Encyclopedia of World CulturesVolume I - NORTH AMERICA - A pps
Encyclopedia of World CulturesVolume I - NORTH AMERICA - Overview ppt
... MEASUREMENTCONVERSIONSWhenYouKnowMultiplyByToFindLENGTHinches2.54centimetersfeet30centimetersyards0.9metersmiles1.6kilometersmillimeters0.04inchescentimeters0.4inchesmeters3.3feetmeters1.1yardskilometers0.6milesAREAsquarefeet0.09squaremeterssquareyards0.8squaremeterssquaremiles2.6squarekilometersacres0.4hectareshectares2.5acressquaremeters1.2squareyardssquarekilometers0.4squaremilesTEMPERATUREC-(IF - 32)x.555 OF= (OCx1.8)+32©1994bytheHumanRelationsAreaFiles,Inc.Firstpublishedin1994byG.K.Hall&Co.1633BroadwayNewYork,NY1001 9-6 785Allrightsreserved.Nopart of thisbookmaybereproducedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,orbyanyinformationstorageorretrievalsystemwithoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.2019181716151413Library of CongressCataloging-in-PublicaftonData Encyclopedia of world cultures/DavidLevinson,editorinchief.P.cm.Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.Filmography:p.Contents:v.1. North America /TimothyJ.O'Leary.DavidLevinson,volumeeditors.ISBN 0-8 16 1-1 80 8-6 1.Ethnology -North America- Encyclopedias.2. North America& apos;-Sociallifeandcustoms-Encyclopedias. I. Levinson,David.194 7- GN550.E531991305'.097-dc2O9 0-4 9123CIPThepaperusedinthispublicationmeetstheminimumrequirements of AmericanNationalStandardforInformationSciences-Permanence of PaperforPrintedLibraryMaterials.ANSIZ39.4 8- 1984.®TMMANUFACTUREDINTHEUNITEDSTATES OF AMERICA xxxiiIntroductionThemstrom,Stephan,ed.(1980).Harvard Encyclopedia of AmericanEthnicGroups.Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,BelknapPress.Voegelin,CharlesF.,andFlorenceM.Voegelin(1966).Map of North AmericanIndianLanguages,Revised.AmericanEth-nologicalSociety,Publicationno.20.Bloomington,Ind.Waldman,Carl(1985).Atlas of the North AmericanIndian.NewYork:FactsonFile.Wasserman,Paul,andAliceE.Kennington(1983).EthnicInformationSources of theUnitedStates.2nded.Detroit:GaleResearchCo.Weatherford,Elizabeth,andEmeliaSeubert,eds.(1988).NativeAmericansonFilmandVideo.NewYork:Museum of theAmericanIndian/HeyeFoundation.TIMOTHYJ.O'LEARYDAVIDLEVINSONCanadians,Haitians,BlackWestIndiansintheUnitedStates,andUkrainians of Canada.ReferenceResourcesTheliteratureonNativeAmericans, North Americanfolkcultures,andethnicgroupsisvoluminous.Herewediscussandlistthebasicreferenceresourcesthatleadthereadertotherelevantliterature.NativeAmericansThethreebasicdirectoriestoscholarlyresearchonNativeAmericansareTheEthnographicBibliography of North Amer-ica,4thed.(MurdockandO'Leary1975),TheEthnographicBibliography of North America, Supplementtothe4thEdition(MartinandO'Leary1990),andtheHandbook of North AmericanIndians(Sturtevant197 8-) Thetwobibliographiesprovidecitationstooversixtythousandbooks,articles,doc-toraldissertations,andgovernmentdocumentspertainingtoNativeAmericans.TheyalsoincludebibliographicessaystellingthereaderwheretofindmoreaboutNativeAmeri-cans.TheHandbookisaprojectedtwenty-volumecollection of thematicessaysandculturalsummariescoveringNativeAmericangroups,pastandpresent.Eightvolumesareinprint,withallexpectedtoappearbytheyear2000.Also of noteisHodge'sHandbook of AmericanIndians North of Mex-ico(1959).AlthoughHodge'sculturalsummariesarebeingsupersededbythoseintheHandbook of North AmericanIndi-ans,heprovidesmuchvaluableinformationonAmericanIn-dianhistory,beliefs,andcustoms.TheIndianReservations:AStateandFederalHandbook(Confederation of AmericanIn-dians1986)isausefulguidetoIndianreservationsintheUnitedStates.TheNativeAmericanDirectory(1982)isin-valuableasaguidetogroups,organizations,media,museums,andsoon.OthergeneralorregionallyfocusedsourcesareDriver's(1969)Indians of North America, Leitch's(1979)AConciseDictionary of IndianTribes of North America, Jorgen-sen's(1980)WesternIndians,Krech's(1986)NativeCana-dianAnthropologyandHistory:ASelectedBibliography,Kroe-ber's(1925)Handbook of theIndians of California,RubyandBrown's(1986)AGuidetotheIndianTribes of thePacificNorthwest,andSwanton's(1952)TheIndianTribes of North America. AcomprehensiveguidetofilmsonNativeAmeri-cansisNativeAmericansonFilmandVideo(WeatherfordandSeubert1988).FolkCulturesandEthnicGroupsAswithNativeAmericans,itiseasytobequicklyover-whelmedbytheamount of informationavailableonethnicgroupsandfolkculturesintheUnitedStatesandCanada.BasicbibliographiesareEuropeanImmigrationandEthnicityintheUnitedStatesandCanada:AHistoricalBibliography(Brye1983),ImmigrantsandTheirChildrenintheUnitedStates:ABibliography of DoctoralDissertations(Hogland1986),AmericanandCanadianImmigrantandEthnicFolk-lore:AnAnnotatedBibliography(GeorgesandStern1982),AComprehensiveBibliographyfortheStudy of AmericanMinori-ties(Miller,1976),andMinoritiesin America: TheAnnualBibliography(Miller197 6-1 978).Inaddition,thejournalCanadianEthnicStudies/EtudesEthniquesauCanadapub-lishesacontinuingbibliographyemphasizingNativeAmeri-cansandethnicgroupsinCanada.TheHarvard Encyclopedia of AmericanEthnicGroups(Thernstrom1980)providesdemographic/socialhistoryprofiles of 106U.S.ethnicgroupsandthematicessaysontopicssuchasassimilation,immigra-tion,andethnicity.WethePeople(AllenandTurner1988)providesdemographicprofiles of U.S.ethnicgroupsandmapsmarkingthelocationsandconcentrations of thesegroupsin1980.BurnetandPalmer's(1988)ComingCanadi-ans:AnIntroductiontoCanada'sPeoplesprovidesageneralhistory of Canadianethnicity.TheEthnicAlmanac(Bernardo1981)providespopulationandotherinformation of moregeneralinterest,andtheEthnicDirectory of Canada(Mar-koticandHromadiuk1983)providesmuchinformationonCanadiangroups.Scholarlyjournalsthatregularlypublishar-ticlesandbookreviewsonCanadianandAmericanethnicgroupsincludeCanadianEthnicStudies/EtudesEthniquesauCanada,EthnicGroups,EthnicandRacialStudies,Interna-tionalMigrationReview,Journal of AmericanEthnicHistory,andtheJournal of EthnicStudies.Dozens of regional,state,andlocalhistoricalsocietyjournalsaswellasjournalspub-lishedbyethnicassociationsalsopublisharticlesonethnicgroups. Encyclopedia Canadiana(Robbins1965)andTheCanadian Encyclopedia (Marsh1988)providedescriptions of ethnicandfolkculturesinCanada.ThreecontinuingbookseriesaretheImmigrantCommunitiesandEthnicMinoritiesintheUnitedStatesandCanada(Theodoratus1989),whichnowincludessixty-sevenmonographs,withmanydescribingspecificethniccommunities;theImmigrantHeritage of Amer-icaSeries(Archdeacon198 4-) ,whichprovidessocialhisto-ries of morethanadozenethnicgroups;andtheGenerationSeries(BurnetandPalmer197 6-) ,whichdoesthesameforCanadianethnicgroups.Theinterests of manyethnicgroups,whichoftenincludethepreservationandcelebration of ethniccustoms,arerepre-sentedbyethnicassociations.Namesandaddresses of theseassociationsandotherinformationsourcescanbefoundinthe Encyclopedia of Associations(Burek,Koek,andNovallo1990),MinorityOrganizations:ANationalDirectory(GarrettParkPress1987),EthnicInformationSources of theUnitedStates(WassermanandKennington1983),andtheCorpusAlmanacandCanadianSourcebook(Soya1987).AcknowledgmentsFirst,wewouldliketothankthecontributors,whoseknowl-edgeandwillingnesstosharethatknowledgehavemadethisvolumepossible.WealsowanttothankGeraldReid,MarleneMartin,andNancyGratton of theHRAFResearchStafffortheirvariouscontributionstothisvolume.Anumber of individualsalsomeritthanksforothercontributions-ProfessorJamesFrideresforhisrecommendationsonexpertstowriteaboutCanadianethnicgroups,ProfessorJamesP.AllenforhisadviceonhowtocoverU.S.ethnicgroups,andProfessorJackGlazierforhiscommentsontheJewsin North America summary.ReferencesAllen,JamesP.,andEugeneJ.Turner(1988).WethePeople:AnAtlas of America& apos;sEthnicDiversity.NewYork:Macmillan.ContributorsxvVictorK.UjimotoDepartment of SociologyUniversity of GuelphGuelph,OntarioCanadaDouglasW.VeltreSocialSciencesDivisionUniversity of Alaska,AnchorageAnchorage,AlaskaUnitedStatesDiegoVigilDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of SouthernCaliforniaLosAngeles,CaliforniaUnitedStatesEastAsians of CanadaAkrutLatinosxiiContributorsNancyOestreichLurieMilwaukeePublicMuseumMilwaukee,WisconsinUnitedStatesM.MarleneMartinHumanRelationsAreaFilesNewHaven,ConnecticutUnitedStatesThomasRMcGuireDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of ArizonaTucson,ArizonaUnitedStatesF.MarkMealingSelkirkCollegeCastlegar,BritishColumbiaCanadaJamesH.MerrellDepartment of HistoryVassarCollegePoughkeepsie,NewYorkUnitedStatesAppalachians;KlamathWalapaiDoukhoborsCatawbaKwakiudlDonaldMitchellDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of VictoriaVictoria,BritishColumbiaCanadaMaryH.MoranDepartment of SociologyandAnthropologyColgateUniversityHamilton,NewYorkUnitedStatesRichardA.MorrisWoodburn,OregonUnitedStatesSeaIslandersOldBelieversAndriyNahachewskyDepartment of SlavicandEastEuropeanStudiesUniversity of AlbertaEdmonton,AlbertaCanadaMaryChristopherNunleyDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of Wisconsin-MilwaukeeMilwaukee,WisconsinUnitedStatesRobertL.OswaltKensington,CaliforniaUnitedStatesUkrainians of CanadaKickapooPomoWinnebagoLU-a-azU~~a-~0LIJ<o~L,<zCd)Cd)C)Cd)C)C) I- I- z I- I- I- I- I- z -I 90zoI-z I: cd, I- E -i -a i- D-0Cd) I- LUz0uIw<C0-LUL~dzzR<mLULULU - nt;~u0zzUJ)zCd:-CdZLU~zz00zzzzzOoooo0Cd)LUZR0<<04 i6 P6o 6- - i4 66A -~ o6 - f i jNNNNN~Nww0'0'0'0' ... possibleinreportingpopulationfigures.Thisisnoeasytask,assomegroupsarenotcountedinofficialgovernmentcensuses,somegroupsareverylikelyundercounted,andinsomecasesthedefinition of aculturalgroupusedbythecensustakersdiffersfromthedefinitionwehaveused.Ingeneral,wehavereliedonpopulationfiguressuppliedbythesummaryauthors.Whenotherpopulationdatasourceshavebeenusedinavol-ume,theyaresonotedbythevolumeeditor.Ifthereportedfigureisfromanearlierdate-say,the1970s-itisusuallybecauseitisthemostaccuratefigurethatcouldbefound.Units of MeasureInaninternational encyclopedia, editorsencountertheprob-lem of howtoreportdistances,units of space,andtempera-ture.Inmuch of the world, themetricsystemisused,butsci-entistsprefertheInternationalSystem of Units(similartothemetricsystem),andinGreatBritainand North America theEnglishsystemisusuallyused.WedecidedtouseEnglishmeasuresinthe North America volumeandmetricmeasuresintheothervolumes.Eachvolumecontainsaconversiontable.AcknowledgmentsInaproject of thissize,therearemanypeopletoacknowledgeandthankfortheircontributions.Initsplanningstages,members of theresearchstaff of theHumanRelationsAreaFilesprovidedmanyusefulideas.TheseincludedTimothyJ.O'Leary,MarleneMartin,JohnBeierle,GeraldReid,DeloresWalters,RichardWagner,andChristopherLatham.Thead-visoryeditors, of course,alsoplayedamajorroleinplanningviiiContributorsMarshallJ.BeckerDepartment of AnthropologyWestChesterUniversityWestChester,PennsylvaniaUnitedStatesRobertL.BeeDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of ConnecticutStorrs,ConnecticutUnitedStatesMargaretB.BlackmanDepartment of AnthropologyStateUniversity of NewYorkCollege,BrockportBrockport,NewYorkUnitedStatesJohnJ.BodineDepartment of AnthropologyAmericanUniversityWashington,District of ColumbiaUnitedStatesWilliamBrightDepartment of LinguisticsUniversity of ColoradoBoulder,ColoradoUnitedStatesNormanBuchignaniDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of LethbridgeLethbridge,AlbertaCanadaErnestS.Burch,Jr.Harrisburg,PennsylvaniaUnitedStatesGregoryRCampbellDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of MontanaMissoula,MontanaUnitedStatesWarrenL.d'AzevedoDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of Nevada-RenoReno,NevadaUnitedStatesSouthandSoutheastAsians of Canada North AlaskanEskimosCheyenneWashoeDavidDamasDepartment of AnthropologyMcMasterUniversityHamilton,OntarioCanadaCopperEskimoDelawareQuechanHaidaTaosKarokContentsProjectStaffviContributorsviiPrefacexviiIntroductionxxiiiMapsxxxiii1.NativeAmericanRegions(circa1600)xxxiii2.NativeAmericanCultures(circa1600)xxxiv3.NativeAmericanCulturesintheContiguousU.S.States(circa1990)xxxvii4.NativeAmericanCulturesinAlaska,Canada,andGreenland(circa1990)xxxix5. North AmericanFolkCultures(circa1990)xlCultures of North America 1Appendix:ExtinctNativeAmericanCultures401Glossary403Filmography407EthnonymIndex417VxivContributorsWilliamShaffirDepartment of SociologyMcMasterUniversityHamilton,OntarioCanadaFlorenceC.ShipekSanDiego,CaliforniaUnitedStatesJamesG.E.SmithMuseum of theAmericanIndianHeyeFoundationBronx,NewYorkUnitedStatesDeanR.SnowDepartment of AnthropologyStateUniversity of NewYorkatAlbanyAlbany,NewYorkUnitedStatesNicholasR.SpitzerOffice of FolklifeProgramsSmithsonianInstitutionWashington,District of ColumbiaUnitedStatesGeorgeD.SpindlerDepartment of AnthropologyStanfordUniversityStanford,CaliforniaUnitedStatesLouiseS.SpindlerDepartment of AnthropologyStanfordUniversityStanford,CaliforniaUnitedStatesDanielStrouthes,Department of AnthropologyYaleUniversityNewHaven,ConnecticutUnitedStatesKennethD.TollefsonSchool of SocialandBehavioralSciencesSeattlePacificUniversitySeattle,WashingtonUnitedStatesCree,WesternWoodsAbenakiBlackCreoles of LouisianaMenomineeMenomineeMicmacSnoqualmie;T'lngitJoanB.TownsendDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of ManitobaWinnipeg,ManitobaCanadaHasidimKumeya~ayTanalnaPeterPeregrineDepartment of SociologyandAnthropologyPurdueUniversityWestLafayette,IndianaUnitedStatesJohnH.PetersonDepartment of SociologyandAnthropologyMississippiStateUniversityMississippiState,MississippiUnitedStatesLiseMariellePilonDipartementd'AnthropologieUniversityLavalCit6Universitaire,QuebecCanadaWilliamK.PowersDepartment of AnthropologyRutgersUniversityNewBrunswick,NewJerseyUnitedStatesGeraldF.ReidDepartment of SociologySacredHeartUniversityFairfield,ConnecticutUnitedStatesFrenchCanadiansTetonCherokee;Chipewyan;Fox,Iroquois;Jicarilla;Mohave;Montagnais-Naskapi;Ojibwa;Pawnee;YokutsDonaldH.RubinsteinMicronesianAreaResearchCenterUniversity of GuamMangilaoGuamScottRushforthDepartment of SociologyandAnthropologyNewMexicoStateUniversityLasCruces,NewMexicoUnitedStatesMattT.SaloCenterforSurveyMethodsResearchBureau of ... MEASUREMENTCONVERSIONSWhenYouKnowMultiplyByToFindLENGTHinches2.54centimetersfeet30centimetersyards0.9metersmiles1.6kilometersmillimeters0.04inchescentimeters0.4inchesmeters3.3feetmeters1.1yardskilometers0.6milesAREAsquarefeet0.09squaremeterssquareyards0.8squaremeterssquaremiles2.6squarekilometersacres0.4hectareshectares2.5acressquaremeters1.2squareyardssquarekilometers0.4squaremilesTEMPERATUREC-(IF - 32)x.555 OF= (OCx1.8)+32©1994bytheHumanRelationsAreaFiles,Inc.Firstpublishedin1994byG.K.Hall&Co.1633BroadwayNewYork,NY1001 9-6 785Allrightsreserved.Nopart of thisbookmaybereproducedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,orbyanyinformationstorageorretrievalsystemwithoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.2019181716151413Library of CongressCataloging-in-PublicaftonData Encyclopedia of world cultures/DavidLevinson,editorinchief.P.cm.Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.Filmography:p.Contents:v.1. North America /TimothyJ.O'Leary.DavidLevinson,volumeeditors.ISBN 0-8 16 1-1 80 8-6 1.Ethnology -North America- Encyclopedias.2. North America& apos;-Sociallifeandcustoms-Encyclopedias. I. Levinson,David.194 7- GN550.E531991305'.097-dc2O9 0-4 9123CIPThepaperusedinthispublicationmeetstheminimumrequirements of AmericanNationalStandardforInformationSciences-Permanence of PaperforPrintedLibraryMaterials.ANSIZ39.4 8- 1984.®TMMANUFACTUREDINTHEUNITEDSTATES OF AMERICA xxxiiIntroductionThemstrom,Stephan,ed.(1980).Harvard Encyclopedia of AmericanEthnicGroups.Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,BelknapPress.Voegelin,CharlesF.,andFlorenceM.Voegelin(1966).Map of North AmericanIndianLanguages,Revised.AmericanEth-nologicalSociety,Publicationno.20.Bloomington,Ind.Waldman,Carl(1985).Atlas of the North AmericanIndian.NewYork:FactsonFile.Wasserman,Paul,andAliceE.Kennington(1983).EthnicInformationSources of theUnitedStates.2nded.Detroit:GaleResearchCo.Weatherford,Elizabeth,andEmeliaSeubert,eds.(1988).NativeAmericansonFilmandVideo.NewYork:Museum of theAmericanIndian/HeyeFoundation.TIMOTHYJ.O'LEARYDAVIDLEVINSONCanadians,Haitians,BlackWestIndiansintheUnitedStates,andUkrainians of Canada.ReferenceResourcesTheliteratureonNativeAmericans, North Americanfolkcultures,andethnicgroupsisvoluminous.Herewediscussandlistthebasicreferenceresourcesthatleadthereadertotherelevantliterature.NativeAmericansThethreebasicdirectoriestoscholarlyresearchonNativeAmericansareTheEthnographicBibliography of North Amer-ica,4thed.