INTRODUCTION
RATIONALE
English is the most widely spoken language globally, serving various purposes such as communication, job applications in foreign companies, and enrollment in English-speaking universities To evaluate their English proficiency, learners often take standardized tests like TOEIC, IELTS, and TOEFL iBT Among these, TOEFL iBT is a prominent assessment tool used by employers and universities worldwide to gauge the language skills of non-native speakers.
The TOEFL iBT is divided into four sections: reading, listening, speaking, and writing While the reading and listening sections consist of multiple-choice questions, the speaking and writing sections involve constructive tasks that require learners to present well-reasoned arguments According to Carnagey and Esenwein (1915), argumentation is the process of creating conviction through reasoning, serving as a means to explain or persuade In the speaking section, test takers must utilize structured and persuasive arguments to express their opinions in independent tasks and address problems in integrated tasks Therefore, the effectiveness of a test taker's performance in the TOEFL iBT speaking test largely hinges on their ability to articulate strong arguments, making their ideas more cogent and persuasive.
Various scholars, including Weston (2017), Stirling (2009), and Swatridge (2014), have explored different aspects of argumentation, yet there is a noticeable gap in research regarding the language of arguments in the speaking performance of TOEFL iBT While some studies have examined linguistic features across various TOEFL iBT skills, the specific language used in argumentative speaking remains underexplored This presents an opportunity to analyze argumentative language, enhancing our understanding of its structure and meaning, ultimately equipping learners with the skills to effectively articulate their opinions Therefore, I have decided to conduct a study titled [insert study title].
“Language of arguments used in the sample speaking performance of TOEFL iBT” to shed light on the linguistic features of this kind of language.
AIM AND OBJECTIVES
This study investigates the types and linguistic characteristics of arguments in the TOEFL iBT speaking performance It aims to provide learners, who are potential test takers, with valuable insights into effectively using arguments to express opinions during the TOEFL iBT speaking test.
To achieve the aim of the study, the following objectives are intended:
- To identify types of arguments used in the TOEFL iBT speaking sample;
- To examine linguistics features of language of arguments in terms of syntactic and semantic features;
- To propose some suggestions for English learners for better understanding of arguments as well as for further studies.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
To achieve the aims and objectives mentioned above, the research attempts to answer the following questions:
1) What kinds of arguments are used in the sample speaking performance of TOEFL iBT?
2) What are the semantic features of arguments used in the sample speaking performance of TOEFL iBT?
3) What are the syntactic features of arguments used in the sample speaking performance of TOEFL iBT?
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This study analyzes the language utilized in arguments within TOEFL iBT speaking samples, focusing on various argument types It is grounded in the framework established by Bassham et al., providing a comprehensive discussion of the findings.
(2010) and syntactic and semantic features of language of arguments basing on Downing and Locke’s (2006) framework, which is the mixture of traditional English grammar and functional linguistics
Eighty speaking samples, sourced from TOEFL iBT books and educational websites, were selected for analysis This study focuses exclusively on the arguments presented in these speaking samples.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This study aims to enhance understanding of argumentative language, offering learners valuable insights into the types of arguments utilized in the TOEFL iBT speaking test It specifically identifies the various argument types employed by learners, along with the common semantic and syntactic structures relevant to the test.
In addition, the result of the study can be used as a reference for further researchers who want to explore this kind of language.
ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY
This study is divided into 5 chapters:
Chapter 1: Introduction - presents the background information of the study; consisting the rationale of the study, the aim and objectives, research questions, scope of the study, the significance and organization of the study
Chapter 2: Literature review- presents the overview of the TOEFL iBT test and presents theoretical background related to arguments that supports the study In addition, previous studies related to the topic are also mentioned in the study
Chapter 3: Research methods and Procedures- presents the research methods employed in the study, research procedures, data collection and data analysis
Chapter 4: Findings and Discussion – identifies and analyzes types and linguistic features of language of arguments, analyzes semantic and syntactic features of arguments found in the TOEFL iBT speaking test and then discusses the results from the analysis
Chapter 5: Conclusion and Implications - summarizes the main points of the study and suggests some implications for the learners as well as for further studies Some limitations are also presented in this chapter.
LITERATURE REVIEW
ARGUMENT
In Critical Thinking, an argument is defined as a collection of statements aimed at defending a claim with supporting reasons (Bassham et al., 2010) Weston (2017) reinforces this idea by describing arguments as attempts to substantiate specific viewpoints with rationale Additionally, Bassham et al (2010) emphasize that an argument consists of a group of statements, where one or more serve to support the main claim.
(called the premises) are intended to prove or support another statement (called the conclusion)”
A premise is a statement in an argument that provides evidence or reasons to support the conclusion There can be one or many premises in an argument
A conclusion is the key statement in an argument that the premises aim to support, representing the main point the argument seeks to prove Importantly, an argument can contain only one conclusion.
To effectively identify an argument, it is essential to recognize both the premises and the conclusion Morrow & Weston (2011, p.4) suggest a practical approach for pinpointing the conclusion by considering what the author aims to persuade the reader to accept Similarly, to uncover the premises, one should examine the reasons the author presents to support their argument.
Indicator words play a crucial role in identifying the components of an argument, as they serve as clues for recognizing premises and conclusions According to Bassham et al (2010), these indicators can be categorized into premise indicators and conclusion indicators, which help in effectively distinguishing between the supporting statements and the main conclusion of an argument.
