, Everywhere we went, there was a food of anticipation and eagerness on the part of many to go the
United states for advanced study, and the process of recruitment and lection was already vell underway, even though the Educational
Delegation headed by zhou Peiyuan, head of the China Association of Science and Technology, the lead Organization in scholarly exchanges
with the united states, and by LÍ Ol, Vice Kinister of Education in Charge of international educational affairs, vas not scheduled £0 Visit the United state to discuss educational exchanges with U5
governaent and univeraity officials until the next aonth ‘During our visit, ve heard from at least one source that the
Geciaion to move ahead vith international student exchanges (as well @tecussion of formats for exchanges with the United states, such as
42 "sister university" concept) had actually occured at the National
Education Conference held in beijing from April 22 to May 16, 1978 Be that as it may, it vas clear that the various institutions ve
Visited, research inatitutes aa well as colleges and universities, had already arrived at tentative quotas with higher authoriti
‘coordinating the exchanges These higher authorities are the Ministry ‘Of Education and, in the case of the research institutes, the Chin
Acadeny of Sciences, vith overall approval required from the state Planning Commission and the State Science and Technology Commission
2: Recruttment and selection
[Xt age point in the process of arriving at auch quotas between
tho institutions and higher adainistrative levels, the institutions ssubuitted for approval, and perhaps for selection, lists of candidates for foreign study We wore shovn such & Liat at one inatitution, The Antormation for each candidate covered from about one third toa full
page, and included euch basic information as birthplace, political Beats (ie Dackgvound (e-g-
Proposals for foreign study ranged ren the not general (e-g- “united States") to rather specific indications of praferred institutions,
department and specialised f1eld and even desired major professor,
With alternative choices given by sone candidates
TP TEEERS, sp.eit., p 197
7 ancernational Comuntcation Agency, Student Exchange Programs of the Đ.R.C Research Report R-20-76, August 9, 1978, pe 3
Trang 3826"
fon September 15, 1978 there was @ nationwide examination
aoninistered to all candidates for foreign study We had the Impression that at that point, candidates had already been selected
for going abroad and that the September 15 exam vas either pro forma or aarely 4 diagnostic not related to an actual selection process We wore told that candidates would also be taking a substantive
Gxamination in their field, but have received no elaboration on thie
fatter either during our trip or subsequently ‘3 Flelds of stuay_
Not surprisingly, since science and technology are viewed as key to china'e overall modernization, overseas educational plans are
geared predominantly to the study of science and enginesring
Particularly t2gortank in Chinese scientific felde, but the experimental facilities available as an countries ao the United staea are not only at the forefront of many expectations te the fact hat such
integral part of their education system can provide chinese students
with tratning opportunities which are largely non-existent 4a china, Indications are that, at least án the initial phase, about
three-fifths of the Chinese students coming to the United States will be concentrating in the applied sciences, engineering and technology Por the Chinese overseas program as a vhole, one Kinistry of Education Dfficial outlined for us an approximate distribution of general fields Of study: about one third of the students would study engineering, about one third sciences, about ten percent each medicine and foreign Languages, and about ten percent in social sciences, refering
particularly to mạch fields as econoaics, management and "futarology" (wot lai xue} These Latter areas suggest that Chinese planners are
quite avare that the acquisition of the hardware of science and fechnology cannot be separated from the organizational context of
planning, management and adainistration, ‘4sComposition of (2 Education Contingent
Tiên Khát vệ Tạarned Ta Chín se well oo ferther informacion
gathered in tho United states after our return, the majority of the ‘students being sent to the United states are mature øchơlare
areer (10: in their late thirties to early forties) for fof about two years We received conflicting anevers as to or not these "students* expected to receive foraal academic ‘While studying abroad he reason for the ambivalence was perhape the lack of knowlege concerning the policies of hest
Institutions as well as the lack of extensive precadent for china in ‘hese matters Those being sent abroad from Chinese universities vere
either junior faculty (particularly at the rank of lecturer) or ntering graduate students In fact, it seened as though graduate
Btodence vho, at this stage, have ali recently matriculated into Chinese universities, vould only have nominal affiliations with those institutions and would actually carry out thelr entire graduate
program abroad ‘Our conversation with the Minister of Education, Liu xiyao,
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matter We questioned the merits of sending large mmbere of
undergraduates, particularly at the early stage, and pointed out the relative aifticultly for Aserican acadenic institutions of accepting