(MurdockandO'Leary1975),TheEthnographicBibliography of North America, Supplementtothe4thEdition(MartinandO'Leary1990),andtheHandbook of North AmericanIndians(Sturtevant197 8-) Thetwobibliographiesprovidecitationstooversixtythousandbooks,articles,doc-toraldissertations,andgovernmentdocumentspertainingtoNativeAmericans.TheyalsoincludebibliographicessaystellingthereaderwheretofindmoreaboutNativeAmeri-cans.TheHandbookisaprojectedtwenty-volumecollection of thematicessaysandculturalsummariescoveringNativeAmericangroups,pastandpresent.Eightvolumesareinprint,withallexpectedtoappearbytheyear2000.Also of noteisHodge'sHandbook of AmericanIndians North of Mex-ico(1959).AlthoughHodge'sculturalsummariesarebeingsupersededbythoseintheHandbook of North AmericanIndi-ans,heprovidesmuchvaluableinformationonAmericanIn-dianhistory,beliefs,andcustoms.TheIndianReservations:AStateandFederalHandbook(Confederation of AmericanIn-dians1986)isausefulguidetoIndianreservationsintheUnitedStates.TheNativeAmericanDirectory(1982)isin-valuableasaguidetogroups,organizations,media,museums,andsoon.OthergeneralorregionallyfocusedsourcesareDriver's(1969)Indians of North America, Leitch's(1979)AConciseDictionary of IndianTribes of North America, Jorgen-sen's(1980)WesternIndians,Krech's(1986)NativeCana-dianAnthropologyandHistory:ASelectedBibliography,Kroe-ber's(1925)Handbook of theIndians of California,RubyandBrown's(1986)AGuidetotheIndianTribes of thePacificNorthwest,andSwanton's(1952)TheIndianTribes of North America. AcomprehensiveguidetofilmsonNativeAmeri-cansisNativeAmericansonFilmandVideo(WeatherfordandSeubert1988).FolkCulturesandEthnicGroupsAswithNativeAmericans,itiseasytobequicklyover-whelmedbytheamount of informationavailableonethnicgroupsandfolkculturesintheUnitedStatesandCanada.BasicbibliographiesareEuropeanImmigrationandEthnicityintheUnitedStatesandCanada:AHistoricalBibliography(Brye1983),ImmigrantsandTheirChildrenintheUnitedStates:ABibliography of DoctoralDissertations(Hogland1986),AmericanandCanadianImmigrantandEthnicFolk-lore:AnAnnotatedBibliography(GeorgesandStern1982),AComprehensiveBibliographyfortheStudy of AmericanMinori-ties(Miller,1976),andMinoritiesin America: TheAnnualBibliography(Miller197 6-1 978).Inaddition,thejournalCanadianEthnicStudies/EtudesEthniquesauCanadapub-lishesacontinuingbibliographyemphasizingNativeAmeri-cansandethnicgroupsinCanada.TheHarvard Encyclopedia of AmericanEthnicGroups(Thernstrom1980)providesdemographic/socialhistoryprofiles of 106U.S.ethnicgroupsandthematicessaysontopicssuchasassimilation,immigra-tion,andethnicity.WethePeople(AllenandTurner1988)providesdemographicprofiles of U.S.ethnicgroupsandmapsmarkingthelocationsandconcentrations of thesegroupsin1980.BurnetandPalmer's(1988)ComingCanadi-ans:AnIntroductiontoCanada'sPeoplesprovidesageneralhistory of Canadianethnicity.TheEthnicAlmanac(Bernardo1981)providespopulationandotherinformation of moregeneralinterest,andtheEthnicDirectory of Canada(Mar-koticandHromadiuk1983)providesmuchinformationonCanadiangroups.Scholarlyjournalsthatregularlypublishar-ticlesandbookreviewsonCanadianandAmericanethnicgroupsincludeCanadianEthnicStudies/EtudesEthniquesauCanada,EthnicGroups,EthnicandRacialStudies,Interna-tionalMigrationReview,Journal of AmericanEthnicHistory,andtheJournal of EthnicStudies.Dozens of regional,state,andlocalhistoricalsocietyjournalsaswellasjournalspub-lishedbyethnicassociationsalsopublisharticlesonethnicgroups. Encyclopedia Canadiana(Robbins1965)andTheCanadian Encyclopedia (Marsh1988)providedescriptions of ethnicandfolkculturesinCanada.ThreecontinuingbookseriesaretheImmigrantCommunitiesandEthnicMinoritiesintheUnitedStatesandCanada(Theodoratus1989),whichnowincludessixty-sevenmonographs,withmanydescribingspecificethniccommunities;theImmigrantHeritage of Amer-icaSeries(Archdeacon198 4-) ,whichprovidessocialhisto-ries of morethanadozenethnicgroups;andtheGenerationSeries(BurnetandPalmer197 6-) ,whichdoesthesameforCanadianethnicgroups.Theinterests of manyethnicgroups,whichoftenincludethepreservationandcelebration of ethniccustoms,arerepre-sentedbyethnicassociations.Namesandaddresses of theseassociationsandotherinformationsourcescanbefoundinthe Encyclopedia of Associations(Burek,Koek,andNovallo1990),MinorityOrganizations:ANationalDirectory(GarrettParkPress1987),EthnicInformationSources of theUnitedStates(WassermanandKennington1983),andtheCorpusAlmanacandCanadianSourcebook(Soya1987).AcknowledgmentsFirst,wewouldliketothankthecontributors,whoseknowl-edgeandwillingnesstosharethatknowledgehavemadethisvolumepossible.WealsowanttothankGeraldReid,MarleneMartin,andNancyGratton of theHRAFResearchStafffortheirvariouscontributionstothisvolume.Anumber of individualsalsomeritthanksforothercontributions-ProfessorJamesFrideresforhisrecommendationsonexpertstowriteaboutCanadianethnicgroups,ProfessorJamesP.AllenforhisadviceonhowtocoverU.S.ethnicgroups,andProfessorJackGlazierforhiscommentsontheJewsin North America summary.ReferencesAllen,JamesP.,andEugeneJ.Turner(1988).WethePeople:AnAtlas of America& apos;sEthnicDiversity.NewYork:Macmillan.ContributorsxvVictorK.UjimotoDepartment of SociologyUniversity of GuelphGuelph,OntarioCanadaDouglasW.VeltreSocialSciencesDivisionUniversity of Alaska,AnchorageAnchorage,AlaskaUnitedStatesDiegoVigilDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of SouthernCaliforniaLosAngeles,CaliforniaUnitedStatesEastAsians of CanadaAkrutLatinosxiiContributorsNancyOestreichLurieMilwaukeePublicMuseumMilwaukee,WisconsinUnitedStatesM.MarleneMartinHumanRelationsAreaFilesNewHaven,ConnecticutUnitedStatesThomasRMcGuireDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of ArizonaTucson,ArizonaUnitedStatesF.MarkMealingSelkirkCollegeCastlegar,BritishColumbiaCanadaJamesH.MerrellDepartment of HistoryVassarCollegePoughkeepsie,NewYorkUnitedStatesAppalachians;KlamathWalapaiDoukhoborsCatawbaKwakiudlDonaldMitchellDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of VictoriaVictoria,BritishColumbiaCanadaMaryH.MoranDepartment of SociologyandAnthropologyColgateUniversityHamilton,NewYorkUnitedStatesRichardA.MorrisWoodburn,OregonUnitedStatesSeaIslandersOldBelieversAndriyNahachewskyDepartment of SlavicandEastEuropeanStudiesUniversity of AlbertaEdmonton,AlbertaCanadaMaryChristopherNunleyDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of Wisconsin-MilwaukeeMilwaukee,WisconsinUnitedStatesRobertL.OswaltKensington,CaliforniaUnitedStatesUkrainians of CanadaKickapooPomoWinnebagoLU-a-azU~~a-~0LIJ<o~L,<zCd)Cd)C)Cd)C)C) I- I- z I- I- I- I- I- z -I 90zoI-z I: cd, I- E -i -a i- D-0Cd) I- LUz0uIw<C0-LUL~dzzR<mLULULU - nt;~u0zzUJ)zCd:-CdZLU~zz00zzzzzOoooo0Cd)LUZR0<<04 i6 P6o 6- - i4 66A -~ o6 - f i jNNNNN~Nww0'0'0'0'...
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Encyclopedia of World CulturesVolume I - NORTH AMERICA - A pps
... province of Quebechasinfluencedthespokenlanguage,whereasisolatedareassuchasCheticamp,onCapeBretonIsland,NovaScotia,havemaintained a morearchaicform of speech.IntheMonctonarea,constantinterminglingbetweenAcadiansandEnglishspeakershasspawned a hybridform of speech,knownasChiac.InFrench-languageschools,modemstandardFrenchistaught,andstudentsarestronglyencouragedtoavoidmixingFrenchandEnglish.Educationalinstitutionsalsotendtocondemntheuse of archaicexpressionsnolongeracceptedinmodemFrenchusage,althoughinrecentyearsmanyvoiceshavebeenraisedintheAcadiancommu-nitycallingforthemaintenance of thedistinctiveelements of theAcadiandialect.HistoryandCulturalRelationsThefirstFrenchcolonistsarrivedinAcadiain1604.Afterill-fatedattemptstoestablishcoloniesonileSainte-Croix(DotchetIsland,Maine)andatPort-Royal(NovaScotia),AcadiawasabandonedandBritainseizedcontrol of thearea,namingitNovaScotiain1621.In1632,theTreaty of Saint-Germain-en-LayereturnedAcadiatoFrenchjurisdictionandpermanentcolonizationbegan.Between1632and1654,whenAcadiaonceagainfelltotheBritish,aboutfiftyfamilies of colonistsarrivedfromFrance,andthosefewfamiliesformedthenucleus of thepresent-dayAcadianpopulation.Politically,thenexthundredyearscontinuedtobemarkedbyinstability.Because of theweakpositionitoccu-piedonthemargins of boththeFrenchandtheBritish North Americanempires,Acadiachangedhandsseveraltimes.In1713,theTreaty of UtrechtgaveBritainpermanentcontrol of peninsularNovaScotia,andwiththeTreaty of Parisin1763,Francelosttherest of whathadbeenthecolony of Acadia.Duringthetenseperiodbetweenthesetwotreaties,theAcadianswerereferredtobytheBritishasthe"Frenchneutrals"because of theirdesiretoavoidallinvolvementinmilitaryconflicts.ButdespitetheAcadians'avowedneutral-ity,theBritishbegantodeportthemin1755,withthegoal of destroyingtheircultureandplacingsettlersfromNewEn-glandontheirlands.Among a totalpopulation of aboutthir-teenthousand,atleasttenthousandweredeportedbetween1755and1763.TheresteitherfledtoQuebecorwerecap-turedanddetainedinmilitarycamps.Once a permanentpeacehadbeenestablished, a newAcadiawasborn,asprisonersbeingreleasedfromdetentionsearchedforlandsonwhichtosettle.Theywerejoinedby a number of Acadiansreturningfromexile,althoughmost of theseweredrawntowardQuebec,whichremained a French-speakingterritory,orLouisiana,wheretheysettledinlargenumbersandbecameknownas"Cajuns."Fortwocenturies,theAcadianpopulationintheMaritimeProvincesincreasedbothinnumbersandinproportion of thetotalpopulation,untilthe1960s,whentheAcadianpercentage of thepopula-tionleveledoffinNewBrunswickandbegantodeclineinNovaScotiaandPrinceEdwardIsland.Today'sAcadianshave a wholerange of social,educational,andculturalinsti-tutionsandareactiveparticipantsinthepoliticalprocess,bothprovinciallyandfederally,althoughtheirpoliticalinflu-enceissignificantonlyinNewBrunswick.SettlementsInAcadianruralcommunitieslonglines of housesstretchalongbothsides of a mainroad.Landisdividedintoparallelstripsbeginningattheroadandcontinuingbeyondtheclearedareaintothewoods.Livestockusedtobebrandedandlefttoroamfreeinthewoodsduringgrazingseason,butnowallpasturelandisfencedin.Themainoutbuildingis a barnconstructed of verticalwoodenboards.Theparishchurchisusuallyfoundatthecenter of thevillage,withlocalinstitutionssuchasthepostoffice,creditunion,andcooper-ativestorenearby.Exceptincommunitieswith a population of over a thousand,thereisrarely a cluster of housesinthecenter of thevillage.Rather,thepopulationisevenlyspreadoutalongthemainroad.Thisistrueinbothfarmingandfishingcommunities,asAcadiansincoastalareastradition-allypracticedbothactivities.Ratherthanlivingin a clusteredcommunityaround a harbor,fishingfamilieslivedonfarmsandoftentraveledseveralmilestoreachthelocalharbordur-ingfishingseason.Theaverageruralhouseisquitesmallandmade of wood.Thekitchen,thelargestroom,isthecenter of activityforthehousehold.Nineteenth-centuryhousesusuallyincluded a smallroombesidethekitchenandtwoupstairsbedrooms.Acadianshavealwayshad a tendencytomodifytheirhousesasneeded.Often,smallhouseswereenlargedwiththeaddi-tion of a newwingasthefamilygrew.Forexteriorwallcover-ing,modemclapboardhasnowreplacedcedarorspruceshin-gles,andasphaltshingleshavereplacedtheoriginalwoodenonesontheroof.Urbanhousesshowvariousinfluencesinstyle.Again,woodisthemostimportantelementusedinconstruction.InurbanareasoccupiedbyAcadians,themainsigns of theirpresencearetheCatholicchurch,theFrenchschool,andthecreditunion.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Untilthelatenineteenthcentury,ruralAcadiancommunitieshad a sub-sistenceeconomybasedon a combination of mixedfarming,fishing,andforestry.Thedevelopment of thecommercialfishery,andparticularlythelobsterindustry,brought a mod-estrevenuetoruralAcadiansbeginninginthe1880s.Simi-larly,thedevelopment of theforestindustrypermittedAcadi-anstoearnmoneycuttingwoodduringthewinter,whenfarmingandfishingactivitieshadceased.Ininlandareas,wheresubsistenceagriculturewasthemainactivity,cuttingwoodinremotelumbercampsduringthewinterprovidedtheonlysource of cashincome.After World War11,subsistenceagricultureceasedandthemoremarginalinlandcommuni-tiesbecamedepopulated.Insomeareas,successfulcommer-cialfarminghasbeendeveloped,themaincropbeingpota-toes.Animportantdairyindustryalsonowexists.Therelativesuccess of commercialfishingandfarminghaspre-ventedmassivedepopulationinruralareas,although a ten-AmericanIsolates17todayasAbitibi,Kitcisagi(GrandLakeVictoria),Maniwaki,Nipissing,Temiscaming,andWeskarini,aswellasotherprobablyextinctbands.Thecovernameisderivedfrom a Maliseettermmeaning"theyareourrelatives(orallies)."Eachbandorgroupspokecloselyrelateddialects of Algon-kian,thelanguagestillusedtoday,inadditiontoEnglishandFrench.AtpresenttheremaybeasmanyassixthousandAlgonkin of whomtwenty-fivehundredtothreethousandliveonabout a dozenreservesinCanada.FirstcontactwithFrenchtradersapparentlypredated1570.RelationswiththeFrenchweregenerallypeacefulfromthattimeonward.Therewas,however,almostcontinualstrifewiththeIroquoisuntilthepeace of 1701betweentheIroquoisandtheFrenchandtheirIndianallies.Missioniza-tionbyRomanCatholicmissionaries,particularlytheJesuitsandSulpicians,beganintheearlyseventeenthcentury,withmissionstationsbeingestablishedatthattime. A govern-mentreservewasestablishedatGoldenLake,Ontario,in1807with a number of othersaddedthroughoutthenine-teenthcentury.Not a greatdealisknownabouttraditionalAlgonkinculture.Subsistencewasbaseduponhuntingandfishing,al-though a simpleform of swiddenhorticulturefeaturingmaize,beans,andsquashand,later,Europeanpeaswasprac-ticedwhereverpossible.Theyconstructedlonghousesandothersmallerstructures.Twentieth-centuryAlgonkinbandssharemanycharacteristics of BorealForestPeoples,includ-ing a beliefin a supremebeing;theWindigo; a trickstercul-turehero;thevisionquest;scapulimancy;andtheconstruc-tion of canoesandotheritemsinbirchbark,toboggans,showshoes,andmoose-anddeerhideclothing.Specificfam-ilyhuntingterritorieshavecontinuedtoexistinthetwentiethcentury.BibliographyDay,GordonM.(1978)."Nipissing."InHandbook of North AmericanIndians.Vol.15,Northeast,editedbyBruceG.Trig-ger,78 7-7 91.Washington,D.C.:SmithsonianInstitution.Day,GordonM.,andBruceG.Trigger(1978)."Algonquin."InHandbook of North AmericanIndians.Vol.15,Northeast,editedbyBruceG.Trigger,79 2-7 97.Washington,D.C.:SmithsonianInstitution.Speck,Frank(1929)."BoundariesandHuntingGroups of theRiverDesertAlgonquin."IndianNotes(Museum of theAmericanIndian,HeyeFoundation)6:9 7-1 20.NewYork.AmericanIsolatesETHNONYMS:Aframerindians,Creoles,Half-Breeds,Mar-ginalPeoples,Mestizos,Metis,Micro-Races,MiddlePeoples,Quasi-Indians,RacialIslands,RacialIsolates,SouthernMes-tizos,SubmergedRaces,Tri-Racials,Tri-RacialIsolatesThisgenericlabelcoverssometwohundreddifferentgroups of relativelyisolated,ruralpeopleswholiveinatleasteighteenstatesmainlyintheeasternandsouthernUnitedStates.Ingeneral,thelabelandthevariousalternativesrefertodistinctpeoplesthoughttohave a multiracialbackground(White-Indian-African-American,African-American-WhiteorIndian-White,Indian-Spanish)whohistoricallyhavebeenunaffiliatedwiththegeneralWhiteandAfrican-AmericanpopulationorwithspecificAmericanIndiangroups.Esti-matesplacethenumber of peopleinthesegroupsataboutseventy-fivethousand,althoughsomegroupshavedisap-pearedinrecentyearsthrough a combination of migrationtocitiesandintermarriagewithWhitesandAfrican-Americans.Thebestknown of thesegroupsistheLumbeeIndians,num-beringoverthirtythousandmainlyin North andSouthCarolina.Classification of a groupasanAmericanIsolaterestson(1)realorascribedmixedracialancestry of groupmembers;(2) a socialstatusdifferentfromthat of neighboringWhite,African-American,orAmericanIndianpopulations;and(3)identificationas a distinctlocalgroupwiththeassignment of a distinctgroupname.AmericanIsolatesexistedpriortotheAmericanRevolu-tion,perhapsaslongagoastheearlyeighteenthcentury,andtheyincreasedinnumberthroughoutthenineteenthcenturyastheycametopublicattentionintheareaswheretheylived.Amongfactorsleadingtogroupformationwerethepresence of offspring of African-AmericanmaleslavesandWhitewomenandtheoffspring of IndiansandfreeorenslavedAfri-can-Americans.Once a smallcommunity of multiracialmembersbegan,itgrewprimarilythrough a highfertilityrateandbecamemoreandmoreisolatedbothsociallyandphysi-callyasitsmemberswererejectedbyWhitesandchose,them-selves,toshunAfrican-Americans.Themovement of Indiangroupswestalsocontributedtotheirisolation.Morerecently,isolationwasmaintainedinpartthroughgovernmentaction,mostsignificantlythroughthebanning of Isolatechildrenfrompublicschools.MostIsolategroupswereandcontinuetobedescribedbyoutsidersinsuchstereotypicaltermsaslazy,shiftless,criminals,violent,illiterate,poor,orinces-tuous.Groupsknowntohavestillexistedinthe1950sand1960sincludethefollowing,listedbystate:Alabama:Cajans,Creoles,Melungeons(Ramps)Delaware:Moors,NanticokeFlorida:DominickersGeorgia:LumbeeIndians(Croatans)Kentucky:Melungeons,PeaRidgeGroup(CoeClan,BlackCoes)Louisiana:NatchitochesMulattoes,RapidesIndians,RedBones,Sabines,St.LandryMulattoes,Zwolle-EbardPeopleMaryland:Guineas,LumbeeIndians,Melungeons,Wesorts(Brandywine)Mississippi:CreolesNewJersey:Gouldtowners,RamapoMountainPeople(JacksonWhites),SandHillIndiansNewYork:Bushwhackers,JacksonWhites