Premise indicators are words that signal the introduction of a premise in an argument Common examples include terms like "since," "for," "in view of the fact that," "because," "given that," and "as indicated by." These indicators help clarify the reasoning behind an argument.
Having fun can be the spice of life but not its main course, because when it is over, nothing of lasting value remains
Conclusion indicators signal that a summary or conclusion is imminent Common examples include terms like "therefore," "hence," "so," "that is why," "wherefore," "as a result," and "consequently." These words help transition the reader to the final thoughts or implications of the discussion.
There’s probably no God, so stop worrying and enjoy your life
The following is an example of an argument which the indicator is present:
All humans are mortal (Premise 1)
Therefore, Socrates is mortal (Conclusion)
The above example is an argument The first two statements (premises
1 and premise 2) support the last statement (conclusion) With the help of the indicator ‘therefore”, we can recognize the conclusion of the argument
The indicators, however, are not always present in all arguments and sometimes the passages contain these words are not arguments
Argument has been divided into two types: deductive argument and inductive argument
Deductive arguments are structured to ensure that if the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true They aim to provide logical evidence and reasoning to support their conclusions As noted by Bassham et al (2010), these arguments strive to demonstrate that the conclusions necessarily follow from the asserted premises.
Inductive arguments are designed to suggest that their conclusions are probable based on the premises provided (Bassham et al., 2010, p.58) Unlike deductive arguments, which aim to establish conclusions through undeniable logic, inductive arguments focus on demonstrating the likelihood or plausibility of their conclusions in relation to the premises (Bassham et al., 2010, p.58) In essence, the conclusion of an inductive argument is presented as following probably from the premises.
Bugsy needed money to pay his gambling debts
Bugsy was seen sneaking around outside the bank last night
It is reasonable to conclude, therefore, that Bugsy robbed the safe
In arguments, it is crucial to differentiate between deductive and inductive reasoning According to Bassham et al (2010, p.64), a deductive argument is characterized by a conclusion that necessarily follows from its premises Conversely, an inductive argument is identified when the conclusion does not necessarily follow, unless the context or language indicates a deductive nature or follows a deductive reasoning pattern.
Alan is a father Therefore, Alan is a male
The conclusion is logically derived from the premise that Alan is a father, which necessitates that he is male; there are no alternative possibilities This establishes that Alan's maleness is a definitive truth, illustrating a clear deductive reasoning process.
All previous U.S vice president have been woman
Therefore, it is likely that the next U.S vice president will be a woman
This example illustrates an inductive argument, as indicated by the use of the term "likely," which reflects the author's uncertainty Additionally, even if the premises hold true, the conclusion remains uncertain and is not guaranteed to be true.
To distinguish between deductive and inductive arguments, we can utilize four key tests: the indicator words test, the strict necessity test, the common pattern test, and the principle of charity test These assessments are essential for effectively identifying and understanding the differences between these two types of arguments.
TOEFL IBT TEST
The TOEFL iBT, developed by Educational Testing Services (ETS) in Princeton, New Jersey, is an English language proficiency test that evaluates academic English skills Launched in 2005, it replaced the older TOEFL paper-based tests (PBT) and computer-based tests (CBT) The TOEFL iBT, which stands for "test of English as a foreign language, internet-based test," requires test takers to complete the exam on internet-connected computers, with their responses transmitted online for scoring by ETS (Stirling, 2009).
The TOEFL iBT speaking section comprises two independent tasks and four integrated tasks, assessing a range of skills The independent tasks focus on familiar topics, allowing test takers to express their personal ideas and experiences In contrast, the integrated tasks require a combination of reading, listening, and speaking skills, often involving paraphrasing, summarizing, or problem-solving Success in the TOEFL iBT speaking section hinges on the ability to construct well-structured arguments and effectively articulate opinions, making strong argumentation essential for achieving high scores.
SEMANTIC FEATURES OF LANGUAGE OF ARGUMENTS
Butt et al (1996, p.44) state that “most English clauses have a constituent structure that can be described functionally in terms of participant, process, and circumstance with process being the essential ingredient”
In linguistic structures, the semantic categories of participant, process, and circumstance illustrate how real-world phenomena are represented Among these elements, the process is the most crucial, as it encapsulates the actions or events occurring within a clause and is fundamental to the proposition conveyed in the verbal group (Bloor & Bloor, 2004, p.109).
According to Downing and Locke (2006), the term "process" refers to the action, state, or change of state involved in various activities There are three primary types of processes: material processes, mental processes, and relational processes Additionally, three subsidiary types exist: behavioral processes, verbal processes, and existential processes Material processes encompass actions characterized by 'doing,' while mental processes involve verbs related to 'thinking' and 'hearing.'
Mental processes such as 'seeing', 'feeling', 'liking', and 'desiring' convey our internal experiences Relational processes encompass the states of 'being' and 'becoming' Additionally, verbal processes focus on the act of 'saying', while behavioral processes pertain to observable actions.
‘behaving’ Existential are processes of ‘existing’ Each process type is involved with different types of participant
Material processes can be seen as the main type of processes It includes several kinds: ‘doing’, ‘happening’, ‘causing’ and ‘transferring’
The sentences below are examples of material processes:
Material process with one participant
Material process with Affected participant
In the first example, the verb "resigned" illustrates a material process involving a single participant, known as the "Agent," which is "The Prime Minister." This one-participant action does not extend to another individual Conversely, the second example features a two-participant action, such as "kicked," where the second participant, termed the "Affected," is impacted by the action described by the verb in an active clause Thus, the distinction between one-participant and two-participant action processes is clearly demonstrated through these examples.