undergraduates, eapecially on short notice and vithout the benefit of
standardized English proficiency evaluations Perhaps as a result of hearing our and aimtlar opinions, the policy, as enunciated by zhow
Peiyuan during his October 1978 vieit to the United states, has apparently leaned tovard Limiting the number of undergraduates to
‘about ten percent of the total nusher of students and scholars sent to the United states It de interesting to note that in the early 19508
‘the students sent by China to the soviet Union were primarily undergraduates (83 percent) whereas after 1957 studente vere sent only
‘at the graduate level apparently ae « result of experiences gained by
the earlier priority.® TXT YACTORY-BASED TECHNICAL MANPOMER TRAINING
4s outlined in chapter One, industrial ministries in china play 1 heavy hand in the operation of many full-fledged engineering
colleges, The Firet Ministry of Machine-putlding, for instance, runs Fifteen specialized engineering colleges enrolling « total of 30,000 students, vhile the Fourth Minlatry rune two colleges, enrolling 5,000 Students altogether To supply themselves with lover-Level industrial
‘manpower and to upgrade the technical level of existing industrial Benpower the ministries also run technical middle achoole and
Svorker'a universities” ¢hroughout China, with a total enrolluent of 20,000 the Fourth Ninietry runs approximately 200 “July 21st
Universities" and technical middie schools 1 MJuly 2let Worker's Universities"
In-service training for Workere taker on so many forms in chine
and is 20 scattered that it is difficult to describe accurately ite
Anseitutional structure, let alone assess ite fonctions and effects vice continuing education
2 for workers, "hay 7ch television, radio and correspondence courses, this report will focus on "uly 2let Universities” for to Feasons One is chat our delegation specifically sought to learn something of this particular type of training distribution for Induserial technical manpower and second because a March 1978 state
Council directive sought to formalize and strengthen the zole of the e* schools,
‘a aatter of policy, Chinese educational leaders do not intend
the technical manpower power potential of middle school ‘or othare who are unable to enter the universities, In the
Trang 4020+
‘The directive concerning "July 21st Universities" wa
unequivocal Whatever may have been the original intent behind these schools when they were originally set up during the cultural
Revolution (their nane drives from the date of Mao's approval as & nation wide model, during an inspection tour on that date in 1968, of Such a school set up at Shanghai No 1 Wachine-Tool Factory), it is Clear that now these achools are intended to complanent colleges and Universities by training a large corps of technicians from anong the Fanks of experienced and skilled workers the schools offer full tine training for a period of two to three yeare and thelr curriculum te narrowly tailored to the technical needs of « particular productive Sector The level of sophistication of the subject matter is, in eheory, expected to becana, in the long run at least, similar to thet
of colleges, in fact, although they are celled “untveraities" (8axue), thedr curricula are currently generally aiailar to those of
polytechnical trade schools in the United States Teaching material nd instructional staff are to be drawn from the main educetional Sector, in a selectively efficient vay (clouely geared to productive needs) and by laying the burden of their financial and logistical ‘upport in the hands of the industrial eectore (by providing the
‘pace, paying the instructional staff, and maintaining the salaries of workore who Ieave the production shops for the prescribed period of fall tine study} Thus, the "July Zist Universities" are locally administered by aunicipal industrial bureaua (euch as machine-building
Đareaga) and individual factories Te is difficult to give a sound assessment of vhạt ve actually
‘saw and heard in relatien to the "July 2lst” schools We gained a Gofinite impression that our hosts were somevhat reluctant to discuss
‘the schools with us or to actually show thes (In spite of repeated Fequests, ve saw only one, at the shenyang No 1 MAchine~Tool
Yactory.) ‘This was perhaps because our hosts did not expect the Golegation to be interested in that type of school Four of the
‘eleven factorien visited had “July 2lat™ schools located on the factory premises fifth plant shared a "July 2lst” college vith
other nearby factories, while one additional enterprise participated ina "July 21ee" college run by the local municipal aachine-buliding
bureau Data concerning these six workers’ universities are presented below ‘at the Shenyang No 1 Machine-Tool Plant we were permitted to observe # clase in sesaion, with a lecture being given on he subject
of the mechanical speed of Lathe spindles class appeared to be in their twenties or early thirties and were The 29 students in tha
‘generally better groomed and better dressed than their co-workers in the factory workshops, Several aeabers of the delegation observed
that in terme of scientific and techaicel sophistication, the
curriculum of the sJuly 2lst” echool va ostensibly similar to that
offered by trade school and in-service training prograns in the United States Thus, enghasie in the ‘July 2ist* school vas clearly on