North Carolina:HaliwaIndians,LumbeeIndians,PersonCountyIndians,Portuguese,RockinghamSurryGroupAfricanAmericans13premeCourtas a lawyerandiscreditedwithwinningtwenty-three.Althoughthereisnoofficialorganization of theentireAfricanAmericanpopulation,andnotrulymassmovementthatspeakstotheinterests of themajority of thepeople,theNAACPcomesclosesttobeing a conscienceforthenationandanorganizedresponsetooppression,discrimination,andrac-ism.Atthelocallevel,manycommunitieshaveorganizedCommittees of Elderswhoareresponsibleforvariousactivi-tieswithinthecommunities.Thesecommitteesareusuallyinformalandaresetuptoassistthecommunitiesindeter-miningthebeststrategiestofollowinpoliticalandlegalsitu-ations.Growingout of anAfrocentricemphasisoncommu-nityandcohesiveness,thecommitteesareusuallycomposed of oldermenandwomenwhohavemadespecialcontribu-tionstothecommunitythroughachievementorphilan-thropy.PoliticalOrganization.AfricanAmericansparticipatefreelyinthetwodominantpoliticalpartiesinthenation,DemocraticandRepublican.MostAfricanAmericansareDemocrats, a legacyfromtheera of FranklinDelanoRoose-veltandtheNewDealDemocratswhobroughtabout a meas-ure of socialjusticeandrespectforthecommonpeople.TherearemorethansixthousandAfricanAmericanswhoareelectedofficialsintheUnitedStates,includingthegovernor of Virginiaandthemayors of NewYork,LosAngeles,Phila-delphia,andDetroit. A previousmayor of ChicagowasalsoanAfricanAmerican.Concentratedinthecentralcities,theAfricanAmericanpopulationhas a strongimpactonthepo-liticalprocesses of theoldercities.ThenationalDemocraticpartychairpersonis of AfricanAmericanheritage,andsome of themostprominentpersonsinthepartyarealsoAfricanAmericans.TheRepublicanpartyhasitsshare,thoughnotaslarge, of AfricanAmericanpoliticians.Thereisnoinde-pendentpoliticalpartyintheAfricanAmericancommunity,althoughithasremainedone of thedreams of leadingstrategists.SocialControlandConflict.Conflictisnormallyre-solvedintheAfricanAmericancommunitythroughthelegalsystem,althoughthereis a strongimpetustouseconsensusfirst.Theidea of discussinganissuewithothermembers of thecommunitywhomightsharesimilarvaluesis a prevalentonewithintheAfricanAmericansociety. A firstrecoursewhenproblemsariseisanotherperson.Thisistruewhetheritis a personalproblemor a problemwithfamilymembers.Ratherthancalling a lawyerfirst,theAfricanAmericanismostlikelytocall a friendandseekadvice.Tosomeextent,thetraditionalAfricannotion of retainingandmaintainingharmonyisattheheart of thematter.Conflictsshouldbere-solvedbypeople,notbylaw,isone of theadages.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.AfricanAmericanspracticethethreemainmonotheisticreligions,aswellasEasternandAfricanreligions.ThepredominantfaithisChristian,thesecondlargestgroup of believersaccepttheancestralreligions of Africa-Vodun,Santeria,Myal-and a thirdgroup of follow-erspracticeIslam.JudaismandBuddhismare ... dressandgrooming.Todaytherulesareinterpretedlocallybythemembers of eachcongregation.TheAmish,likeotherAnabaptistgroupsinEurope,sufferedseverepersecutionandimprisonment.Iftheyremainedintheirowncountries,theywerenotallowedtoownlandandweredeniedcitizenship.Theserestrictionspreventedthemfromformingpermanentsettlements.As a result,thosewhostayedintheirEuropeanhomelandshavelargelybeenassimilatedintothedominantreligiousgroupsthere.ThebasesforAmishexistenceas a distinctAmericansubculturearetheirnonconformityindress,homes,speech,attitudestowardeducation,andresistancetomodernizationandchange.TheAmishadheretotraditionsthatincludeliv-inginruralareas,usinghorsesforfarming,marryingwithinthegroup,anddressingin a mannerreminiscent of seven-teenth-centuryEuropeans.TheAmishleadlivesthatareso-ciallydistinctaswell.SincetheAmisharesecureintheirtra-dition of separationfromtheoutside world, theirrelationswiththeirnon-Amishneighborsappeartobefree of thejudgmentalattitudes of otherseparatistsects.RulesforAmishlivingprohibitmorethananelementaryschooleduca-tion,theownership(butnotalwaystheuse) of automobilesandtelephones,andtheuse of electricityandmodemcon-veniences.TheAmishareaware of theirpositionwithrespecttothelargerculturalenvironment.Farmersespeciallycon-siderthatusingtechnologicalfarmimplementswouldhave a devastatingimpactontheirabilitytomaintain a separatesociety.Conformitytotheconsensualrules(Ordnung)forbe-haviorservestounifyAmishcommunities.Theirreligiousperspectiveemphasizescommitmentto a self-sufficientcom-munity of believerswhorejectworldlyvalues.Aspartofareli-giousethicbasedontheirinterpretations of Biblicalscrip-ture,theAmishidealistoprovidetotallyformembers of theircongregationsthroughoutthelifecycle.TheAmishthereforeremaincommittedtothehomeasthelocus of theirchurchservicesandforthecare of thesick,theorphaned,theindi-gent,theelderly,andthementallyretarded.Importantvaluesthataretheresult of socializationinthehomeratherthaninschoolaretheabilitytocooperatewithothersandtoworkas a contributingmembertothesociety.OutsideindustrieshavemovedtoAmishdistrictsinIn-dianaandPennsylvaniainordertotakeadvantage of theirreputationforhardandreliablework.TheAmish,though,26Arapaho.ArapahoETHNONYMS:Arapahoe,DogEaters,Hitinwoiv,Inufiaina,SuretikaTheArapahoareanAlgonkian-speakingtribewhoatthetime of firstcontactwiththeAmericanslivedaroundtheheadwaters of theArkansasandPlatteriversinsouthwesternWyomingandeasternColorado.Inthemid-nineteenthcen-tury,thetribesplitintotwogroups.TheNorthernArapahonowlivewiththeEasternShoshoneontheWindRiverReser-vationinWyoming,andtheSouthernArapaho,withtheSouthernCheyenneastheCheyenne-ArapahoeTribes of Oklahomaon a federaltrustareainsouthwesternOklahoma.TheU.S.Bureau of theCensusestimatedthattherewereatleastforty-fourhundredArapaholivingintheUnitedStatesin1980.TheirlanguageisdistantlyrelatedtoBlackfoot,Cheyenne,andtheotherAlgonkianlanguages.TheGrosVentre(Atsina)wereformerlyanArapahobandandspeak a dialect of Arapaho.TheearliestevidenceindicatestheArapahowereagricul-turalistslivingneartheheadwaters of theMississippiRiverinMinnesotaaround1600.Fromtheretheymovedwestward,acquiringthehorseandbecomingtypicalbison-huntinghorsenomadsontheGreatPlains.Theywerenotedaswarri-orsandfoughtwithmanyothertribesaswellaswiththeU.S.Army.Afterthesplitintotwogroupsaround1835,theSouthernArapahoagreedtosettlewiththeCheyenneonanOklahomareservationin1869,andtheNorthernArapahowereplacedontheWindRiverReservationinWyomingwiththeiroldenemiestheEasternShoshone.TheSouthernAra-pahoarenowgovernedbytheCheyenne-ArapahoeTribalBusinessCommittee,whichhaselectedofficialsfromeach of thetribes;ontheWindRiverReservation,affairsarecarriedonby a jointbusinesscouncil.ThemajorArapahobusinessonthisreservationistheArapahoRanchEnterprise, a beef-breedingoperationthatbringsinover$3millionannually.Incomeisalsoderivedfromcoalmining,forestry,andpay-mentsforgrazingrights.AftertheArapahomovedtotheplains,theireconomywasbasedalmostentirelyonbisonhuntingandtheuse of thehorse,withmendoingthehuntingandcarryingonwarfareandthewomenconcernedwithdomesticchores,gatheringvegetablefoods,raisingchildren,andbuildingtheconicalbison-hide-coveredtipischaracteristic of thesociety.Theyoriginallyhadfivemajordivisions,althoughtheGrosVentrebrokeawayfromtheothersaroundthebeginning of theeighteenthcentury.Eachdivisionhad a chief,notformallyelectedbutchosenfromamongtheDogCompany,one of theage-gradesocietieswhichwerecharacteristic of Arapahosocialorganization.Thesesocietiesnolongersurvive,buttheirgeneralstructurecontinuestodayinmodifiedformandtheirvaluesstilldeterminesocialandpoliticalbehaviortosomeextent.Whilelivingontheplains,thetribewasnearlyfullyno-madic,withcommunitieshavingpopulations of twohundredtofourhundredpeople.Theyhadbilateraldescentbutnode-scentgroups.Thecommunitieswereexogamous,andpost-maritalresidencewasgenerallyuxorilocal.Therewerestrictmother-in-law/son-in-lawandfather-in-law/daughter-in-lawtaboos,aswellasgreatrespectbetweenbrothersandsisters.Polygynywasfrequent,veryoftensororal.Therewerenostrictrules of inheritance.Religionwaslargelyboundupwiththeceremonials of theage-gradesocieties,withtheSunDanceandthepeyoteworshipalsobeingimportant.BibliographyElkin,Henry(1940).'TheNorthernArapaho of Wyoming."InAcculturationinSevenAmericanTribes,editedbyRalphLinton,20 7-2 58.NewYork:D.Appleton-CenturyCo.Fowler,LorettaD.(1982).ArapahoePolitics,185 1-1 978:SymbolsinCrises of Authority.Lincoln:University of Ne-braskaPress.Kroeber,AlfredL.(1983).TheArapaho.Lincoln:University of NebraskaPress.Originallypublished,190 2-1 907.Trenholm,VirginiaCole(1970).TheArapahoes,OurPeople.Norman:University of OklahomaPress.ArikaraETHNONYMS:Pandani,Panimaha,Ree,Ricari,Ricaree,San-ish,StarrahheTheArikaraare a group of Caddoan-speakingAmericanIndianswhoinhistorictimeslivedalongtheMissouriRiverinnorthernSouthDakotaandwest-central North Dakota.TheArikaraareculturallyrelatedtothePawnee.Theyarebe-lievedtohaveoriginatedintheSoutheastandmigrated north alongtheMissouriRiverbeforereachingtheDakotassome-timearound1770.Atthattimetheynumberedbetweenthreethousandandfourthousandpeople.In1837theArikarawereseverelyaffectedby a smallpoxepidemic,andin1862,theirnumbersmuchreduced,theyjoinedtheMandanandHidatsatribes.Inabout1870allthreegroupsweresettledontheFortBertholdReservationin North Dakota.Inthe1980stheynumberedaboutonethousand.TheArikarawereprimarilyanagriculturalpeoplelivinginpermanentvillages of semisubterraneanearthlodgeslo-catedonbluffsoverlookingtheMissouriRiver.Theyculti-vatedmaize,beans,squash,pumpkins,andsunflowersandalsohuntedbison,deer,andantelopeandgatheredwildfoods.Politically,theArikarawereorganizedinto a loosecon-federacy of villagesledby a headchiefassistedby a tribalcouncil of villagechiefs.Religiouslifeandceremoniescen-teredaroundtheplanting,cultivation,andharvesting of maize,theprincipalfoodresource.SeealsoHidatsa;MandanBibliographyAbel,AnnieHeloise,ed.(1939).Tabeau'sNarrative of Loi-sel'sExpeditiontotheUpperMissouri.Norman:University of OklahomaPress.Macgowan,E.S.(1942).'TheArikaraIndians."MinnesotaArchaeologist8:8 3-1 22.8dencytomovetoindustrialcentersoutsidetheregionhasex-istedsincethelatenineteenthcenturyandstillcontinues.Thetraditionaldiet of Acadiansconsisted of saltpork,saltfish,wildgame(deer,moose,andrabbit),and a limitedamount of vegetablessuchaspotatoes,turnips,carrots,andstringbeans,aswellastea,bread,andmolasses.Productssuchastea,flour,sugar,andmolasseswereobtainedfromlocalstoresandwereoftenbarteredforsuch ... moreambitious,largershipswithspe-ciallybuilt'slavegalleries"werecommissioned.Thesegaller-iesbetweenthedeckswerenomorethaneighteeninchesinheight.EachAfricanwasallottednomorethan a sixteen-inchwideandfive-and -a- half-foot-longspaceforthemanyweeksormonths of theAtlanticcrossing.HeretheAfricanswereforcedtoliedownshackledtogetherinchainsfastenedtostaplesinthedeck.Wherethespacewastwofeethigh,Af-ricansoftensatwithlegsonlegs,likeriderson a crowdedsled.Theyweretransportedseatedinthispositionwith a once -a- daybreakforexercise.Needlesstosay,manydiedorwentinsane.The North madetheshipping of Africansitsbusiness;theSouthmadetheworking of Africansitsbusiness.From757,208in1790to4,441,830in1860,theAfricanAmericanpopulationgrewboththroughincreasedbirthratesandthroughimportation of newAfricans.By1860,slaveryhadbeenvirtuallyeliminatedinthe North andWest,andbytheend of theCivilWarin1865,itwasabolishedaltogether.Afterthewar,14percent of thepopulationwascomposed of Africans,theancestors of theoverwhelmingmajoritylivingintheUnitedStatestoday.DuringtheReconstructionperiodaftertheCivilWar,AfricanAmericanpoliticiansintroducedlegislationthatpro-videdforpubliceducation,one of thegreatlegacies of theAf-ricanAmericaninvolvementinthelegislativeprocess of thenineteenthcentury.Educationhasalwaysbeenseenas a majorinstrumentinchangingsocietyandbetteringthelives of AfricanAmericanpeople.LincolnUniversityandCheyneyUniversityinPennsylvania,HamptoninVirginia,andHowardUniversityaresome of theoldestinstitutions of learningfortheAfricanAmericancommunity.Others,suchasTuskegee,Fisk,Morehouse,Spelman,andAtlantaUniver-sity,arenow a part of theAmericaneducationalstory of suc-cessandexcellence.TheGreatCivilRightsMovement of the1950sand1960susheredin a newgeneration of AfricanAmericanswhowerecommittedtoadvancingthecause of justiceandequal-ity.RosaParksrefusedtogiveherseatto a Whitemanon a Montgomerycitybusandcreated a stirthatwouldnotenduntilthemostvisiblesigns of racismwereoverthrown.MartinLutherKing,Jr.,emergedastheleadingspokespersonandchiefsymbol of a peopletired of racismandsegregationandpreparedtofightanddieifnecessaryinordertoobtainlegalandhumanrights.MalcolmXtookthebattle a stepfurther,insistingthattheAfricanAmericanwaspsychologicallylostaswellandthereforehadtofindhistoricalandculturalvalid-ityinthereclamation of theAfricanconnection.Thus,out of thecrucible of the1960scame a morevigorousmovementto-wardfullrecognition of theAfricanpastandlegacy.Relation-shipswithothergroupsdependedmoreandmoreonmutualrespectratherthantheAfricanAmericansactinglikeclients of theseothergroups.AfricanAmericansexpressedtheirconcernthattheJewishcommunityhadnotsupportedaf-firmativeaction,althoughtherewas a longhistory of JewishsupportforAfricanAmericancauses.Acceptingtherole of vanguardinthestruggletoextendtheprotection of theAmericanConstitutiontooppressedpeople,AfricanAmeri-cansmadeseriousdemandsonmunicipalandfederalofficialsduringthecivilrightsmovement.Votingrightswereguaran-teedandprotected,educationalsegregationwasmadeillegal,andpettydiscriminationsagainstAfricanAmericansinho-telsandpublicfacilitieswereeradicatedbythesustainedpro-testsanddemonstrations of theera.EconomyAfricanAmericanshavebeenkeycomponentsintheeco-nomicsystem of theUnitedStatessinceitsinception.Thein-itialrelationship of theAfricanAmericanpopulationtotheeconomywasbaseduponenslavedlabor.Africanswerein-strumentalinestablishingtheindustrialandagrarianpower14AhtnaAhtnaETHNONYMS:Ahtena,AhtnakotanaTheAhtna,anAthapaskan-speakingAmericanIndiangroup,werelocatedintheeighteenthcenturyintheCopperRiverbasin of Alaskaandnumberedaboutfivehundred.FirstEuropeancontactwaswithRussiansintheeighteenthcen-tury,butitwasthediscovery of goldintheirterritoryin1899thatopenedthegrouptointensiveandsustainedoutsidecontact.In1980theAhtnanumberedthreehundredandcontinuedtoliveintheCopperRiverbasinwheretheyper-sistedinthepractice of some of theirtraditionalsubsistenceandreligiousactivities.TheAhtnawereandareculturallyre-latedtotheneighboringTanaina.IntheeighteenthcenturytheAhtnafished,hunted,andgatheredfortheirsubsistenceandwereheavilyinvolvedinthefurtrade.Salmon,caughtwithtraps,nets,weirs,andspears,wastheirmostimportantfoodsource.TheAhtnaweredividedintothreegeographicalgroups,eachspeaking a separatedialectandcomposed of severalvillages.Eachvillagewasmadeup of severalfamiliesandwasledbyitsownchief,ortyone.Eachfamilyoccupied a semisubterraneanwoodandpoleframehousecoveredwithsprucebark.WithinAhtnaso-cietytherewas a complexsocialstructureconsisting of villageleaders,shamans,commoners,and a servant'class.Religiouslifecenteredaroundthepotlatch.BibliographyGoniwiecha,MarkC.,andDavid A. Hales(1988)."NativeLanguageDictionariesandGrammars of Alaska,NorthernCanadaandGreenland."ReferenceServicesReview16:12 1- 134.Hanable,WilliamS.,andKarenW.Workman(1974).LowerCopperandChitinaRiver:AnHistoricResourcesStudy.Jun-eau:AlaskanDivision of Parks,Department of NaturalResources.Laguna,Fredericade,andCatharineMcClellan(1981)."Ahtna."InHandbook of North AmericanIndians.Vol.6,Subarctic,editedbyJuneHelm,64 1-6 63.Washington,D.C.:SmithsonianInstitution.AlabamaTheAlabama(Alibamu),withtheKaskinampo,Koasati(Alabama-Coushatta),Muklasa,Pawokti,andTawasa,livedinsouthcentralAlabamaandthenorthwesterntip of Florida.TheirdescendantsnowliveprincipallyonthePolkCountyReservationinTexas(theAlabama-CoushattaTribe of Texas),intheAlabama-QuassartetribaltowninOklahoma,andintheCoushattaCommunityinLouisiana.TheyspokeMuskogeanlanguages.Thepopulation of theAlabama-Coushattatribe of Texaswas494in1980,andthat of theCoushattaCommunitywas196in1966. A tourism-basedeconomyhasgiveneconomicstabilitytothecommunity.BibliographyBounds,JohnH.(1971)."TheAlabama-CoushattaIndians of Texas."Journal of Geography70:17 5-1 82.Roth,AlineT.(1963).Kalita'sPeople: A History of theAlabama-CoushattaIndians of Texas.Waco,Tex.AleutETHNONYMS:Aleutian,AlyootOrientationIdentification.Theorigin of thename"Aleut"isuncer-tain.ItispossiblyderivedfromtheOlutorskitribe,ontheOlutorskRiver,innortheastKamchatka,andwasappliedbyearlyRussianfurhunterstoresidents of theAleutianIslands.ButitmayinsteadbederivedfromtheChukcheewordfor"island,"aliat.Finally,it...