When the process involves an Affected participant, representation can occur in two ways: active representation, where the Agent merges with the Subject, or passive representation, where the Affected merges with the Subject.
Material process with Affected subject in a passive clause
The ball was kicked by Pele
Material processes of ‘happening’, ‘causing’ are illustrated in the examples below:
Jordan slipped on the ice
Affected Subject Process: Material Circumstance
Initiating Agent Process: Material Affected
Material processes also contain other participants like “Recipient or Beneficiary” We can encounter these participants in material processes of
‘transferring’ This kind of processes is realized by such verbs as give, send, lend, charge, pay, offer, owe, etc
Bill’s father has lent us his car
Agent Process: Material Recipient Affected
Mental processes, as defined by Downing and Locke (2006), are essential for organizing our understanding of the world around us These processes encompass four key types: cognition, which includes verbs like know, understand, and remember; perception, represented by verbs such as see, hear, and feel; affectivity, involving emotions like love, hate, and admire; and desideration, which covers desires expressed through verbs like hope, want, and wish.
I don’t know anyone of that name
They enjoy walking in the woods
In mental processes, two key participants play crucial roles: the Experiencer, who engages in perceptions such as seeing, feeling, and thinking, and the Phenomenon, which represents what is perceived, known, or liked.
Relational processes, as defined by Downing and Locke (2006), encompass the broad concept of being and are categorized into two primary patterns: Attributive and Identifying In the Attributive structure, the participant known as the Carrier is associated with an Attribute, which describes the characteristics or qualities of the Carrier.
Their eldest son was a musician
These keys are my brother’s
Possessed/ Carrier Process: Relational Possessor/ Attribute
Identifying processes is the second main type of relational processes
Identifying processes serve to define one entity through its relationship with another, where the first entity, known as the Identified, is understood in relation to the second, referred to as the Identifier These processes are inherently reversible, allowing for a flexible interpretation of the entities involved.
Mont Blanc is the highest mountain in Europe
Verbal processes involve the act of communication and consist of two key participants: the Sayer and the Said The Sayer is the individual engaged in the act of expressing thoughts, while the Said represents the content that is communicated, which often involves human actions such as saying, telling, repeating, asking, answering, or reporting These processes serve as a bridge between material and mental actions, as the act of saying is a physical manifestation of underlying mental operations (Thompson, 2014).
She had to say her name twice
In the example above, “She” is the Sayer, who does the act of
“saying” Verbal process is “had to say” and “her name twice” is the Said
Another participant in this process is “Recipient” which is required with the verb “tell”:
Verbal Process with Recipient participant
Jill told him what she knew
Sayer Process: Verbal Recipient Said
Behavioral processes serve as a bridge between material and mental processes, encompassing human physiological and psychological actions such as breathing, coughing, smiling, dreaming, and staring (Halliday, 2014) As noted by Thompson (2014), these processes exemplify the intricate interplay between our physical actions and mental states.
The boy laughed an embarrassed laugh
Existential processes indicate the existence of something and are easily identified by the subject "There." Common verbs associated with these processes include "be," "stand," "lie," "stretch," "hang," "remain," "occur," "follow," and "appear." In this type of process, there is typically only one participant, known as the Existent.
There ‘s a good film on at the Scala
Circumstantial elements are integral to a sentence's semantic structure, encompassing a wide range of meanings According to Eggins (2004, p.222), these elements can accompany all types of processes and are typically indicated by adverbial groups or prepositional phrases Common types of circumstances include aspects such as place, time, manner, contingency, accompaniment, modality, degree, role, matter, and evidence.
SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF LANGUAGE OF ARGUMENTS
To grasp the construction of language and the specific combinations of words, it is essential to analyze its syntactic features, particularly the structure of a clause An independent clause, also known as a simple sentence, consists of two primary components: the subject and the predicate.
The subject is essential in declarative and interrogative sentences but is not necessary in imperative forms Typically, it is represented by noun groups, but it can also be expressed through embedded clauses and various other groupings or clauses.
The Subject determines number, person and gender concord with the Subject Complement, and of reflexive pronouns at Cs, Oi and Od
A predicate can be composed solely of the predicator, expressed through a verbal group, or it may include additional elements The predicator plays a crucial role in determining the quantity and type of these accompanying elements Its function is fulfilled by both finite and non-finite lexical and primary verbs.
The two primary functional categories of a clause are the subject and the predicator The predicator is a crucial component found in all major types of clauses and is expressed through both finite and non-finite lexical and primary verbs.
The object (O) is a crucial component of clause structure, ranking just after the subject and predicator There are two primary types of objects: direct (Od) and indirect (Oi) In clauses containing a single object, the direct object typically follows the verb, while in clauses with two objects, it comes after the indirect object The direct object can be expressed through a nominal group or a finite/non-finite clause Conversely, the indirect object is only present with verbs that require two objects, such as "give" and "send," and it is positioned between the verb and the direct object, usually represented by a nominal group.
He showed the policeman his driving license
The subsidiary type of object is the prepositional object (Op)
The Prime Minister can’t account for the lost of votes
In addition to the subject, predicator, and object, the complement is a crucial component of the clause There are two primary types of complements: subject complement (Cs) and object complement (Co) A subject complement enhances the predicate by providing additional information about the subject referent and can be expressed through adjective phrases (AdjGs), noun groups (NGs), or clauses.