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... easternseaboardinCanada.Basquesarepresentineverystate of< /b> theUnitedStatesbutareconcentratedinCalifornia,Idaho,andNevada.Basquesareparticularlynotedforanidentificationwithsheepherdingandarethereforepresenttosomedegreeintheopen-rangelivestockdistricts of< /b> allthirteenstates of< /b> theAmericanWest.Florida,NewYork,andConnecticuthavesignificantBasquepopulationsaswell.Demography.TheBasque-Canadianpopulationassuchhasnotbeenenumerated,butprobablynumbersnomorethan2,000to3,000individuals.The1980U.S.censusesti-matedtheBasque-Americanpopulationatslightlymorethan40,000.ThethreelargestconcentrationsbystateincludeCalifornia(15,530),Idaho(4,332),andNevada(3,378).TheBasques of< /b> North< /b> America< /b> areprimarilyruralandsmall-towndwellers,althoughthereareurbanconcentrationsinNewYorkCity(port of< /b> entry),Miami,GreaterSanFran-cisco,GreaterLosAngeles,Stockton,Fresno,Bakersfield,Boise,andReno.LinguisticAffiliation.First-generationBasqueimmi-grantsareusuallyfluentinBasque(Euskera),anagglutina-tivelanguageemployingtheRomanalphabetbutwithnoknownaffinitywithanyothertongue.BasqueimmigrantsarealsofluentinSpanishand/orFrench.Basqjue-CanadiansandBasque-AmericansaremorelikelytobebilingualinBasqueandEnglish(Frenchinthecase of< /b> Quebec)thantoretaintheirparents'fluencyinSpanishorFrench.Itisrareforthesecondgeneration of< /b> New World-< /b> bomindividualstoretainfluencyinasecondlanguage.Rather,theyarefullyassimi.latedlinguisticallyintotheAmericanmainstream.HistoryandCulturalRelationsBasques,asEurope'searliestandmostefficientwhalers,mayhaveentered North< /b> America< /b> priortothevoyages of< /b> Colum-bus.Thereisdocumentation of< /b> Basquewhalingandcod-fishingactivityalongtheLabradorcoastbytheearlysix-teenthcenturyandevidence of< /b> Basqueloanwordsinsome of< /b> theAtlanticcoastalCanadianNativeAmericanlanguages.Canadianarchivistsandarchaeologistshavediscoveredasixteenth-centuryBasquewhalingstation(usedseasonally)andsunkenwhalingshipatRedBay,Labrador.PlacenamessuchasPort-aux-Basques,Placentia,andBiscayBayalsotes-tifytoaBasquepresenceinCanadiancoastalwaters.Thisac-tivityremainedintensethroughtheeighteenthcenturyandlastedwellintothenineteenth.Withtheexception of< /b> thismaritimeinvolvement,theBasquepresenceinCanadare-mainsvirtuallyunstudied.SomeFrenchBasquesbecamees-tablishedinQuebecaspart of< /b> thatarea'soverallFrenchim-migration.InrecentyearstherehasbeenaBasquefestivalinthetown of< /b> TroisPistoles.Inthetwentiethcentury,asmallcolony of< /b> Basques(associatedwiththetimberindustry)hasemergedinwesternBritishColumbia,andseveral of< /b> itsfami-lieshaverelocatedtotheVancouverarea.BasquesenteredthewesternUnitedStatesaspart of< /b> theSpanishcolonialendeavor.Severaladministrators,soldiers,explorers,andmissionariesintheAmericanSouthwestandSpanishCaliforniawereBasques.AfterMexicanindepen-denceandsubsequentAmericanannexation of< /b> thearea,therewasarenewal of< /b> Basqueimmigrationaspart of< /b> theCali-forniagoldrush.Many of< /b> theprospectorscamefromsouth-emSouth America,< /b> whereBasquesweretheestablishedsheepmenonthepampas.SomesawanopportunitytorepeatinCaliforniaasheep-raisingpatternunderfrontiercondi-tions.By1860,therewereestablishedBasquesheepoutfitsroamingthepubliclandsinsouthernCalifornia.Inthe1870stheyspreadthroughoutCalifornia'scentralvalleysandhadexpandedintoparts of< /b> Arizona,NewMexico,andwesternNevada.Bythefirstdecade of< /b> thetwentiethcentury,Basqueswerepresentintheopen-rangedistricts of< /b> allthirteenwesternstates.TheBasquesheepherderwasthepreferredemployeeinBasque-andnon-Basque-ownedsheepoutfitsalike.Restrictiveimmigrationlegislationinthe1920s,withitsanti-southem-Europeanbias,severelylimitedBasqueimmi-grationintotheUnitedStates,andbythe1940s,theBasque-AmericancommunitywasevolvingawayfromitsOld World< /b> culturalroots.Butalaborshortageduring World< /b> WarIIandtheunwillingness of< /b> Americanstoenduretheprivations of< /b> thesheepherdingway of< /b> lifepromptedtheU.S.governmenttoexemptprospectiveBasquesheepherdersfromimmigra-tionquotas.Between1950and1975,severalthousandBasquesenteredtheUnitedStatesonthree-yearcontracts.Thegeneraldecline of< /b> thesheepindustryoverthepastfifteenyears,coupledwithfullrecovery of< /b> theSpanishandFrencheconomies,hasallbutinterdictedtheimmigration of< /b> BasquesintotheAmericanWest.TodaytherearefewerthanonehundredBasquesherdingsheepintheUnitedStates.Asecondarysource of< /b> twentieth-centuryBasqueimmi-grationderivedfromtheBasquegame of< /b> jaialai.Nuclei of< /b> professionalplayerswhohavemarriedU.S.citizensorother-wisegainedpermanentresidencyhaveformedaroundthele-galizedjaialaifrontonsinFlorida,Connecticut,andRhodeIsland.Politicalrefugeesformathirdmodem,ifmodest,stream of< /b> Basqueimmigrationin North< /b> America,< /b> assomein-dividualsrejectedFranco'sSpainandothersfledCastro'sCuba.SettlementsBasqueinvolvementinsheepherdingislimitedtothearidandsemiaridopen-rangedistricts of< /b> theAmericanWest,wheresheephusbandryentailstranshumance-thatis,theherdsarewinteredonthevalleyfloorsandthentrailedintoadjacentordistantmountainrangesforsummerpasturage.Theannualtrekmightinvolvecoveringasmuchasfivehun-dredmilesonfoot,althoughtodaytheanimalsaremorelikelytobetruckedifthedistancebetweenthesummerandwinterrangesisconsiderable.Fortheherder,whileonthewinterrange,homeisasheepwagoncontaininglittlemorethanabunk,table,andstove.Thewagonismovedaboutthedesertwinterrangewitheitherhorsesorafour-wheeldrivevehicle.Inthesummermonthstheherderlivesinatipicampedalongstreambedsinhighmountaincanyons.Heisvisitedeverysev-eraldaysbyacamptenderwhobringshimsuppliesonmule-30BaffinlandInuitandsealskinhasbeenbadlydamagedbypressuresfromtheanimalrightsmovement.EventhoughmanyInuitnowpar-ticipateinwageemploymentthatmayrangefromdrivingtrucksorheavyequipmenttoservingascommunitymayororadministrator,manyjobsarestillheldbynonnatives.Thede-velopment of< /b> schoolsandthecreation of< /b> academicvoca-tionalprogramsshouldbringaboutashiftinthissituation.ItisnowpossibleforInuittolookforwardtoemploymentaspi-lots,managers,andpoliticians,andanumber of< /b> smallbusi-nessventureshavebeenattempted.Nevertheless,theeco-nomicoutlookisstillnotsecure,andthereisthepersistentquestion of< /b> howtheyouth of< /b> todaywillbeabletosupportthemselves.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Thepattern of< /b> socialcohesion,ordivision,withinBaffinlandInuitsocietyisdeterminedtoalargemeasurebythedensityandtype of< /b> kin-basedrelation-shipsthatexistwithinanyonesegment of< /b> thepopulation.Thenuclearfamilyisaprimarysocialunit,butitistheex-tendedfamilythatisthemostimportantsocialentitywhenconsideringtheintegrationthatoccursbetweenthesocialandeconomicroles of< /b> individuals.Extendedfamiliesarealsolinkedthroughkinshiptoformthelargerterritorialgroupthatisoftenreferredtoasaband.TheBaffinlandsystem of< /b> kinshipisbilateralandrecognizespositionsfortwoascendingandtwodescendinggenerations.Thekinshipsystemencour-agesinterpersonalbehaviorbasedonrespect,affection,andobedience.Althoughthesecategories of< /b> behaviorapplyonlytopairs of< /b> individuals,theyalsoplayapartwithinthelargersystemsincetheyhelptoregulateorchannelthesharing of< /b> foodandmaterialsincludingmoney,theflow of< /b> information,theageorsexualdivision of< /b> roles,andtheexpression of< /b> lead-ership,withinasocialgroup.Thestructure of< /b> kinshipgroupsindicatesabiastowardrelationshipsbetweenmales,yetnottotheextentthatcouldbecalledapatrilinealform of< /b> socialorganization.KinshipTerminology.WithinBaffinlandInuitsociety,twotypes of< /b> terminologicalprocessesoperatetocreateakin-shipnetwork.Thefirstisthatwhichestablishestheformaloridealset of< /b> termsthatidentifyfixedkinshippositionsinrela-tionshiptoaspeaker.Thesepositionsarebasedontheconsanguinealties of< /b> biologicalfamilyandontheaffinaltiesacquiredthroughmarriage.Thesecond,andinrelationtoeverydayusage,themoreimportantprocess,isthealternativewayinwhichtheterms of< /b> theformaloridealsystemareincor-poratedintoanalternative,or"fictive,"system of< /b> relation-ships.Because of< /b> thissecondprocess,thereisoftenamajordistinctionbetweenthetrueconsanguinealoraffinalrela-tionshipandthetermthatisactuallyused.Thenameistheprimaryfactorthatcreatesthisapparentcontradiction.ThroughoutBaffinland,newbornchildrenarenamedafteradeceasedpersonorpersons-achildcanhaveasmanyassevennames.Aspeakerwillthereforerefertothischildonthebasis of< /b> thekinshiprelationshipthatexistedbetweenthespeakerandthedeceasedperson.Because of< /b> thisprocess,mostindividualsarerecognizedbymanydifferentfictivekin-shipterms.Thefictivekinshipestablishedthroughthenamealsomeansthatthebehaviorfollowsthefictiveratherthantheactualkinshipdesignation,andthiscancrosssexuallines.Althoughsuchreckoningisoftenusedinasymbolicsense,especiallyasthechildgrowsolder,itisneverthelessim-portantandpersistent.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Traditionally,marriagetookplacethroughanarrangementmadeforchildrenbyadultswhenthetwochil-drenwereyoung.Sincetherigors of< /b> lifecouldnotguaranteetheeventualjoining of< /b> theseindividuals,itwasnotuncom-monforparentstocreatesuchanarrangementjustpriortothemarriage.Menusuallymovedtothevillage of< /b> thewife'sparents.Theduration of< /b> thisdependedonthesocialpositionandeconomiccircumstances of< /b> thetwofamiliesandontheoverallavailability of< /b> eithereligiblemalesorfemales.Polyga-mousunionsexisted,andtherecouldbeunionsthatrepre-sentedsignificantagedifferencesbetweenthepartners.DomesticUnit.Newdomesticunitswerecreatedwhenacouplehadtheirfirstchild.Thisnuclearunitusuallyre-mainedwithintheparentaldwelling,butasthenumber of< /b> childrenincreased,anewresidencewouldbecreatedusuallyclosetotheparentalhome.Sinceadoption of< /b> grandchildrenbygrandparentswascommon,theactualdevelopment of< /b> newnuclearfamiliescouldbedelayed.Inthenewcommunitiestherehasbeenabreakdown of< /b> arrangedmarriages,andyoungadultsoftenexpresstheirindependencethroughexercisingtheirownchoice of< /b> partner.Thereisalsoatendencyespe-ciallyforyoungwomentoremainunmarried,butpregnanciesoftenoccurandthechildisusuallyadoptedbyparentsorothermembers of< /b> theextendedfamily.Socialization.Thesocialization of< /b> childrenhasundergonesignificantchangesincethecreation of< /b> moderncommuni-ties.Inthepast,theimmediatefamily,includingespeciallythegrandparents,wasresponsibleformuch of< /b> thesocializa-tion.Childrenwereinvolvedinacontinuousprocess of< /b> edu-cationthattendedtoshiftitsemphasisasthechildmatured.Theearlystages of< /b> developmentweredefinedbytoleranceandaffection.Asachildgrewolder,affectionwasreplacedbyastressonindependence.Learningtookplacebyexampleandwasoftenintegratedwithplay.Malerolesandfemaleroleswerepart of< /b> thisplay.Asachildgrewolder,playgavewaytomoreusefulwork,andtherewasanemphasisontasksthatwouldbeincorporatedintotheirolderandmoreproduc-tivestages of< /b> life.Theproductivestagecouldbeginbeforemarriageandlasteduntilagesetlimitsonthetype of< /b> activi-tiesamaleorfemalecouldcarryout.Atthispointtheymovedintoastageinwhichtheybecamemorevaluableaspossessors of< /b> information,includingfamilyhistoryandmyth.Intoday's world< /b> thecomplexity of< /b> communitylifemeansthatthisprocesshasbrokendown.Theprimaryexceptionisdur-ingthespringandsummerwhenchildren,parents,andeldersareoftentogetherinsmallerhuntingcamps.Forthemostpart,however,theschool,television,andotherimportedin-stitutionshaveeitherreplacedor,moreoften,comeintocon-flictwithtraditionalways of< /b> socializingtheyoung.SociopoliticalOrganizationIntraditionalInuitsocietytherewasnoactivepoliticallevel of< /b> organization.Thekinshipsystemoperatedtomaintainso-cialcontrolandresolveconflict.Theleadershipnotedabovewasneitherpersistentnoracquiredthroughanyformalproc-ess.Mostleadershipwasexercisedmosteffectivelyonly36BellabellaBellabellaETHNONYMS:Elkbasumh,Heiltsuk,MilbankSoundIndians,NorthernKwakiutlTheBellabella.areaKwakiutl-speakinggrouprelatedtotheSouthernKwakiutlandtheNootka,neighboringgroupstothesouth.TheBellabellaliveonthecoast of< /b> BritishCo-lumbiaintheareafromRiversInlettoDouglasChannel.Thename"Bellabella"isanIndianrendering of< /b> theEnglishwordMilbank,takenbackintoEnglish.TheBellabellanumberedaboutthreehundredin1901andnumberabouttwelvehun-dredtoday.Bellabella,alongwithNootkaandKwakwala,formtheWakashanlinguisticfamily.TheBellabella.weredividedintotwodistinctdialectgroups-theHaisla,includingtheKitamatandKitlope;andtheHeiltsuk,includingtheBellabella.proper(withtheKohaitk,Oealitk,andOetlitk),theNohuntsitk,Somehulitk,andWikeno.TheXaihaismayhaveconstitutedathirdlinguisticdivision.TheBellabellawerevisitedbyexplorersandtradersbe-ginninginthelate1700s,withaHudson'sBayCompanypostestablishedin1833.ThetradersweresoonfollowedbyProtestantmissionariesandsettlers,leadingtorapidassimila-tionandthedisappearance of< /b> much of< /b> thetraditionalcul-ture.Because of< /b> therapidassimilationandresistancetoin-trusionsbyresearchers,littleisknownaboutthetraditionalculture.Fromwhatisknown,however,theywereevidentlyquitesimilartotheSouthernKwakiutl.SeealsoKwakiutlBibliographyLopatin,IvanA.(1945).SocialLifeandReligion of< /b> theIndiansinKitimnat,BritishColumbia.University of< /b> SouthernCalifor-niaSocialScienceSeries,no.26.LosAngeles.Olson,Ronald(1954).SocialLife of< /b> theOwikenoKwakiutl.University of< /b> CaliforniaAnthropologicalRecords14,16 9- < /b> 200.Berkeley.BellaCoolaETHNONYMS:Bellacoola,Belhoola,Bilqula.TheBellaCoolaarea North< /b> AmericanIndiangroupnumberingaboutsixhundredwholiveonandnearareserveatBellaCoola,BritishColumbia.TheBeilaCoolalanguageisclassifiedintheSalishan-languagefamily.Inthelatenine-teenthcenturytheBellaCoolanumberedaboutfourteenhundredandoccupiedthe ... EdwardE.Haas, 3-3 < /b> 1.NewOrleans:LouisianaStateMuseum.Jacobs,ClaudeF.(198)."SpiritGuidesandPossessionintheNewOrleansBlackSpiritualChurches."Journal of< /b> AmericanFolklore,102(403):4 5-6 < /b> 7.Neumann,Ingrid(1985).LeCreoledeBreauxBridge,Louisiane.Hamburg:HelmutBuskeVerlag.Spitzer,NicholasR.(1984).Zydeco:CreoleMusicandCul-tureinRuralLouisiana.Colorfilm;56minutes.DistributedbyFlowerFilms,ElCerrito,Calif.Spitzer,NicholasR.(1986)."ZydecoandMardiGras:CreolePerformanceGenresandIdentityinRuralFrenchLouisi-ana."Ph.D.diss.,University of< /b> TexasatAustin.Sterkx,HerbertE.(1972).TheFreeNegroinAnte-BellumLouisiana.Rutherford,N.J.:FairleighDickinsonUniversityPress.NICHOLASR.SPITZERBlackfootETHNONYMS:Blood,Kainah,NorthernBlackfoot,Peigan,Piegan,Pikuni,SiksikaOrientationIdentification.TheBlackfoot of< /b> theUnitedStatesandCanadaconsistedaboriginally of< /b> threegeographical.linguisticgroups:theSiksika(NorthernBlackfoot),theKainah(Blood),andthePikuniorPiegan.Thethreegroupsasawholearealsoreferredtoasthe"Siksika"(Blackfoot),atermthatprobablyderivedfromtheirpractice of< /b> coloringtheirmoccasinswithashes.ThetermKainahmeans"manychiefs"andPieganrefersto"peoplewhohadtornrobes."Al-thoughthethreegroupsaresometimescalledaconfederacy,therewasnooverarchingpoliticalstructureandtherelationsamongthegroupsdonotwarrantsuchalabel.Actually,thethreegroupshadanambiguoussense of< /b> unity,andtheygath-eredtogetherprimarilyforceremonialpurposes.Location.BeforetheBlackfootwereplacedonreserva-tionsandreservesinthelatterhalf of< /b> thenineteenthcentury,theyoccupiedalargeterritorythatstretchedfromthe North< /b> SaskatchewanRiverinCanadatotheMissouriRiverinMon-tana,andfromlongitude105°Wtothebase of< /b> theRockyMountains.ThePlainsCreewerelocatedtothe north,< /b> theAssinibointotheeast,andtheCrowtothesouth of< /b> theBlackfoot.ThePieganwerelocatedtowardthewesternpart of< /b> thisterritory,inthemountainouscountry.TheBloodwerelocatedtothenortheast of< /b> thePiegan,andtheNorthernBlackfootwerenortheast of< /b> theBlood.TheBlackfootnowBlackfoot41livemainlyonornearthreereserves:theBlackfootAgency(NorthernBlackfoot),theBloodAgency,andthePeiganAgency(NorthernPeigan)inAlberta,Canada,andtheBlackfeetIndianReservationinMontana,inhabitedbytheSouthernPiegan.Demography.In1790therewereapproximately9,000Blackfoot.In1832CatlinestimatedthattheBlackfootnum-bered16,500,andin1833PrinceMaximilianestimatedthattherewere18,000to20,000.Duringthenineteenthcentury,starvationandrepeatedepidemics of< /b> smallpoxandmeaslessodecimatedthepopulationthatby1909theBlackfootnum-beredonly4,635.EvidenceindicatesthatthePieganwereal-waysthelargest of< /b> thethreegroups.In1980inMontana,theBlackfootpopulationwasabout15,000with5,525ontheBlackfeetReservationandtheremainderlivingoffthereser-vation.InCanadatheynumberedabout10,000.LinguisticAffiliation.BlackfootisanAlgonkianlanguageandisonacoordinatelevelwithArapahoandCheyenne.Di-alects of< /b> BlackfootareSiksika,Blood,andPiegan.HistoryandCulturalRelationsHorses,guns,andmetalaswellassmallpoxwereprobablypresentamongtheBlackfootearlyintheeighteenthcentury,althoughtheydidnotseeaWhitepersonuntilthelatterpart of< /b> thatcentury.Theintroduction of< /b> horsesandgunspro-ducedaperiod of< /b> culturalefflorescence.Theywereone of< /b> themostaggressivegroupsonthe North< /b> Americanplainsbythemid-nineteenthcentury.AlliedwiththeSarsiandtheGrosVentre,theBlackfootcountedtheCree,Crow,andAssin-boinasenemies.Warfarebetweenthegroupsoftencenteredonraidingforhorsesandrevenge.TheU.S.governmentde-finedBlackfootterritoryandpromisedprovisionsandin-structionsintheJudithTreaty of< /b> 1855.Thewestwardmove-ment of< /b> WhitesettlersinthefollowingdecadeledtoconflictswiththeBlackfoot.By1870theBlackfoothadbeencon-queredandtheirpopulationweakenedbysmallpox.Thebisonhadbecomevirtuallyextinctbythewinter of< /b> 188 3- < /b> 1884,andby1885theSouthernPieganhadsettledontheBlackfeetReservation.TheCanadiangovernmentsignedatreatywiththeBlackfootin1877.Thethreereserveswerees-tablishedsometimelater,andtheyareunderjurisdiction of< /b> theCanadianIndianDepartment.SettlementsTheconicalbison-hidetipisupportedbypoleswasthetradi-tionaldwelling.Duringthesummer,theBlackfootlivedinlargetribalcamps.ItwasduringthisseasonthattheyhuntedbisonandengagedinceremonialactivitiessuchastheSunDance.Duringthewintertheyseparatedintobands of< /b> sometentotwentyhouseholds.Bandmembershipwasquitefluid.Theremightbeseveralheadmenineachband,one of< /b> whomwasconsideredthechief.Headmanshipwasveryinformal,withthequalificationsforofficebeingwealth,successinwar,andceremonialexperience.Authoritywithinthebandwassimilartotherelationshipbetweenalandlordandatenant.Aslongastheheadmancontinuedtoprovidebenefits,peo-pleremainedwithhim.Butifhisgenerosityslackened,peoplewouldsimplypackupandleave.Whenbandscongregatedduringthesummer,theyformeddistinctcamps,whichwereseparatedfromotherbandcampsbyastreamorsomeothernaturalboundarywhenavailable.WhenthePiegan,Blood,andNorthernBlackfootjoinedtogetherforceremonialpur-poses,eachone of< /b> thethreegroupscampedinacircle.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.TheBlackfootwerethetypical,perhapseventheclassicexample of< /b> thePlainsIndiansinmanyrespects.Theywerenomadichunter-gathererswholivedintipis.Thebisonwasthemainstay of< /b> theireconomy,ifnotthefocus of< /b> theirentireculture.Theyhuntedotherlargemammalsandgatheredvegetablefoods.Traditionsindicatethatthebisonwerehuntedindrives,al-thoughhuntingpracticeschangedwhenhorsesandgunswereintroduced.Deerandsmallergamewerecaughtwithsnares.Fish,althoughabundant,wereeatenonlyintimes of< /b> direnecessityandafterthedisappearance of< /b> thebison.Today,theeconomyatBlackfeetReservation,Montana,isbasedonranching,farming,wagelabor,welfare,andleasedlandincome.Thereispotentialforoilandnaturalgaspro-ductionandforlumbering.Povertyisamajorproblem,withthemoreacculturateddoingbettereconomicallythanthelessacculturatedasageneralrule.DescribingtheBlackfeetduringthe1960s,Robbinsreferstothemasanunderclass"andtheireconomicpositionas"neo-colonial."OntheCana-dianreservesthecurrenteconomicsituationissimilartothatintheUnitedStates,withtheBlackfootnowmarginallyinte-gratedintotheWhiteeconomy.IndustrialArts.Intraditionaltimes,thebisonwasthepri-maryfoodsourceaswellasthesource of< /b> rawmaterialformanymaterialgoodsincludingclothing,tipicovers,cups,bowls,tools,andornaments.AftertradewasestablishedwithWhites,metaltoolsandclothrapidlyreplacedthetraditionalmanufactures.Trade.TradewithinthegrouporamongthethreeBlack-footgroupswasmorecommonthantradewithothergroups.Horses,slaves,food,tipis,mules,andornamentswerecom-montradeitems.TradewithWhitesinvolvedtheBlackfoottradingbisonhidesandfursforwhiskey,guns,clothes,food,andmetaltools.Division of< /b> Labor.Therewasarigiddivision of< /b> laboronthebasis of< /b> sex.Menhunted,madewar,butcheredanimals,madeweapons,madesome of< /b> theirownclothing,andpainteddesignsonthetipisandshields.Womendidmost of< /b> therest,includingmovingcamp,bringingwoodandwater,preparingandstoringfood,cookingmeals,makingclothing,andproducingmostimplementsandcontainers.LandTenure.Traditionally,therewerenoformalrulesrelevanttoaccessoruse of< /b> lands.Underthereservationsys-tem,about15percent of< /b> thereservationlandisownedbythetribe,withtheremainderallottedtoindividuals.Insomecases,theinheritancebynumerousheirs of< /b> whatwereoncelargeparcels of< /b> landhasresultedinownership of< /b> smallpieces of< /b> land of< /b> noeconomicvalue.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Theaboriginalkinshipandso-cialsystemshavebeencharacterizedasreflecting'anarchisticindividualism."Thekinshipsystemwasmultilinealandmul-tilocal,withaveryslighttendencytowardpatrilineality.The46BlackWestIndiansintheUnitedStatesKinship,MarriageandFamilyTheorganization of< /b> BlackWestIndiankinshipandmarriageintheUnitedStatesisafunction of< /b> length of< /b> residenceinthecountry(pre-versuspost -World< /b> WarII)andthesocialsta-tus of< /b> thefamily(workingclassversusmiddleorupperclass).BecausemostBlackWestIndianscomefromislandsthatwereoncecolonies of< /b> England,middle-andupper-classpeo-pleusuallyfollowmainstreamEuropeanpracticesincludingbilateraldescent,monogamousmarriage,smallnuclearfami-lies,andEskimokinterms.Forthepre -World< /b> War11popula-tion,thefamilywasthemostimportantsocialinstitution,andcooperationandloyaltyamongfamilymemberswereex-pectedwiththehusband/fatherthehead of< /b> thefamily.ThefamilyremainsavitalinstitutionintheWestIndiancommu-nity,althoughthehusband/fatherleadershiprolehasweak-enedandmother-childhouseholdsarenowmorecommon,withthearrival of< /b> manyyoungerfemaleimmigrantssincethelate1960s.Sincethattime,perhapsthemostcommonform of< /b> immigrationentailedayoungwomanarrivingfirstandthenlaterbringingherchildrenandsometimesherhusband.AmericanmarriagesamongBlackWestIndiansarehighlyendogamouswithamarkedpreferenceforamarriagepartnerfromthesameislandasoneself.MarriagetoAfrican-AmericansusuallyinvolvesaWestIndianmanandanAfrican-Americanwoman.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.TheWestIndians'placeinAmeri-cansocietyandtheirstatusvis-a-visAfrican-Americansisacomplextopic.WestIndianscamefromsocietiesinwhichtheyweretheracialmajority,inwhichaBritish-imposedso-cialclasssystemwasafeature of< /b> everydaylife,andinwhichtheyhadgreatereducational,economic,andpoliticaloppor-tunitiesthandidAfrican-AmericansintheUnitedStates.IntheUnitedStatestheyfoundandcontinuetofindamuchdifferentsituation.TheyareclassifiedbyWhitesasBlackandaresubjecttothesameracialdiscrimination,thoughbothBlackWestIndiansandAfrican-AmericansbelievethatWhitestreattheformersomewhatdifferentlythantheydothelatter.ButthoughtheyaretreatedasifthesameasAfrican-Americans,BlackWestIndiansdistinguishthem-selvesfromAfrican-Americans,andthoughtheyoftenliveinthesameareas,therearenoticeabledifferencesinspeech,dress,cuisine,religiousbeliefs,andlife-style.WestIndianethnicidentityistiedtotheislandfromwhichoneemigratedratherthantoageneralpan-WestIn-dianidentityandisreflectedinmarriagemainlytopeoplefromthesameislandandthevariousislandethnicassocia-tionsformedinthe1920sand1930s.causetheyarelumpedbyWhiteswithAfrican-Americansandbecausetheyalsooftenliveinthesamecommunities,WestIndianpoliticalinterestsareoftenmergedwiththose of< /b> African-Americans.ReligionandExpressiveCultureMany of< /b> thosewhosettledintheUnitedStatesintheearlytwentiethcenturywereAnglicanswhobecameEpiscopaliansin America< /b> andestablishedtheirownchurches.Withthelargemigrationsincethe1960shascomeabroaderrange of< /b> religiousaffiliation,andBlackWestIndiansintheUnitedStatesnowincludeRomanCatholics,Seventh-DayAdvent-ists,Pentecostals,andRastafarians.Ingeneral,WestIndianscontinuetoformtheirownchurchesratherthanaffilatewithexistingonesineithertheAfrican-AmericanortheWhitecommunities.TheRastafarianmovement,basedinJamaica,hashadmuchinfluenceintheUnitedStates,asevidencedbythepopularity of< /b> reggaemusic,thedreadlockhairstyle,andcloth-ingfeaturingAfricandesignsandcoloring.SeealsoBlackCreolesinLouisiana,BlacksinCanada,HaitiansBibliographyBonnett,AubreyW.(1981).InstitutionalAdaptation of< /b> WestIndianImmigrantsto America:< /b> AnAnalysis of< /b> RotatingCreditAssociations.Washington,D.C.:UniversityPress of< /b> America.< /b> Bryce-Laporte,RoyS.,andDeloresM.Mortimer(1976).Ca-ribbeanImmigrationtotheUnitedStates.Washington,D.C.:ResearchInstituteonImmigrationandEthnicStudies,SmithsonianInstitution.Foner,Nancy(1985).'RaceandColor:JamaicanMigrantsinLondonandNewYorkCity."InternationalMigrationRe-view19:70 8-7 < /b> 27.Ueda,Reed(1980)."WestIndians."InHarvard Encyclopedia< /b> of< /b> AmericanEthnicGroups,editedbyStephanThernstrom,102 0-1 < /b> 027.Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,BelknapPress.Wood,CharlesH.,andTerryL.McCoy(1985)."Migration,RemittancesandDevelopment:AStudy of< /b> CaribbeanCaneCuttersinFlorida."InternationalMigrationReview19:25 1- < /b> 277.PoliticalOrganization.BlackWestIndianswhocametotheUnitedStatesintheearly1900sbroughtwiththematra-dition of< /b> politicalactivismandsomeexperienceasofficialsintheBritishcolonialgovernments.IntheUnitedStatespoliti-calactivismforracialequalityflourishedintheBlackWestIndiancommunity.MarcusGarvey,animmigrantfromJa-maicawhowaseventuallysentbackthere,andhisUniversalNegroImprovementAssociationisthebest-knownbut ... asfunda-mentalist,independentchurchesderivedfromProtestantism.Many of< /b> themorerecentlyarrivedmigrantsfromtheCarib-beanpracticeRomanCatholicism.Membershipinfunda-mentalistProtestantchurchesis,however,ontheincreaseamongthisgroup.Inaddition,someHaitianmigrantsinMontrealhaveretainedaspects of< /b> thetraditionalHaitianvodunreligion.Jamaican-derivedRastafarianismispracticed,especiallyinthelargercitiessuchasTorontoandMontreal.Themajority of< /b> Rastafariansarerelativelyyoung.BecauseRastafarianismisassociatedwithreggaemusic,itisespeciallyappealingtotheyouth.SymbolsassociatedwithRastafarian-ism,suchastraditionalcolors,dreadlockshairstyles,andotheremblems,areparticularlyattractivetoBlackyouthsearchingfortheAfricanroots of< /b> theirethnicidentities.BibliographyChristiansen,J.M.,etal.(1980).WestIndiansinToronto.Toronto:FamilyServiceAssociation of< /b> MetropolitanToronto.Clairmont,D.H.,andD.W.Magill(1974).Africville:LifeandDeath of< /b> aCanadianBlackCommunity.Toronto:McClelland&Stewart.Henry,Frances(1973).TheForgottenCanadians:TheBlacks of< /b> NovaScotia.DonMills,Ontario:LongmanCanada.Walker,JamesW.St.G.(1976).TheBlackLoyalists:TheSearchforaPromisedLandinNovaScotiaandSierraLeone,178 3-1 < /b> 870.NewYork:Africana.Winks,RobinW.(1971).TheBlacksinCanada:AHistory.NewHaven,Conn.,YaleUniversityPress;McGill-Queen'sUniversityPress.FRANCESHENRYBlackWestIndiansintheUnitedStatesETHNONYMS:Jamaicans,Trinidadians,Bahamians,Guy-anese,WestIndiansOrientationIdentification.BlacksintheUnitedStates of< /b> WestIndianancestrycomemainlyeitherfromtheBritishWestIndies(Bahamas,Barbados,Bermuda,BritishVirginIslands,Ja-maica,theLeewardIslands,TrinidadandTobago,andtheWindwardIslands)orfromHaiti,intheFrenchWestIndies.BlacksfromGuyana,onthenortheastcoast of< /b> SouthAmer-ica,arealsoclassifiedasBritishWestIndians.Themajority of< /b> thosefromtheBritishWestIndiesarefromJamaica.Thehis-tory of< /b> BlackWestIndiansandHaitiansandtheirexperi-encesintheUnitedStatesdifferfromeachotherandalsofromthat of< /b> African-Americansdescendedfromslavesbroughtdirectlyto North< /b> America< /b> fromAfrica.BlacksintheWestIndiesaredescendants of< /b> AfricanslavesbroughttotheCaribbeantoworkonsugarplantationsintheeighteenthandearlynineteenthcenturies.Blacksmakeup80percent of< /b> thepopulation of< /b> theBritishWestIndiesand90percent of< /b> thepopulation of< /b> Haiti.OthermajorethnicgroupsontheBritishislandsaretheEnglish,Chinese,AsianIndians,andSyrians.ContactbetweentheBlackslavesandEnglishrulershasproduceduniqueculturalandlinguisticformsintheBasques33backorbypickuptruck.Theherder'slifeischaracterizedbyextremeisolation,thelonelinessbeingrelievedonlybythecamptender'sbriefvisit,theportableradio,afewmagazinesandbooks,andtheoccasionalletterfromafianceeorfamily.Someformersheepherdersacquiredtheirownranchproper-ties.ThesewereestablishedholdingsandthereforehavenoarchitecturalfeaturesthatmightberegardedasuniquelyBasque.Mostsmalltowns of< /b> theopen-rangedistrictshaveoneormoreBasquehotels,whicharelikelylocatedwithinsight of< /b> therailroadstation(tofacilitatethetravel of< /b> newlyarrivedherdersfromEurope).Again,theytendtobepur-chasedratherthanconstructedbytheirproprietorsandarethereforelargelyconsonantwithwesternAmericansmall-townarchitecture,althoughsome of< /b> thehotelshaveaddedafrontonorhandballcourt.Thetypicalhotelcontainsabar,adiningroomwheremealsareservedfamily-styleatlongtablestoboardersandcasualguestsalike;andasecondfloor of< /b> sleepingroomsusuallyreservedforpermanentboarders,sheepherdersintownforabriefvisit,vacation,oremploy-mentlayoff,andherdersintransittoanemployer.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.TheBasquefishermeninCanadawereseasonalsojourners,whocrossedtheAtlantictohuntwhalesandfishforcod.TheformerwererenderedintooilandthelatterweresaltedfortransportbacktoEurope.IntheUnitedStates,Basques,asmuchasanyandmorethanmostimmigrantgroups,havebeenidentifiedwithasingleindustry-sheephusbandry.Bythebeginning of< /b> thepresentcentury,theywerepresentinallphases of< /b> it,dominat-ingtheranks of< /b> thesheepherdersandnomadicoutfitsthatmovedaboutthepubliclandsthroughouttheyear.SomeBasquesalsoacquiredtheirownranchproperties;othersworkedascamptendersandranchforemen.Stillothersbe-cameinvolvedaswoolandlambbuyersandinlivestocktransportation.Inrecentyears,open-rangesheephusbandryintheUnitedStateshasdeclinedowingtoincreasedlaborcostsandherdershortages,theabolition of< /b> certainpredatorcontrolmeasures,thesuccess of< /b> environmentalistsinlimitinglivestocknumbersonpubliclands,decliningdemandforwoolversussyntheticfabrics,andforeigncompetitionformeatproducts.Consequently,theBasqueinvolvementinsheephusbandryisnowmorehistoricthanactual.Manyfor-merherdersandownersreturnedtoEurope;othersconvertedsheepranchestocattle;andstillothersmovedtonearbysmalltownstoengageinconstructionworkorestablishsmallbusinesses(bars,bakeries,motels,gasolinestations,andsoon).InSanFrancisco,Basquesworkasgardeners,specializ-ingincaringfordozensof...