A couch potato is someone who lies watching television all day
Object complement is the element that completes the predicate with an AdjG or a NG Object complement is often placed immediately after the direct object
Downing and Locke (2006) also propose some basic syntactic patterns of a clause as follow:
- Subject-Predicator-Locative Complement (S-P-Cloc)
- Subject-Predicator-Subject Complement (S-P-Cs)
- Subject-Predicator-Direct Object (S-P-Od)
- Subject-Predicator-Prepositional Object (S-P-Op)
- Subject-Predicator-Indirect Object-Direct Object (S-P-Oi-Od)
- Subject-Predicator-Direct Object-Prepositional Object (S-P-Od-Op)
- Subject-Predicator-Direct Object-Object Complement (S-P-Od-Co)
An independent clause can exhibit variations in structure, resulting in different clause types, including declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamative (Downing and Locke, 2006, p.13) These moods are essential for understanding both the structure of a clause and the intended meaning of the author.
“the declarative, interrogative and imperative moods of a clause are distinguished by variation in one part of the clause, called the mood element”
The mood element of a clause is composed of the Subject (S) and Finite (F), and their arrangement determines the clause type—whether it is declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamative This structure is essential for understanding the function of different clauses in communication.
Subject-Finite Finite+Subject wh+Finite+Subject wh+Subject+Finite no subject, base form of verb
What does Jane sing? How well Jane sings! Sing!
The declarative clause is the fundamental type in which the Finite element serves as the initial or sole component of a verbal group This Finite can be represented by a verbal operator, such as "is," "can," or "has," or by a tensed form of the lexical verb, whether in the past or present tense.
We are meeting again tomorrow
In this type of clause, the finite verb comes before the subject, while the other elements remain unchanged There are two primary categories of interrogative clauses: yes/no questions and Wh-questions.
In the Yes/no type, the speaker asks for confirmation or denial of the content and the answer is Yes or No
Are we meeting again tomorrow?
In Wh-interrogatives, the Finite stands before Subject and after the Wh-word The Wh-word can be part of a group or phrase
What do you want (Od)
According to Downing and Locke (2006), exclamative clauses typically begin with a wh-element, followed by a nominal group or an adjective/adverb Similar to declarative clauses, exclamatives feature Subject-Finite ordering, with the elements following the wh-word positioned at the front of the clause.
What a shock they’ll have!
There’s no overt Subject in an imperative clause It differs sharply from the other clause types as in the following examples:
PREVIOUS STUDIES RELATED TO THE STUDY
Numerous studies have investigated the TOEFL iBT test, with Le Thi Nhu Lien (2011) focusing on the linguistic devices that signal implicature in conversation extracts Her research identifies various types of implicature based on the observation or violation of conversational maxims, specifically Quality, Quantity, Manner, and Relevance Lien emphasizes that most implicatures found in the TOEFL iBT data serve the function of standard conversational language Additionally, she identifies several language units, including adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, adjectives, interjections, and set phrases, that play a crucial role in this linguistic analysis.
Vo Thi Ha Tien (2016) explores the pragmatic features present in TOEFL iBT Listening practice tests, revealing a range of speech acts that serve diverse pragmatic functions and include various illocutionary acts The study identifies multiple syntactic structures—such as declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamative, and minor clauses—that can express both direct and indirect illocutions Additionally, the research highlights different syntactic features of discourse markers, including single words, set proposition phrases, free phrases, clauses, and sentences.
In her 2011 analysis, Huynh Ngoc Mai examines the use of synonymous and antonymous expressions in TOEFL iBT reading tests, finding that synonymous expressions are more prevalent than antonymous ones The study also details the syntactic realizations of these expressions within the reading passages, identifying their roles as verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs in various grammatical contexts, including predicative and complement positions.
Research on the TOEFL iBT has highlighted the importance of critical thinking and effective argumentation skills for learners (Weston, 2017; Swatridge, 2014) Stirling (2009) suggests specific speaking and writing strategies that can aid learners in constructing compelling arguments, ultimately helping them to attain higher scores on the TOEFL iBT test.
Related to argumentation, different studies in this area have been carried out by some Vietnamese researchers Typically, Vo Thị Thanh Nga
(2006) compares commonly-used connectors expressing contrastive argumentation in English and Vietnamese in terms of semantic and functional features
In her 2009 study titled "A Contrastive Analysis of Common Connectors in Argumentation in English and Vietnamese," Tran Le Truc Thu explores the semantic and functional characteristics of connectors used in supportive argumentation The research highlights the differences and similarities in how these connectors are employed in both languages, providing valuable insights into their roles in effective communication.
SUMMARY
This chapter has provided a comprehensive literature review and theoretical background that underpins the study, particularly focusing on the TOEFL iBT test It highlights that previous research has largely overlooked the speaking skill, while the exploration of arguments, despite its longstanding presence, remains under-researched in terms of linguistic features Consequently, there is a pressing need to investigate the syntactic and semantic characteristics of arguments present in TOEFL iBT speaking samples The analysis is grounded in the framework established by Downing and Locke (2006), facilitating a deeper understanding of language use Additionally, the primary types of arguments identified in the TOEFL iBT speaking test are clarified through the framework of Bassham et al (2010).
RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES
RESEARCH DESIGN
The study aimed to identify the two primary types of arguments and analyze the language used in TOEFL iBT speaking performances, focusing on their syntactic and semantic features This descriptive research utilized both qualitative and quantitative methods to gather detailed information regarding the types and linguistic characteristics of arguments present in the sample.