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... one'sheritageandeffortstopreservesometradi-tionalbeliefsandpractices.In1968LousianacreatedtheCouncilfortheDevelopment of FrenchinLouisiana(CODOFIL)asamechanismtoencouragetheteaching of Frenchinpublicschools.Because of conflictsoverwhichFrenchtoteach-standardFrenchorCajunFrench-theprogramhasnotbeenatotalsuccess,thoughmanyCajunchildrendoparticipateinFrench-languageprograms.Acadiansareone of anumber of groups of Frenchances-tryinLouisiana,whichalsoincludetheFrench-Canadians,Creoles,andthosewhoemigrateddirectlyfromFrance.Rela-54CatawbaTodayonthe"old"(state)reservation,aCatawbamustapplytothetribalcouncilforanallotment.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Catawbasocietywasmatrili-nealatleastuntiltheearlytwentiethcentury.Extendedkin-shipgroupswereclearlyimportantindetermininganindivid-ual'splaceinsociety-servingtoprotectonefromharm,determiningwhomonecouldmarry,andsoon-butthereisnoclearevidence of clans.KinshipTerminology.EffortstofitCatawbakinshiptermsintoanacceptedkinshipclassificationcategoryhavebeenunsuccessful.Fragmentaryevidence,however,suggeststhattheTutelo,aSiouan-speakingPiedmonttribelivingneartheCatawbaincolonialtimes,followedtheDakotasystem.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Catawbamarriagerulesinaboriginalandearly-contacttimesprobablyforbadefirst-cousinmarriages.Polyg-amywasneitherunknownnorcondemned,butmostmar-riagesweremonogamous.Incourtship,amanorhisrelationsapproachedthewoman'sparentstoaskpermission,thoughthewoman'sconsentwasalsorequired.Marriageswerematri-local,anddivorcewaseasilyeffectedbyeitherparty.DomesticUnit.Extendedfamilieshavebeenandcon-tinuetobethenorm.Inheritance.Matrilinealinheritancewastheruleinearliertimes;bilateralinheritanceobtainstoday.Socialization.Catawbachild-rearingpracticeswereper-missive,withostracism,ridicule,andexampletherule.Folk-taleswere(andtosomedegreestillare)animportanteduca-tionaltool,settingoutpropermodes of behaviorandwarning of punishmentbynativeenemiesorsupernaturalbeingsforthosewhodisobey.Today,formaleducationishighlyvalued:therewasaprimaryschoolonthereservationfrom1898to1966,andbeginninginthe1930sCatawbawereattendingthelocalhighschool.Todaymanygoontocollege.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Untiltheearlynineteenthcentury,menachievedstatusthroughtheirskillsashunters,warriors,andspeakers.Ageconferredstatusonbothmenandwomen.Women,whoenjoyedequalstatuswithmen,mayalsohaveacquiredstatusthroughtheirskillsaspotters-astatusthatmayhaveincreasedinthenineteenthcenturyaspottery'seconomicrolebecamemoreimportant.Althoughsur-roundedafter1750byaslave-owningculture,theCatawbaownedfewslavesthemselves.Indeed,theytendedtoshunAfrican-Americans.PoliticalOrganization.Townswerelargelyindependentbeforethearrival of Europeans,witheachtownpossessingacouncil of elders,aheadman,andawarcaptain.Atsomepointintheearlycolonialperiodthesixorsevenvillagesthatcametocomposethe ... industrialarts,theChoctawwerewellknownforsingingandstorytelling.Inadditiontotradi.tionalmusic,theChoctawenjoycountrymusic.Medicine.TheChoctawbelieveseriouspersistentill-nessestobeaproduct of spiritualeviloftenassociatedwithwitchcraft.Curingconsisted of herbalmedicines,ritualpuri-fications,andtheenlistment of spirithelperstodriveoutevilforces.Westernclinicalmedicineisgenerallyusedtoday,butnativeChoctawdoctorsarestillconsulted.DeathandAfterlife.Death,likedisease,couldbethere-sult of eithernaturalorsupernaturalforces.Choctawbe-lievedinanafterworldtowhichspirits of thedeadgoandinwhichindividualsexperiencerewardorpunishmentdepend-ingontheirlifeonearth.Funeralceremoniesarethemostimportantlifecycleritual.ChumashETHNONYM:SantaBarbaraIndiansTheChumashareaHokan-speakingAmericanIndiangroupwhointhelateeighteenthcenturywaslocatedinpres-ent-daysoutherncoastalCalifornianearSantaBarbaraandnumberedbetweententhousandandeighteenthousand.TheChumashwereprimarilygathererswhosefoodstaplewastheacorn.Inaddition,inlandgroupshunteddeerandrab-bits,whilecoastalgroupsfished,huntedwaterfowl,andhar-vestedshellfish.TheChumashweremissionizedbytheSpanishduringthelate1700sandthereafterweredividedintosixlocalgroups,eachassociatedwithaspecificmissionstationandledbyachiefwhoinheritedhisposition.Shamanscuredthesickwithacombination of herbalmedicinesandpowersob-tainedfromguardianspirits.Missionizationwascompletebythebeginning of thenineteenthcenturyandwasaccompa-niedbyadramaticdeclineinthepopulationasaresult of dis-ease.In1980anunknownnumber of Chumashwereassimi-latedintothegeneralpopulation of southernCalifornia,whileabout120 of theirnumberlivedonthesmallSantaYnezIndianReservationnearSantaBarbara.Thetribalgov-ernmentonthereservationconsists of ageneralcouncil of allmemberstwenty-oneyears of ageorolderandanelectedfive-memberbusinesscouncil.BibliographyLandberg,Leif C. W.(1965).TheChumashIndians of South-ernCalifornia.LosAngeles:SouthwestMuseum.McCall,Lynn,andRosalindPerry(1986).California'sChu-mashIndians.SantaBarbara,Calif.:JohnDaniel,Publisher.BibliographyDebo,Angie(1934).TheRiseandFall of theChoctawRepub-lic.Norman:University of OklahomaPress.DeRosier,ArthurH.,Jr.(1970).TheRemoval of theChoctawIndians.Knoxville:University of TennesseePress.Kidwell,ClaraS.,andCharlesRoberts(1981).TheChoc-taws:ACriticalBibliography.Bloomington:IndianaUniver-sityPress.Peterson,JohnH.(1979)."ThreeEffortsatDevelopmentamongtheChoctaws of Mississippi."InTheSoutheasternIn-dianssinceRemoval,editedbyWalterL.Williams,14 2-1 53.Athens:University of GeorgiaPress.Swanton,JohnR.(1931).SourceMaterialfortheSocialandCeremonialLife of theChoctawIndians.U.S.Bureau of Amer-icanEthnologyBulletinno.103.Washington,D .C. JOHNH.PETERSONCoastMiwokTheCoastMiwok(Olamentke),includingtheLakeMiwok,livedontheCaliforniacoast north of SanFranciscoandin-landtoClearLake.Theyspokelanguages of theMiwokfam-ily of thePenutianphylum.Thereareafewdescendants of theCoastMiwokstilllivinginCalifornia,buttheculturehasdisappeared.SeealsoMiwokBibliographyCallaghan,CatherineA.(1978)."LakeMiwok."InHand-book of North AmericanIndians.Vol.8,California,editedbyRobertF.Heizer,26 4-2 73.Washington,D .C. :SmithsonianInstitution.82Cree,WesternWoodsarecommonlyfoundonthereserves,andsomechildrengoontouniversityorotherpostsecondaryinstitutions.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.TraditionalCreehuntingsocietywasegalitarian,withstatusdistinctionsbasedonrelativeageorabilities,asinhuntingsuccess,andonone'ssex.Insummer,regionalbandswerenormallythelargestsocialaggregationandgatheredatlakeshores.Attheend of thesummer,re-gionalbandsdispersedintoconstituenthuntinggroupstoex-ploittheseasonallydispersedgame.ThepatternwasonlyslightlyalteredwhentheCreebegantohuntandtrapfur-bearinganimals,althoughtheorientationwastoatradingpostcenterwhichlaterincludedaChristianmission.Inter-marriagewithWhitescreatednoproblemsuntiltreatiesweremade,afterwhichthepatrilinealprovisions of theIndianAct of 1869separatedstatusIndiansfromnonstatusorMetis.PoliticalOrganization.Leadershipwasbasedonage,withtheeldestactivemalethehead of theextendedfamily,andinformalcouncils of eldersreachingconsensusonbehalf of themembers of regionalbands.Duringthetreaty-makingpe-riod,chiefsandcouncilorshadtobeelected.Atfirstthesewererespectedelders,butwiththeincreaseinimportance of governmentauthorities,youngerandmorearticulatemenskilledinEnglishbecametheformalchiefs,principallyactingasforeignministersorambassadors.Theeldersremainedex-tremelyimportantindecisionmaking,however.SocialControlandConflict.Thesocialization of childrenandinformalpressureswereusuallyenoughtopreventseriousproblems.Face-to-faceconflictwasalwaysavoided,andin-terpersonaltensionswereresolvedbyfamiliesleavingonelocalbandandrealigningwithanother.Beliefinconjuringandwitchcraftwasalsoimportant,butthereislittleinforma-tionavailableaboutspecificpractices.Inthecontemporaryperiod,orderismaintainedbyspecialconstablesortheRoyalCanadianMountedPolice.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBelief.Throughouthistory,Creehavealwaysbeenreticentaboutsharingtheirbeliefswithscoffingoutsid-ers.BeliefsinaGreatSpirit(misi-manito)orEvilSpirit(maci-manito-w)maybe of postcontactorigin.Thecannibalgiant(wi-htikow)wasgreatlyfeared.Thereligionwasanimistic,andalllivingbeingsandsomeinanimateobjectshadspirits,ormanitowak.Humans,throughdreamsandvisions,wereabletosecurethehelp of powerfulanimalspiritsinsuchac-tivitiesashunting,warfare,andlove.Sinceallbeings,includ-inghumans,hadspirits,therewasnoconcept of thesuper-natural.ReligiousPractitioners.Allindividualshadsomepower,butsomemenorwomenhadmore.Therewasnopriesthood.Ceremonies.Noceremoniesarerecordedfortheearliestperiods,butinrecenthistoryteadances of thanksgivingwereheldinspringandautumn.Feastsanddancingwereheldfol-lowingsuccessfulhunts.Christianritualsarenowcommon.Arts.Therewasarichoraltraditionthatincludedbothsa-credandseculartales.Wisakecahkwasthehero of thepop-ulartricksterortransformertales.Inthepast,thefaceandbodyweretattooedandpaintedwithelaboratedesigns.Womenworkedwithquillsand,later,beads.Medicine.Sicknessandinjurywereconsideredtheresult of personalmalevolentforces,forwhichtreatmentbyasha-manwasnecessary.Treatmentincludedherbalmedicinesandsettingbrokenlimbs,butthespiritualhelpinvokedintheritual of theshakingtentorthesweatbathwasequallyimpor-tant.DeathandAfterlife.Fatalillnesswasgreetedwithequa-nimity,butthedyingpersonrequiredthathissurvivorsavengehisdeath,fordeathwasbelievedtobetheresult of witchcraft.Burialwasinagraveoronascaffold.Agunwasfiredinthetenttodriveawaythespirit.BibliographyHelm,June,ed.(1981).Handbook of North AmericanIndians.Vol.6,Subarctic.Washington,D .C. :SmithsonianInsti-tution.Isham,James(1949).ObservationsonHudson'sBay,174 3- 1749,editedbyE.Rich.Toronto:ChamplainSociety.Mandelbaum,DavidG.(1940).ThePlainsCree.AmericanMuseum of NaturalHistory,AnthropologicalPapers37,15 5-3 16.NewYork.Mason,Leonard(1967).TheSwampyCree:AStudyinAccul-turation.NationalMuseum of Canada,AnthropologicalPaperno.13.Ottawa.Smith,JamesG.E.(1987)."WesternWoodsCree:Anthro-pologicalMythandHistoricalReality."AmericanEthnologist14:43 4-4 48.Smith,JamesG.E.(1981)."WesternWoodsCree."InHand-book of North AmericanIndians.Vol.6,Subarctic,editedbyJuneHelm,25 6-2 70.Washington,D .C. :SmithsonianInsti-tution.JAMES0.E.SMITHCreekETHNONYMS:Muscogee,MuskogeePriortoEuropeansettlement,theCreekwereaconfeder-acy of tribeswholivedinaboutfiftyvillagesmainlyincentralGeorgiaandinotherlocationsfromtheAtlanticcoasttocentralAlabama.IncludedintheconfederacyweretheKawita(Coweta),Kasihta,Abihka,Hilibi,Kusa(Coosa),Wakokai,andHuhliwahli.Thegroupsspokesixlanguages-Muskogee,Hitchiti,Koasati,Yuchi,Natchez,andShawnee.TheCreeksweresonamedbytheEnglishbecause of thelargenumber of streamsandcreeksintheregion.WhenmetbyHernandoDeSotoin1540,theconfederacyhadalready78CopperEskimoshipsystemisbilateralwitharecognizedkindred(ilagiit)composed of bothconsanguinesandaffines,butwithnode-finablelimits.Theconcept of descentislacking.KinshipTerminology.Allcousinsaredistinguishedfromsiblings,butthechildren of thefather'sbrotherhaveasepa-rateterm.Eachsexdistinguishesbetweenolderandyoungersiblings of theirownsexandhaveseparatesets of termsforthechildren of brothersorsisters,whicharealsoextendedtomaleorfemalecousins.Therearefouraunt/uncleterms,allseparatefromparentaldesignations,andsometermsintheparentalgenerationarealsoappliedtospouses of some of theserelatives.Thereisacomplexset of affinaltermsthatshowcomplementaryvariationsbetweenmalesandfemales.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Althoughtheydonotstatesoexplicitly,theCopperEskimoappeartoprefermarryingpeopleclassedascousins of varyingdegrees of closeness.Gettingmarriedwasinformal,withthecouplemerelysettingupaseparatedomi-cile.Mostmarriageswerearrangedwhilethepotentialspouseswerestillchildren.Because of theshortage of women,owingtofemaleinfanticide,therewasoftenaconsid-erablegapinagebetweenbrideandgroom.Insuchcasesayoungmanmightliveinthehousehold of aprospectivefa-ther-in-lawforaperiod of severalyearswhilewaitingforagirltoreachpuberty,workinginaform of premaritalbride-service.Atothertimes,gifts of importantobjectslikesledscouldbeusedasbride-purchase.Beforethebirth of children,youngcouplesoftenseparatedinacasualfashionwiththewomansimplytransferringherhouseholdarticles.Ontheotherhand,giventheshortage of women,marriagewassome-timesbrokenthroughwifestealing,apracticethatoftenledtohomicideandthelikelihood of abloodfeud.Tensionscre-atedbythisdemographicimbalanceresultedinshort-livedpolygynousmarriages,withpolyandryevenmorerarelyprac-ticed.DomesticUnit.Sinceitwasconsiderednormalforthenewlymarriedtobreakawayfromparents,residencewasusu-allyneolocal.Sometimessingleordependentrelativesmightattachthemselvestosuchunits,formingstemnuclearfamilyhouseholds.Attimessuchnuclearorstemnuclearunitsjoinedtheirsnowhousesortentswiththose of others,buttherewasnoregularpattern of relationshipsthatpersistedinsucharrangements,andindeedthearrangementswereoftencontractedbetweenunitslackingkinshipties.Inheritance.Therewaslittleinheritableproperty,andval-uableobjectswereoftenburiedwiththedeceased.Thosegoodsthatwerepassedonweretransferred(usuallytocloserelatives)accordingtonospecialpattern.Socialization.Childrenweretreatedwithconsiderablein-dulgence.Discipliningtooktheform of ridiculeorthreats of supernaturalpunishmentsimilartothe'bogeyman"phe-nomenon.Parentstaughtadultpursuitspatientlyoverlongperiods.Imitation of maleandfemaleoccupationslikedogdriving,care of infants,archery,orcookingwereencouraged.Whenaboykilledhisfirstseal,thebody of theanimalwasdraggedoverhimbyhisfatheroranotherdosemalerelativeatthescene of thehunt,markinghisgraduationtothestatus of ahunter.Forfemales,pubertyusuallycoincidedwithmarriage.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Althoughtheties of kinshipbeyondthenuclearfamilywerelesspronouncedthaninotherEskimosocieties,therewereseveralways of extendingsuchlinkages.Onewasspouseexchange,asthechildren of couplesengagedinthispracticewereregardedasquasisiblings.Adoptionalsoservedtocreatetiesbetweentheparentaldonorandrecipientcouples.Therewere,inaddition,anumber of dyadicrelation-shipsthattakentogethercreatedamultiplicity of tiesexclu-sive of orincidentaltokinship.Partnershipsindancing,to-getherwiththecreation of spouseexchangepartnerships,providedmechanismswherebytravelerscouldgainpeacefulentryintoaggregations of CopperEskimootherthantheirusualgroups of association.Jokingpartnershipsandsongpartnershipswereothermeans of formalizingfriendships.Giventheabsence of compulsorysharing of meatbeyondthenuclearfamily,thesystem of seal-sharingpartnershipswasthemostimportantinsuranceagainstshortages.Eachhunterhadaroster of menwithwhomheexchangedspecificparts of theseal,apracticethathelpedcompensateforthevagaries of thehunt.Meatwasalsosharedthroughcommunaleating,which,thoughnotcompulsory,waswidelypracticedwithinlocalgroupingsduringanyseason.PoliticalOrganization.TheCopperEskimocannotbesaidtohavehadanythingthatcouldbeproperlylabeledpo-liticalorganizationorgovernment.Therewerenochiefs.Sha-manswerebelievedtohavesupernaturalpowers,buttheirsecularinfluencewaslimited.Certainmenwererespectedfortheirjudgmentorhelpedorganizehunts,butsuchstatusdidnotextendautomaticallybeyondtheimmediatesituation.SocialControlandConflict.Certainmenwerefearedfortheiraggressivenessorviolenttendencies,buttheyalmostin-variablymetwithviolentendsthemselves.Thehighrate of homicideamongtheCopperEskimoatteststotheineffec-tiveness of socialcontrolmechanisms.Thevengeanceacts of thebloodfeudwereonearea of kinshipthatextendedbeyondthenuclearfamily.Duringtheearlieryears of theRoyalCa-nadianMountedPolice(RcMP)presence,anumber of homi-cideswereinvestigatedandseveralindividualspunishedunderCanadianlaw.Butintraditionaltimes,abouttheonlymeans of socialcontrolwereexecutions of especiallytrouble-someindividuals,derisionsinging,and,simply,withdrawalfromlocalgroupswhereonemightfeelantagonisms.Intherecentperiod of centralizedlivingtheCopperEskimohavebeeninvolvedinonlyafewconflictsituations,mostrelatedtoalcohol-inducedviolence.WhileearlycontactsbetweenWhitesandCopperEskimowereusually of apeacefulnature,therewereseveralearlyhomicidesthatdidinvolvepriests,traders,andtheRcMP.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Onecentraltheme of CopperEskimobeliefsrelatestotheseparation of seaandlandanimals.Theseagoddess,Arnapkapfaluk,wasbelievedtobeincontrol of seacreaturesandcertainprecautionshadtobeobservedtokeepthemfromcontaminationbylandanimals.Mostimpor-tantwasthecustom of sewingthecaribouskingarmentsonlyintheperiodbeforetheseal-huntingseasonbegan.Therewereotherdeities,butmostCopperEskimobeliefsrevolvedaroundthreats of witchcraftandfear of ghosts.Cree,WesternWoods81valuableonlyafterthebeginning of theEuropeanfurtrade.Theearlytradeintroducedanincreasingvariety of goods.Metalitemswere of greatvalueandincludedawls,axes,ket-tles,knives,muskets,fishhooks,andotheritems,suchasal-cohol,beads,andmirrors.Blanketsandclothwereintro-ducedandbecamecommon.Creebandsbecameorientedtospecifictradingpost-missioncomplexes.Low-costtradegoodshadendedwiththeestablishment of theHudson'sBayCompanymonopoly,buttowardtheend of thecenturyinde-pendentor'freetraders"enteredtheregion.Inthemid-twentiethcenturycommercialfishingwasaddedtotrappingasabasis of thecasheconomy.Bythemid-twentiethcentury,governmentprogramsin-ducedsubarcticpeoplestoconcentrateinnucleatedvillages,for'administrativeconvenience,"wherethesocialinstitu-tions of Canadianindustrialsocietywerelocated.Thisin-creasinglybroughtanendtoorweakenedtraditionalsocio-economicadjustmentsandsocialcontrolmechanisms,aswellasmanyculturalinstitutions;italsoincreasedunemploy-ment,alcoholabuse,andothersocialproblems,leadingtogreaterdependenceuponsocialwelfareprograms.Theonlyaboriginallydomesticatedanimalwasthedog,usedinhuntingorasapackanimal.Bytheend of thenine-teenthcentury,dogteamswereincreasinglyusedforhaulingtoboggans.Insomeareasonthesouthernmargins of thefor-est,horsescameintouseaspackanimals,saddlehorses,anddraftanimals,untiltheywerereplacedbymotorizedtobog-gansandpickuptrucks.IndustrialArts.Thewomenwereexpertinpreparinghidesandmakingclothing,storagebags,lodgecoverings,andotheritems.Theyalsomadebaskets of birchbarkandwerepottersuntilceramicswerereplacedbymetal.Menmadeweapons,snowshoes,andbirchbarkcanoes.Trade.TherewasprobablytradebetweenfriendlyAlgon-kian-speakingbandsinprehistorictimes,althoughthear-chaeologicalrecordisincomplete.Withtheestablishment of tradingcentersontheGreatLakesandHudsonandJamesbays,someCreewereemployedseasonallyas"home-guard"Indians,hunting,fishing,andcarryingmessagesbetweenforts.Othersbecamemiddlemen,bringingfurstothetradersandtradegoodstotheIndians of theinterior.Thisphaselasteduntilthetradingcompaniesexpandedthroughouttheforest.Tradewassoimportantthatmanybandswereorientedtowardspecificposts,andsomenewbandscameintoexis-tencearoundsuchplaces.Division of Labor.Menwereresponsibleforhunting,trapping,fishingwithnets,andtravelingtothetradingposts.Womenwereresponsibleforprocessingthegame,preparingfoodandhides,makingclothingandotheritemssuchasbas-kets,andcaringforgirlsandsmallboys.Shamanswereusu-allymen,andtheywereconcernedwithritual,whilefemaleshamanswereoftenskilledintheuse of herbalmedicine.Asaresult of concentrationinvillagesandthedecline of tradi-tionalactivities,thisdivision of laborisdisappearingandnewpatternsmaybeemerging.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheCreeweretypicalsubarcticbandsocieties.Thebasicunitwasasmallhuntinggrouporlocalbandmadeup of oneormoreextendedfamiliesandnumberingabouttwenty-fivepersons.Unitywasbasedonfather-sonrelationships,orcooperationamongbrothers.Thelifeexpectancy of suchabandwaslimited,assonsbecameadultsanddevelopedhighlyvaluedpersonalautonomy.Theleaderwasusuallytheeldestactivemalehunter.Thesewinterbandsdispersedtohuntthewidelydistributednomadicgameandtotraprelativelysedentaryfur-bearinganimals.Theywereusuallyknownbythename of thebest-knownlake.Re-gionalbandswerethelargestandmostpermanentgroups,namedaftersomefeature of thearea,usuallyalakeatwhichthepeopleassembledduringthesummerorsomecommonanimal.Theregionalbandwasabilateralgrouping,madeup of individuals,families,andhuntinggroupsrelatedbypri-maryties of consanguinityandaffinity.Theyprobablynum-beredfromonehundredtotwohundredormore.Descentwasbilateral,withpaternalandmaternalrelativesequallyrecognized.KinshipTerminology.Thekinshipsystemwasbilateral,withbifurcatemergingterminologyinthefirstascendinggen-eration,andIroquoiscousinterminologyinone'sowngene-ration.Malesandfemaleswerebothdifferentiatedonthebasis of relativeageandsex.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Marriageswerearrangedbyparentsbetweenopposite-sexcross ... huntingandgathering,butinlaterhistorictimestheyalsopracticedsomeagriculture.Deer,takenwithbowsandarrows,werethemostimportantgameanimals.Chiricahuasocietywasorganizedintothreebands,each of whichwascomposed of severalextendedfamilies.Formalpoliticalauthorityextendednofurtherthanthelevel of bandleaderswhowieldedinfluenceonthebasis of theirrecognizedwisdomandskillinwarfare.TheChiricahuabelievedinnu-meroussupernaturalbeings;religiousleadershipwasprovidedbymaleandfemaleshamanswhospecializedincertaintypes of ceremoniesandcures.SeealsoMescaleroApacheBibliographyBetzinez,John,withWilburSturtevant(1987).1FoughtwithGeronimo.Lincoln:University of NebraskaPress.Opler,MorrisE.(1965).AnApacheLife-Way.NewYork:CooperSquarePublishers.ChitimachaTheChitimacha(Shetinasha)liveinsouthernandsouth-westernLouisiana,principallyontheChitimachaIndianReservationonGrandLakenearCharenton,Louisiana.Inthe1980stheyspokealanguageisolateintheMacro-Algonkianphylumandnumberedaboutsixhundred.BibliographyHoover,HerbertT.(1975).TheChitimachaPeople.Phoenix,Ariz.:IndianTribalSeries.Stouff,Faye,andW.BradleyTwitty(1971).SacredChiti-machaIndianBeliefs.PompanoBeach,Fla.:Twitty&Twitty.ChoctawETHNONYMS:Chacktaws,Chaquita,Chat-Kas,Tchatakes,TchiactasOrientationIdentification.TheChoctawareanAmericanIndiangroupwholivedaboriginallyinMississippi."Chahta,"theChoctaw'snameforthemselves,isprobablyaterm of nativeoriginderivedfromHachaHatak,"RiverPeople."Location.Intheeighteenthcentury,theChoctawpopula-tionwascenteredincentralandsouthernMississippi.MostChoctawnowliveinOklahomaandMississippi.Demography.Historically,theChoctawwereone of thelargesttribesintheSoutheast.Inspite of majorpopulationlossesthroughwarfareanddiseaseintheearlyhistoricalpe-riod,thepopulationin1831was19,554.In1980,therewere6,000ChoctawinMississippiand10,000inOklahoma.Over100,000peopleinOklahomaclaimsomeChoctawancestry,however.Smallnumbers of ChoctawhavemigratedtourbanareasinTexas,California,andIllinois.linguisticAffiliation.TheChoctawlanguagebelongstotheMuskogeanfamily,whichalsoincludesCreekandChickasaw.HistoryandCulturalRelationsChoctaworiginlegendsdescribeamigration of theChoctawandChickasawfromfartherwest,butthereisnoknownar-chaeologicalevidenceforthis.NativegroupsborderingtheChoctawterritoryatthetime of EuropeancontactincludedtheCreekeast of theTombigbeeRiver,theChickasawinnorthernMississippi,andtheNatcheztothewestontheMis-sissippiRiver.AlongtheGulfCoastwerecloselyrelatedChoctaw-speakingtribes:thePascagoula,theAcolapissa,andtheBayogoula.Choctawrelationswithothermajortribeswerecharacterizedbycustomarywarfareassociatedwiththereceiving of youngmalesintoadulthood.Thefirstwrittenaccount of theChoctawisinthechron-icles of theHernandodeSotoexpeditionin1540.PermanentEuropeancontactbeganwithFrenchsettlementsontheGulfCoastin1699.TheChoctawwererapidlyplungedintoacomplicatedcolonialrivalryasEuropeanpowerssoughttoutilizeIndianalliestocarryouttheirterritorialdesignsandtoprofitfromthetradeinguns,deerskins,andslaves.TheChoctawalliedwiththeFrenchoperatingfromNewOrleans...
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... thecountry,includeover25,000members.ThetwolargestaretheDelawareTribe of WesternOklahomaandtheDelawareTribe of Indians,livinginnortheasternOklahoma.LinguisticAffiliation.Thelanguages of thethreeculturescalledDelawareareincludedwithintheEasternAlgonkianfamily.TheLenapeandthe"Jerseys"spokedialects of thesamelanguage,whiletheMunseelanguagewassufficientlydistinctthatinterpreterswererequired.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheLenapeappeartohavebeenintheirterritoryforcentur-ies,ifnotmillennia,priorto1500.TheLenapeand"Jerseys"musthavebeenmorecloselyaligned,butby1600marriagesandotheractivitiesweresufficientlydistincttopreventcoop-erationinlandsalesormigration.TheLenapewereboundedonthesouthbytheCinconicin,alow-levelchiefdomwhichhadtheirmainvillagewhereLewes,Delaware,nowstands.Tothewest,incentralPennsylvania,werethepowerfulSus-quehannock,whocontrolledthefurtradethroughouttheareaandbeyondtheMonongahelaandOhioriverstotheMississippi.Theheartland of theIroquoisterritorylaytothe north of theMunsee,andtothe north of the'Jerseys"werevariousindependentgroupsforagingalongtheHudsonandotherriversandwaterwayssurroundingManhattanIsland.TheSusquehannockandIroquoishadgrownpowerfulthroughfurtradingandovershadowedtheseforagingpeopleslivingalongthemajorrivers.Allthepeople of theDelawarevalleyformedaneconomicbackwaterwithminimalparticipa-tioninthefurtradeduringtheentiresixteenthcentury.In1622theuprising of thePotomacconfederacystimu-latedtheSusquehannocktoseekotheroutletsfortheirfurs.Themostconvenientrouteranfromthehead of theChesa-peakeuptheElkRiverand,byaportage,downMinquasCreekthroughLenapeterritory.ThisbroughttheSusque-hannocktothelowerend of theDelawareRiverwhereDutchtradersfromNewAmsterdam(NewYork)establishedatrad-ingpost.Fromtheearliestrecordsleftbythesetraders,begin-ningin1623,wehaveclearevidencethattheSusquehannockabusedandcontrolledtheLenapeduringthisperiod,andtheLenaperemainedintheirshadowfornearlyfortyyears.Duringthisperiod,DutchtradersandSwedishcolonistspurchasedsmallplots of landfromtheLenapeonwhichtoestablishseveraloutposts.TheSwedeserectedasmallvillagewhereWilmington,Delaware,nowstands.Swedishfarmersspreadthroughoutthelowerhalf of theLenaperange,andmanyintermarriedwithLenape.Owingtothelowlevel of fundingprovidedtotheSwedishcolonists,theycouldnotcompeteinthefurtrade,andtheysoonfocusedtheiratten-tionontobaccoproduction.SwedishneedsforfoodhadstimulatedtheforagingLenape,whousuallygardenedabit of maizeattheirsummerstations,toincreaseproductionforsaletothecolonists.Between1640and1660,maizebecameanimportantcashcropfortheLenape,providingaccesstoEuropeangoodswhichothernationsprocuredwithfurs.By1660,imports of grainfromothercolonieshadcapturedthelocalmarket.Bythattimethewars of theSusquehannock,primarilywiththeSeneca,hadcreatedstressesthatcausedthemtobe-comealliedwiththeLenapeandallowedtheLenapetopar-Dogrib89portantgoods-houses,guns,toboggans,canoes-isaccord-ingtotheneeds of theimmediatefamilymembers.Socialization.Childrenhavealwaysabsorbedmoralvaluesandstandards of behaviorbylisteningtothecommentsandgossip of theirelders.Inthebushcamporisolatedhamletwherepeoplestillrelyheavilyontheproducts of theland,lit-tlegirlsbytheage of sixorsevenbegintohelptheirmotherinfetchingfirewoodandwater.Theyalso"pack"andtendtheirinfantsiblings.Boysobservetheactivities of theirfathersbutarenotpressedintochoresasearlyasgirls,althoughtheymaybetendingtherabbitsnaresbyagetenortwelve.Ataboutfourteen,boysjoinwiththeirfatherorolderbrotheronhunting-trappingtours.Incontemporarytimes,withprimary-gradeschoolingavailableeveninthebushcommunities,Dogribparentsholdtheideal of havingtheirchildrenlearnEnglishandgainotheradvantages of Whiteschooling.Thereis,however,ahighrate of truancythatisnoteffectivelyre-strainedbyparents.Sincethe1950s,aminority of youngDogribshavegoneontohighschoolandpostsecondaryedu-cation"outside."SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Fromaboriginaltimestothepres-ent,theDogribhavebeenwithoutclassdistinctions.Amongmen,thegoodhunter-trappercommandsapprobation,asdoesthehardworkingwoman.Somepersons of mixedIndian-WhiteancestryareregardedasfullyIndianbytheirfellows;others,whosefamilieshaveoperatedasculturalbro-kersbetweenIndiansandWhites,areviewedasadistinctivesector of thesociety,butarenotaccordedhigherstatusbytheIndians.PoliticalOrganization.Aboriginally,theseveralsocioter-ritorialgroupsorregionalbands of Dogribswereautono-mous.Leaders,whoserolesweretiedtoeconomicpursuitsandinhistorictimestoWhite-Dogribcontactrelations,wereconsensuallyacceptedonthebasis of demonstratedenergy,intelligence,andability.Regionalbandshadrecognizedlead-ers.Duringtheperiod of theHudson'sBayCompanyfurtrademonopoly,a"tradingchief,"EkawiDzimi,emergedasspokesmanandnegotiatorwiththecompanyatFortRae.Withthe'signing" of TreatyNo.11atRaein1921,thegov-ernmentrequiredanofficialinstallation of "chief"and"councilors."(TheDetahDogribalreadyhadanofficialchiefunderTreatyNo.8.)Monphwi,whohadsucceededthetrad-ingchiefasprimeleader of theRaeDogrib,became"chief"andtheregionalbandleaders,"councilors".Chiefandcoun-cilorscontinuedtobechosenconsensuallybytheirmalepeersuntil1971when,upontheretirement of theagedRaechief,JimmyBruneau,thefirstformalelectionswereheldforthoseoffices.In1969,theIndianBrotherhood of the North. westTerritorieswasformed.Severalyoungeducatedandbi-lingualDogribplayedprominentrolesintheBrotherhoodastheyhaveintheDeneNation,whichin1978succeededtheBrotherhoodastherepresentativebodyforalltheDenepeo-ples of theNorthwestTerritoriesindealingwiththeCana-diangovernmentinrespecttolandclaims,control of re-sources,andnativerights.SocialControlandConflict.Dogribsavoidconfronta-tionalbehavior,anormthatmaybeabrogatedundercondi-tions of drunkenness.Internalizedstandards,gossip,andpublicopinionusuallyservetokeepindividualsinline.Dif-ferences of opinionorgoalsbetweenindividuals,factions,orregionalgroupsarecharacteristicallymuted.TheDogribidealhasalwaysbeenthatpeopleshould'listentooneanother"andcometoconsensusonissues.Therecentexposure of youngpeopletoWhite-styleschoolingandpopculturehaspromotedagenerationalandculturalgapinvaluesandout-look.GovernmentpolicepowerisvestedintheRoyalCana-dianMountedPolice;thepostatRaewasestablishedin1924.CrimesbyCanadianlegaldefinitionaretriedinterri-torialcourts,administeredfromtheterritorialcapitalatYellowknife.