RESEARCH METHODS
In the study, the descriptive research was used to give a detailed description of arguments’ types and linguistic features of language of arguments
The study utilized both qualitative and quantitative methods to gather descriptive information on the types and linguistic features of arguments By employing document analysis, the researchers examined speaking samples from TOEFL iBT to collect qualitative data This analysis led to the classification of arguments into two main types: deductive and inductive, based on their unique characteristics Additionally, the frequency of occurrence for each argument type was quantified to provide a clear statistical representation of the findings.
The premises and conclusions of each argument were examined and analyzed for their syntactic and semantic characteristics A qualitative method was utilized in this phase to uncover the linguistic features inherent in each argument.
The study employed a quantitative approach to analyze the frequency of various clause and mood types in arguments It examined the semantic aspects of these arguments by referencing different process types, with the findings contributing to a discussion on their functional attributes.
RESEARCH PROCEDURES
To carry out the study properly, the following steps were taken:
- Doing literature review of studies of language of arguments to identify gaps for problems to be examined in the research
- Putting questions for guiding the research in seeking both qualitative and quantitative information for the objectives set up to achieve the aim of study
- Designing research as a descriptive and explanatory study with both qualitative and quantitative approach
- Collecting the data from TOEFL iBT materials
- Dividing the arguments into 2 groups: independent tasks (INDE) and integrated tasks (INTE)
- Identifying types of arguments: induction and deduction by observing the premises and conclusion
- Investigating linguistic features of premises and conclusion of each argument The analysis of syntactic and semantic features of each argument was carried out within the clause
- Discussing the results of linguistic features of premises and conclusion
- Drawing the conclusions and suggesting some implications in using arguments in TOEFL iBT speaking test for language users and further researchers.
DATA COLLECTION
For the purpose of data collection and analysis in this study, a total of 80 TOEFL analyses were conducted Out of these, 75 samples were sourced from TOEFL iBT preparation books published by Educational Testing Service (ETS), specifically "Building Skills for TOEFL iBT," "Developing Skills for TOEFL iBT," and the "Mastering Skills for TOEFL iBT, 2nd Edition." The remaining samples were randomly gathered from three TOEFL iBT websites: BestMyTest, English Club, and ExamWord.
The study employed random sampling to select arguments from TOEFL iBT materials, ensuring each speaking sample had an equal chance of being included in the data For independent tasks, personal-opinion arguments were selected, while integrated tasks focused on problem-solving arguments.
This study categorizes tasks into independent (INDE) and integrated (INTE) types For instance, an analysis of argument number 4 in independent tasks is labeled as INDE-4 Each premise and conclusion is designated with a specific code, where premises are marked as P and conclusions as C For example, premise 1.2 in the independent task is coded as P1.2-INDE, following the same coding system for other premises and conclusions.
DATA ANALYSIS
After being collected from the TOEFL iBT speaking samples, all the arguments were described and analyzed as in the following steps
The study utilized a qualitative approach to identify the premises and conclusions of arguments, distinguishing between two types: deduction and induction.
The qualitative method was employed to describe and analyze the various process types, syntactic elements, and structures of premises and conclusions in both independent and integrated tasks.
The study employed a quantitative approach to analyze the frequency of deductive and inductive arguments, revealing the distribution rates for each argument type.
In the analysis of independent and integrated tasks, careful attention was given to the premises and conclusions Statistical data revealed the frequency of various process types in semantics, alongside the syntactic clause types present in the arguments, and the mood types associated with both premises and conclusions, which were effectively illustrated through tables and charts.
The study effectively delineated the characteristics of arguments through statistical analysis, providing a comprehensive overview of the linguistic features present in TOEFL iBT speaking samples Additionally, it proposed recommendations for future research in this area.
RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
This study's data is highly reliable, as it was meticulously sourced from three renowned TOEFL iBT books published by Educational Testing Service (ETS), the leading nonprofit organization in educational testing Additionally, data was gathered from well-regarded TOEFL iBT websites that are popular among learners and test-takers The validity of these sources is further supported by the fact that the referenced TOEFL iBT books were updated in 2009, ensuring their relevance for current learners preparing for the TOEFL iBT exam.
As regards the validity, all the procedures of the study were conducted in a logical order which guarantees the validity.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
TYPES OF ARGUMENTS
4.2 Frequency of occurrence of clause types in premises 54
English is the most widely spoken language globally, serving various purposes such as communication, job applications, and university enrollment To assess their English proficiency, learners often take standardized tests like TOEIC, IELTS, and TOEFL iBT Among these, TOEFL iBT is particularly recognized by employers and universities worldwide for evaluating the language skills of non-native speakers.
The TOEFL iBT comprises four sections: reading, listening, speaking, and writing, with reading and listening featuring multiple-choice questions, while speaking and writing involve constructive tasks that require strong argumentation skills According to Carnagey and Esenwein (1915), argumentation is the process of convincing through reasoning, serving as a means to explain or persuade (Cambridge Dictionary) In the speaking section, test takers must present well-structured and persuasive arguments to express opinions in independent tasks and address problems in integrated tasks Consequently, success in the TOEFL iBT speaking test hinges on the effective use of argumentative language, making ideas more cogent and persuasive.
Various scholars, including Weston (2017), Stirling (2009), and Swatridge (2014), have explored different aspects of argumentation, yet there remains a lack of research specifically addressing the language of arguments in TOEFL iBT speaking performance While some studies have examined linguistic features across various TOEFL iBT skills, the need for a focused analysis on argumentative language persists Understanding the structure and meaning of argumentative language is crucial for learners to effectively express their opinions Therefore, I have decided to conduct a study titled [insert title here].
“Language of arguments used in the sample speaking performance of TOEFL iBT” to shed light on the linguistic features of this kind of language
This study investigates the types and linguistic characteristics of arguments in TOEFL iBT speaking performances, offering learners valuable insights into effectively using arguments to express opinions during the test.
To achieve the aim of the study, the following objectives are intended:
- To identify types of arguments used in the TOEFL iBT speaking sample;
- To examine linguistics features of language of arguments in terms of syntactic and semantic features;
- To propose some suggestions for English learners for better understanding of arguments as well as for further studies
To achieve the aims and objectives mentioned above, the research attempts to answer the following questions:
1) What kinds of arguments are used in the sample speaking performance of TOEFL iBT?
2) What are the semantic features of arguments used in the sample speaking performance of TOEFL iBT?
3) What are the syntactic features of arguments used in the sample speaking performance of TOEFL iBT?
This study analyzes the language used in arguments within TOEFL iBT speaking samples, focusing on various types of arguments as outlined by Bassham et al The research aims to provide insights into effective argumentation in the context of English language proficiency assessments.
(2010) and syntactic and semantic features of language of arguments basing on Downing and Locke’s (2006) framework, which is the mixture of traditional English grammar and functional linguistics
This study analyzes eighty speaking samples containing arguments, sourced from TOEFL iBT preparation books and educational websites The focus is solely on the arguments derived from these speaking samples.
This study aims to enhance understanding of argumentation language, offering learners valuable insights into the types of arguments and the semantic and syntactic structures frequently employed in the TOEFL iBT speaking test By examining these elements, the research seeks to better equip potential test takers for success in their assessments.
In addition, the result of the study can be used as a reference for further researchers who want to explore this kind of language
This study is divided into 5 chapters:
Chapter 1: Introduction - presents the background information of the study; consisting the rationale of the study, the aim and objectives, research questions, scope of the study, the significance and organization of the study
Chapter 2: Literature review- presents the overview of the TOEFL iBT test and presents theoretical background related to arguments that supports the study In addition, previous studies related to the topic are also mentioned in the study
Chapter 3: Research methods and Procedures- presents the research methods employed in the study, research procedures, data collection and data analysis
Chapter 4: Findings and Discussion – identifies and analyzes types and linguistic features of language of arguments, analyzes semantic and syntactic features of arguments found in the TOEFL iBT speaking test and then discusses the results from the analysis
Chapter 5: Conclusion and Implications - summarizes the main points of the study and suggests some implications for the learners as well as for further studies Some limitations are also presented in this chapter
The chapter provides a theoretical background of the study and reviews previous researches related to the study
An argument, as defined in Critical Thinking, consists of a set of statements that defend a claim with supporting reasons (Bassham et al., 2010) Weston (2017) similarly notes that arguments aim to support specific viewpoints with rationale Furthermore, Bassham et al (2010) clarify that an argument includes a group of statements, where one or more serve as the basis for the claim.
(called the premises) are intended to prove or support another statement (called the conclusion)”
A premise is a statement in an argument that provides evidence or reasons to support the conclusion There can be one or many premises in an argument
A conclusion serves as the central statement in an argument, specifically designed to be supported by the premises It represents the primary assertion that the argument aims to validate, and it is important to note that an argument can have only one conclusion.
To effectively identify an argument, it is essential to recognize both the premises and the conclusion Morrow & Weston (2011, p.4) suggest a strategy for pinpointing the conclusion by considering what the author aims to persuade the reader to believe Similarly, to uncover the premises, one should examine the reasons the author provides to support their persuasive intent.
Indicators play a crucial role in identifying arguments and their components According to Bassham et al (2010), "indicator words are words or phrases that provide clues that premises or conclusions are being put forward" (p 42) These premise and conclusion indicators serve as essential signals for recognizing the underlying premises and conclusions in any argument.
SEMANTIC FEATURES OF LANGUAGE OF ARGUMENTS
Downing and Locke (2006) describe a clause as a semantic representation of experience, categorized into situation types including material, mental, relational, verbal, behavioral, and existential Each of these situation types encompasses a process along with associated participant roles, attributes, and circumstances.
This research analyzed 472 clauses, comprising 364 independent task clauses and 108 integrated task clauses The analysis revealed significant differences in the frequencies of six process types present in the premises of both tasks While all six process types are found in independent tasks, the behavioural and existential processes are absent in integrated tasks, as illustrated in the accompanying table.
Table 4.2 Frequency of occurrence of process types of premises
Process Material Mental Relational Verbal Behavioural Existential
Table 4.2 reveals that material processes constitute the largest share of independent tasks, comprising 36.5% with 139 identified processes, and dominate integrated tasks at 50.4% This prevalence underscores their role in persuading audiences to accept arguments, effectively bridging the gap between readers or listeners and information providers by fostering a sense of belief.
Relational processes rank second, accounting for 30.2% in independent tasks and 26.6% in integrated tasks These processes are essential for describing concepts, enabling authors to clearly convey their ideas By utilizing relational processes, writers enhance comprehension, ensuring that their arguments are effectively understood by listeners and readers alike.
Mental processes play a significant role in both tasks, comprising 28.6% and 18.6% of the premises, respectively These processes enable authors to effectively convey their opinions and viewpoints within their arguments By utilizing mental processes, authors can express their feelings and clarify their thoughts, making their opinions more comprehensible to the audience.
The data indicates that verbal processes are rarely utilized by test takers, with only 2.4% frequency in independent tasks and 4.4% in integrated tasks Additionally, behavioral and existential processes appear even less frequently in independent tasks, at 1% and 1.3%, respectively This trend suggests that authors may find verbal, behavioral, or existential processes inadequate for effectively conveying their ideas, leading to their infrequent use.
Material processes involve actions related to both concrete and abstract activities This type of process is predominantly utilized by test takers in integrated tasks, accounting for over 50% of their responses Additionally, it is the preferred choice among arguers, as it is most frequently employed in independent tasks.
Material processes are employed to illustrate actions, allowing arguers to clarify situations through examples By utilizing this approach, they can highlight specific actions that capture the audience's interest The following examples demonstrate how this technique is effectively applied.
Agent Pro: Material Affected Resulting Attribute
Second, he taught me to be generous
Agent Pro: Material Affected Cir: Purpose
Students must save money to pay for their education
Agent Pro: Material Recipient Affected Cir: Time
First, they gave her money before
Agent Cir: Modality Pro: Material Affected Cir: Time
The professor probably checks his email daily,
This could help her learn the material really well
In the examples provided, it is evident that human agents play a crucial role in the processes of teaching, checking, giving, and learning The material processes effectively illustrate the ideas and information within each premise Additionally, the inclusion of circumstances such as purpose, time, and manner enhances the clarity of the processes, revealing their objectives, timing, and methods.
Relational processes, as discussed in Chapter 2, encompass the concepts of existence, location, and possession (Downing and Locke, 2006, p.144) These processes are frequently utilized in both independent and integrated tasks, highlighting their significance in constructing arguments The two key participants in this context are the Carrier and the Attribute, which play essential roles in conveying meaning.
Carrier Pro: Relational Attribute Cir: Reason
I was afraid because it made such a loud noise
First, universities need a lot of money
The first reason is that they are more engaging
It is too risky o depend solely on the professor’s kindness
Carrier Pro: Relational Attribute Cir: Accom Also, he is not likely to have another bad experience with a tutor
Professors have office hours so they can help students
In analyzing various arguments, it becomes evident that the arguer aims to bolster their conclusion through specific situations, often utilizing verbs like "be," "need," and "have" to illustrate processes of existence or possession Notably, the verb "be" appears frequently, suggesting that arguers seek to enhance the persuasiveness of their premises by defining or describing attributes Additionally, incorporating circumstantial elements clarifies the meaning of the clauses, enabling readers and listeners to grasp the full intent of the arguments presented The prevalence of relational processes allows audiences to comprehend the dynamics of the arguments and fosters belief in the premises offered by the authors, highlighting the significance of relational processes in argumentative premises.
Table 4.2 indicates that test takers prefer mental processes, which are prevalent in both independent and integrated tasks, with a higher frequency observed in independent tasks Mental processes encompass thinking, perceiving, and feeling, allowing test takers to share their viewpoints, experiences, and preferences in independent tasks In integrated tasks, they are required to provide opinions to address situational problems Consequently, test takers utilize mental processes to convey their feelings and propose potential solutions, enhancing the effectiveness and supportiveness of their arguments.
Experiencer Pro: Mental Phenomenon Cir: Reason
I love it because it is easy to use
Experiencer Pro: Mental Phenomenon Cir: Times
I like to take pictures of my friends and family on special occasions,
Experiencer Pro: Mental Phenomenon so I can remember what a good time we had
Phenomenon Pro: Mental Experiencer Cir: Reason
It also frightened me since I never knew when it was coming (P2.1-INDE 3)
Experiencer Pro: Mental Phenomenon Cir: Reason
I also enjoy visiting educational places because they are often distinctive to an area
They probably do not want to lend her any money for a vacation because it is something that is necessary (P2.2-INTE 4) (4.31)
I am sure she would be willing to accommodate those students
The examples demonstrate that affective processes such as "like," "love," and "enjoy" are commonly utilized by test takers These verbs effectively convey the emotions experienced by individuals in various situations.
Besides, example (4.27) expresses the process of cognition which is recognized by the process “remember” with the assistance of modal verb
“can” to show the ability of the speaker Verbs like “be willing to” or
The verbs "want," "love," "enjoy," and others like "remember," "frighten," "see," "feel," "know," and "believe" play a crucial role in conveying the author's wishes and desires, as illustrated in examples (4.30) and (4.31) These mental verbs are frequently utilized by test takers in their speaking performances, as they help establish clear and compelling premises that lead to strong conclusions Furthermore, these emotional verbs enhance the persuasiveness of arguments by allowing the "Experiencer" to express their direct feelings and perceptions, thereby fostering belief in the author's premises and clarifying their intended message.
Modality, such as the use of "probably," aids readers and listeners in understanding the type of arguments presented by the test taker, as well as the author's intentions or proposed solutions in their premises or conclusions Additionally, the inclusion of circumstantial reasoning clarifies the reasons behind certain processes, enhancing comprehension of the premises' meanings.
SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF LANGUAGE OF ARGUMENTS
To gain a comprehensive understanding of any clause, it is essential to identify its mood structure and elements The mood structure comprises two key components: Mood, which outlines the clause's overall structure, and Residue, which remains unchanged and is generally less significant than Mood Recognizing the mood of a clause requires knowledge of its mood elements, namely Subject (S) and Finite (F) The Subject is represented by a nominal clause, while the Finite is indicated by the tensed element within the verbal group These elements are crucial as their arrangement determines whether a clause is declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamative A total of 472 clauses were analyzed to explore the relationship between interlocutors in these arguments, highlighting the importance of mood analysis The four mood types—declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamative—are systematically distributed, as illustrated in the accompanying table.
Table 4.6 The percentage of mood type in arguments
Table 4.6 clearly indicates that the declarative mood predominates in the speaking samples, as the author employs it to convey information effectively to readers and listeners This preference is understandable given that the data reflects the speaking performance of test takers, who tend to use statements to present opinions, examples, or facts aimed at persuading examiners, rather than utilizing questions, exclamations, or directives.
A detailed analysis of syntactic features of arguments will be presented in the following sections
Each premise in the data is taken into analysis and the presence of different types of clause used in premises is presented in the figure below:
Figure 4.2 Frequency of occurrence of clause types in premises
Figure 4.2 illustrates that four types of clauses are present in both independent and integrated tasks, albeit at varying rates Notably, embedded clauses are preferred by test takers, with usage rates of 39.5% in independent tasks and 42.9% in integrated tasks.
Embedding, as defined by Downing and Locke (2006), refers to the process of expanding the content and structure of a linguistic unit through subordination, where a clause serves as a component of another clause or group An embedded clause can be either finite or non-finite and can occupy various positions, including Subject, Direct Object, Subject Complement, Object Complement, or even as a modifier within a Nominal or Adjectival structure.
Independent clause Embedded clause Subordinated clause Coordinated clause
Embedded finite clauses can be categorized into two main types: that-clauses and wh-clauses, while non-finite embedded clauses primarily include to-infinitive clauses and -ing clauses (Downing and Locke, 2006, p.46).
Second, changing the position will make us less tired
Also, scheduling it next month should not be a problem
In addition, taking out a loan will also allow her to pay for housing at the beginning of the semester
In the examples provided, clauses are positioned as subjects, primarily using ing-clauses that transform verbs into nouns within nominal groups This allows phrases such as “changing the position” and “scheduling it next month” to effectively serve as subjects in a sentence.
The phrase "taking out a loan" serves as the subject of the clause, positioned before the finite verbs "will" and "should not," resulting in a declarative statement This structure highlights that the examples provided function as premises in an argument, supporting conclusions through logical reasoning and evidence Consequently, it is expected that all premises in this context exhibit a declarative mood, which is utilized to convey information and clarify reasons effectively.
Arguments often use conjunctions such as "first," "second," "also," and "in addition" to connect premises, enhancing the cohesiveness and clarity of the argument.
A clause can be classified as either a finite clause, which includes nominal that-clauses or wh-clauses, or a non-finite clause, which encompasses infinitive clauses (with or without "to") and –ing clauses (Downing & Locke, 2006, p 53).
Also, I like that it is portable
First, it will show that she is responsible
Also, Ms Murphy taught me how to deal with conflicts
I think that these games are not appropriate for the outdoors
The examples illustrate that the clauses embedded at the object position are primarily nominal that-clauses serving as direct objects In these instances, the subjects—“I,” “it,” and “Ms Murphy”—appear before the finite verb Additionally, the finite verb is combined with the predicator, as demonstrated in examples (4.49), (4.51), and (4.52).
The analysis reveals the presence of a main clause alongside a dependent embedded clause, facilitating clear communication of ideas Test takers often utilize nominal that-clauses or wh-clauses to elaborate on their perspectives, particularly regarding the suitability of certain games for outdoor activities Additionally, these clauses can reflect the author's attitude, as demonstrated in specific examples Furthermore, embedded clauses may also take the form of non-finite clauses, showcasing the versatility of clause structures in conveying meaning.
I enjoy looking at the art and trying to interpret how people were feeling or what they were going through at that time
This option will allow the woman to concentrate more on her schoolwork
Normally, non-finite clauses realizing direct object function are of two types: infinitive clause with or without ‘to’ and –ing clause (Downing and
According to Locke (2009, p 53), the author employs numerous embedded clauses to convey a rich and meaningful opinion Relying solely on independent clauses may fail to effectively communicate the depth of information or ideas intended.
Embedded clauses as Subject Complements (Cs) are commonly used by test takers According to Downing and Locke (2009), a subject complement completes the predicate by providing additional information about the subject Typically, Cs are expressed through Noun Groups (NGs) and Adjective Groups (AdjGs) These clauses can be either finite or non-finite, enabling test takers to effectively convey their messages, allowing readers and listeners to grasp the author's intended meaning.
That is because email is a common way to communicate
My impression of it was that it was vast and beautiful
Being a firefighter is how he helps people
Clause embeddings at Object Complement (Co) and Prepositional Object (Op) occur infrequently in the data Despite their varied placements, these clauses maintain a declarative mood structure, primarily intended to convey information.
To start, it lets you make the most of your vacation time
This way, the woman will not have to worry about missing class or getting behind on her schoolwork
Embedded clauses can serve as constituents of the main clause, functioning as modifiers in noun groups (NGs) across various positions, such as the Subject (example 4.60) or Direct Object (example 4.61).
The experiences [that I would encounter] would be vast and exciting
In addition, I will be able to meet people [who have different interests than me]