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Aboriginalreligiousbeliefs,whichhaveenduredinattenuatedformintopresenttimes,centeredontheindividualattainingarelationshipwithananimaloranimal-likespirit,suchasRaven,Spider,Thunderbird,throughwhichhegainedink'on,"power."Summoningtheenablingspiritwithdrumandsong,theadeptmightcontroltheweatherorthehunt,cureillness,ordivinethewherea-bouts of travelers.Untiltheacceptance of Christiandivini-ties,theDogribhadnoconcept of asupremebeingortheidea of worship of asupernaturalentity.Withtheadvent of theRomanCatholicmissionariesinthe1860s,theDogribsquicklyacceptedtheteachings of thechurch.Intheopinion of theearlymissionaries,theybecamethemostdevotedCatholicsamongtheDenepeoples of theNorthwestTerri-tories.ReligiousPractitioners.AlthoughmanyDogribshadare-lationshipwithaspirit,fromaboriginaltimesintothetwenti-ethcenturyafewbecamerecognizedashavingexceptionalpowersforcuring,hunting,andsoon.NoDogribshaveen-teredtheRomanCatholicpriesthood.Ceremonies.ThereisnoevidencethataboriginallytheDogribhadanyform of groupreligiousceremony.RomanCatholicobservancescametoincludenotonlythosedirectedbythepriestbutalsoSundayprayerservicesinitiatedbyDog-ribswheninthebushapartfromchurchandpriest.Arts.Dogribstakegreatpleasure,astheymusthaveaboriginally,ingroupdanceonoccasionswhenregionalgroupscometogetheratsuchtimesastheannualtreatypay-mentseachsummer.Theteadancegoesonthroughthenightasagreatinward-facingcircle of dancersmovesclockwisetotheaccompaniment of melodicsongbythedancers.Inthedrumdance,lesspopularamongold-timers,thedrummerssingandthepeopledancefronttobackratherthansidebyside.TheDogribhandgame,afast-pacedhidden-objectguessinggamebetweentwoteams of playersaccompaniedbydrumming-chanting,isanothermajoreventwhendifferentregionalgroups of DogribsassembleatRaeoranotherlocale.TheDogribhandgameplayersanddrummershavebecomeafeature of territories-wideassemblies of theDenepeoples.Medicine.Inaboriginalunderstanding,sicknessresultedfromthetransgression of moralnorms,includingviolation of aninterdictionimposedbyone'senablinganimalspirit,orfromtheink'on of anothermalevolentlydirectedagainstthesufferer.Anadeptincuringwascalledintodiagnose,withtheaid of hisspirithelper,thecause of theillness.Incase of theviolation of ataboooramoralnorm,theconfession of Dogrib87thatthesouls of thedepartedwillfindtheirwaytothewestwherehuntingisgoodandtheywillhaveaneasyafterlife.BibliographyBecker,MarshallJ.(1983)."BoundarybetweentheLenapeandtheMunsee:TheForks of DelawareasaBufferZone."ManintheNortheast26: 1-2 0.Becker,MarshallJ.(1989)."LenapePopulationattheTime of Contact."Proceedings of theAmericanPhilosophicalSociety133:11 2-1 22.Goddard,Ives(1978)."Delaware."InHandbook of North AmericanIndians.VoL15,Northeast,editedbyBruceG.Trig-ger,21 3-2 39.Washington, D. C.:SmithsonianInstitution.Newcomb,WilliamW.,Jr.(1956).TheCultureandAccultur-ation of theDelawareIndians.University of MichiganMu-seum of Anthropology,AnthropologicalPapers,no.10.AnnArbor.Weslager,ClintonA.(1978).TheDelawareIndianWestwardMigration.Wallingford,Pa.:MiddleAtlanticPress.MARSHALLJOSEPHBECKERDogribETHNONYMS:Atimopiskay(intheCreelanguage),Done,Thlingchadinne(anEnglishmisconstructionfor"dogribpeople"),TlichoOrientationIdentification.TheEnglishterm"Dogrib"isatranslation of aCreeterm.'Tlicho"(dogrib)wasprobablynotaterm of tribalself-referenceaboriginallybutcameintousebyDogribsinthecontactera,especiallytodistinguishthemselvesfromneighboringAthapaskanpeoples.Theterm'Done"(people)istheself-designationthatemphasizestheIndianness of theDogrib.Location.TheDogribhavecontinuedtooccupytheirabo-riginallands.Theirhunting-trappingrangeisbetween62°and65°Nand110°and124°WintheNorthwestTerritor-ies,Canada.Southto north, GreatSlaveLakeandGreatBearLakebordertheDogribtraditionalrange.Thegreaterportionisintherockyoutcrop of theCanadianShield,wheretheborealforestcoverbecomesprogressivelymoresparseandstuntedtowardtheeast.Thewesternmostrange of theDogribincludestheeasternedge of theMackenzieRiverlow-lands.Thecontinentalsubarcticclimateisone of briefwarmsummerswithlonghours of daylightandlongcoldwinterswhentemperaturesmaydropto -4 0"Forbelow."Freeze-up" of lakesandstreamsbeginsinearlyOctoberand"break-up"comesinMay.Demography.In1970theDogribnumberedaboutseven-teenhundredpersons,contrastedtoonlyaboutonethou-sandin1949.European-derivedepidemicsthroughoutthenineteenthcenturyhelpedholdtheDogribpopulationtobe-tweenapproximatelyeighthundredandonethousandfrom1858,whenthefirstactualcountwasmade,to1949.TheCa-nadiangovernment'sintroduction of effectivetreatmentfortuberculosisandexpandedmedicalservicesinthelate1950sspurredpopulationgrowth,whichcontinuestothepresent.Inthe1960s,byprovidingsubsidizedhousingandthroughothermeans,thegovernmentsucceededingettingmanyDogribstosettleinRae,towhichinformertimes,asthetrad-ingpostandmissionsite,Dogribshadresortedonlyseaso-nally.Rae-Edzo(Edzoisanancillarygovernment-createdcomplex)isnowthemajorDogribsettlement,althoughsomeliveatDetahnearthetown of Yellowknifeandinthesmallbushsettlements of LaclaMartre,RaeLakes,andSnareLake,whichthegovernmentbegantoprovidewithinfrastruc-turalsupportinthe1970s.linguisticAffiiaton.TheDogribspeakalanguage of thenortheasternAthapaskanlanguagegroup,withsomedialec-ticvariationacrosstheDogribregionalgroups.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheDogribareonedivision of thewidespreadpopulation of theDeneorAthapaskan-speakingpeopleswho,byarchaeo-logicalandlinguisticevidence,firstenteredwesternAlaskafromSiberiabyway of theBeringlandbridgethatexistedduringlatePleistocenetimes.TheysubsequentlyspreadthroughoutinteriorAlaskaandthewesternCanadiansub-arctic.Asadistinctivelinguistic-tribalentity,theDogribemergedaftertheirancestors'entry,atanindeterminatepe-riodinprehistorictimes,intotheareatheyoccupytoday.TheneighboringAthapaskan-speakingpeoplestotheeast,theChipewyan,andtothe north, theCopperIndians,weredis-tinguishingtheDogribfromthemselvesintheeighteenthcentury,butwhethersomegroupsancestraltothepresent-daySlaveywere,inthatperiod,includedinthisappellationisnotclear.Bythemid-eighteenthcenturyafewEuropeangoodswerebeingtradedtotheDogribforfursbyChipewyanmiddlemen. /I WiththeSlaveytothewestandtheHareIndians north of GreatBearLake,alsoAthapaskanspeakers,theDogribseemalwaystohavebeenonpeacefulterms.ThosegroupsaswellastheDogribsufferedintermittentpredationsbytheAl-gonkian-speakingCreefromthesoutheastinthelateeight-eenthcenturyandbytheCopper(Yellowknife)Indiansupto1823.In1823asuccessfulattackbytheDogribonaband of thesmallCopperIndiantribebroughtfirstanuneasyandthenanenduringpeace.Bythenafewfurtradepostswerees-tablishedintheSouthGreatSlaveLakeandMackenzieRiverregion.TherewasnotradingpostinDogribterritory,how-ever,untilOldFortRae(downthe North Arm of GreatSlaveLakefromthesite of thepresentRae)wasestablishedbytheHudson'sBayCompanyin1852.ThefirstRomanCatholicmissionary, of theOblatsdeMarieImmaculie,reachedOldFortRaein1859.Withintenyearsmost of theDogribhadacceptedRomanCatholicismanditremainstheirreligiontoday.WiththeotherDenepeoples north of GreatSlaveLaketheDogribstradingintoRae"signed"TreatyNo.11in1921.Doukhobors91PeterGospodnie(Lordly)Verigin,stillinexileinRussiauntil1904.Withalandrushandchangesinfederalgovernmentattitudes,theDoukhobors'refusaltocompletetheirhome-steadingbyswearingtheoath of allegianceresultedintheloss of theirlandsand of theirimprovementsaswell.MostmigratedtotheWestKootenayregioninBritishColumbiabetween1907and1912,oncepioneershadbeguntheconstruction of ... hewasridingfromBrilliant,B.C.,toGrandForks,B.C.TheeventdeeplyscarredDouk-hoborviews of theirnewcountryandcompoundedtheirhis-toricfear of seculargovernments.NotuntilthreeyearslaterdidGospodnie'ssonPeterChistiakov(Purger)travelfromRussiatoCanadatotakecontrol of theccuB.IntendingDoukhoborreunification,heorganizedablanketstructure,theSociety of NamedDoukhobors,whichin1934producedtheDeclaration,animportantmanifesto.Withthedepres-sion of 1929theCCUB'Smortgageswerecalled,andbetween1938and1940theDoukhoborslosttheirlandandimprove-mentsthroughforeclosuresinvolvingabalance of nomorethan$310,000owedonanestimated$6millioninproperty.PeterChistiakovdiedatthistime.Theprovincialgovern-mentpaidoffthegreaterpart of thedebtandseizedtheDoukhobors'landsandimprovements.ShortlyafterPeter'sarrival,theFreedomitegrouphadgrownfromaboutseventytoabouttwelvehundredindividu-als,andtookthename'SiniSvobodi"(Sons of Freedom).Fromthe191Osthroughthe1930stheydemonstrated,some-timesviolently,againsttheirbrethren,theCCUB,thegovern-ment,andtheCanadianPacificRailway.Theseactsin-creasedinthe1940sinthewake of thecollapse of theccuB,thedeath of PeterChistiakov,theloss of hissonPeterlastrabov(Hawk)VerigininRussia,andtheonset of World War I. PeterChistiakov'sgrandson,JohnJ.Verigin,whode-spiteadulationnevertookupthetitle of spiritualleader,be-camesecretaryandeventuallyhonorarychairman of theSoci-ety of NamedDoukhobors,whichchangeditsnametoUnion of SpiritualCommunities of Christintheearly1940s.In1949,StephanSorokin,aRussianBaptist,arrivedinCanadaanddisplacedJohnLebedoffasthePastor of theSons of Freedom.Overthenexttwentyyears,Sorokin'spoliciesandteaching,andrepeatedincarcerations,graduallyendedtheprotestsandmost of themtookuptheneworganizationaltitle of members of theChristianCommunityandBrother-hood of ReformedDoukhobors,orReformed.By1964theprovincialgovernmenthadsoldbackalltheseizedland,thoughimprisonedSons of Freedomwereexcludedfromthedeal.Thissmallgroupreturnedtopoliticalprotest,whichfi-nallyendedintheearly1980sthroughthemediationefforts of members of theregionalcommunity.Overthepasttwentyyears,DoukhoborsinSaskatch-ewanandtheWestKootenayshaverevitalizedtheirculturethroughtheconstruction of localmuseums,newdiverse-functioncommunityhalls,andpublication of songsandhymnsandabimonthlybilingualjournal,Iskra(theSpark);choirsfromallgroupshavefrequentlytakenpartinregionalandprovincialevents.CulturalexchangeswiththeUSSRhavebeenarranged,andanumber of publications,journals,andrecordingsproduced.DoukhoborscontinuetointegratethemselveseffectivelyintoCanadiansociety,eventhoughtheyeschewthenotion of assimilation.EconomyDoukhoborsinRussiawereprimarilypeasantfarmers,thoughsomeexercisedprofessionalskills.IntheSaskatch-ewanandBritishColumbiacommunestheyusuallyfarmed,thoughsomemenwerecarpentersandjoiners,shoemakers,blacksmiths,harnessmakers,andsoon;andwomennotonlycookedandfarmedbutwove,embroidered,andmadecloth-ing.TopaythemortgagesinBritishColumbia,manymenwentout of thecommunalvillagestoworkonrailroadsectiongangs,highwayconstructionandmaintenance,andintheforestindustry.WhentheccuBcollapsed,manyremainedintheforestindustryordriftedintorelatedtrades,takingworkasbuildersorsuppliers of buildingmaterials.Bythe1950s,Doukhoborswereretailmerchants,teachers,andnurses;bythe1960s,somehadenteredlegal,medical,journalistic,andacademicprofessions.IndependentDoukhoborshadalreadyenteredthemainstreameconomy,somereachingtheprofes-sionallevelbythe1930s.Sons of Freedomeithertookmostlyworking-classpositionsordependedontheirvegetablegar-densandsomewelfareforsubsistence.MostDoukhoborsnotlivingwithincitiesbufferthemselveseconomicallybymain-taininglargevegetablegardens;theserepresentsome of themostintensivenoncommercialhorticultureonthecontinent.Muchiseaten,almostasmuchmaybecontributedtocom-munityevents,andafurtheramountisgiventoneighbors,friends,andguests.Duringthecommunityperiod,alllaborwasdividedreasonablybetweenmenandwomen,thoughthelatterdidfairlyheavywork.Since World War11,patternshavecometoresemblethoseinthemajorityculture.Elderstendtoremainactiveandproductiveaslongaspossible,conditionedbythecommunitymotto:"ToilandPeacefulLife."Kinship,MarriageandFamilyKinship.CanadianDoukhoborkinshippatternsaretypi-cal of North Americansociety,exceptthatfamilystatus,con-nections,andhistoryareasignificantcomponent of individ-ualstatusincommunitysettlementandpoliticalpatterns.Thisisprobablyaheritage of Russianvillagelife.Marriage.Doukhobormarriagetraditionsareunclearbe-forethelateeighteenthcentury,whentherewasaperiod of significantinformalritesandfreechoiceamongyoungpeo-ple.Throughthenineteenthcenturyandintotheearlyyears of Canadiansettlement,arrangedmarriagesbecamethenorm,withindividualchoicenowthenorm.Doukhobormar-90Dogrib.theailingpersonwasrequiredinordertorestoresomeminorphysicalailments,certainbotani(werebelievedtohavecurativeproperties.Dogribiallybeenreceptivetomodemmedicalservices.DeathandAfterlife.Thereisnorealinfortiaboriginalbeliefsregardingafterlife.Deathaswemightbecausedbyanindividual'stransgressionlevolentpower of anenemy.Incontemporarytinandritualrelatingtodeathandtheafterlifefa]purview of RomanCatholicdogmaandpracticBibliographyHelm,June(1972)."TheDogribIndians."InGatherersToday,editedbyMarioC.Bicchieri,York:Holt,Rinehart&Winston.Reprint,WaN1988.Helm,June(1981)."Dogrib."InHandbook of ?canIndians.Vol.6.Subartic,editedbyJuneHellWashington, D. C.:SmithsonianInstitution.Helm,June,andNancy0.Lurie(1966).The I Game.NationalMuseum of CanadaBulletinrthropologicalSeries,no.71.Ottawa.DoukhoborsETHNONYMS:BozhiLudi(People of God),(Freedomites),SiniSvobodi(Sons of FreedomOrientationIdentification.CanadianDoukhobors,anetsionalgroup,originatedinseventeenth-century I distinctivebeliefisinthemoralprimacy of the\withintheself;hencetheyarepacifists,refuhumanlifeandthusextinguishthedivineVoicnamedthemselves"BozhiLudi"(People of God)doxclergylabeledthem'Dukhoborfsy"(Spiriabout1785.Theyarepresentlydividedintofouisects:CommunityDoukhobors,IndependentsandFreedomites.Theyidentifythemselvesbys of worshipandmusicalperformance;bytherituuse of aRussiandialect;byvegetariandietinchtional"foods;bypacifistideals;byatleasttheen(communalideals;andbythemottoTrud i M"ToilandPeacefulLife."Location.DoukhoborsfirstsettlednearYorlcentralSaskatchewan,shortlymovedtotheWeregion of ... afeastandsecuredgoodstoburywiththedeceasedaswellastodistributetoparticipantsintheburialrituals,notall of whomwereclosekin.Socialization.Childrenwereseldompunished.Low-levelsocialcontrolsplustherigors of foraginglifeprovidedsuffi-cientbehavioralcontrolsinthepast.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.InaboriginaltimestheegalitarianLenapegenerally,butnotalways,equatedstatuswithage.PoliticalOrganization.Theindependentandhighlyfluidaboriginalbandsbecamemorepoliticallyunitedafter1750,withtownsbeingnamedforindividualswhowereineffectchiefs.SocialControl.TheLenapehavealwaysavoidedconflict:anysituationthatcouldproducestressiscalledkwulacan.Evenintheface of changingeconomicsandmodemseden-tarylife-styles,Lenapewithdrawfromcontroversyanddiffi-cultiesonanylevel.Conflict.WithdrawalfromproblematicalsituationshascharacterizedtheLenapesincetheywerefirstdescribedbyEuropeans.Thisencouragedthefissioning of socialgroupsandatendencytoavoidactingasasinglepoliticalentity.Thehistory of theLenape,aswithsome of theirneighbors,hasbeenaseries of splitsamonggroups,witheachgrouporevenfamilythenoperatingasanindependentunit.Suchgroupsoftenfusedwithothersincomplexpatternsthatrenderthecollectivehistory of thesepeopledifficulttofollow.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheaboriginalLenapewereanimistic,butindividualsheldstrongbeliefsabouttheunity of alllivingaswellasinanimatethings.By1800theLenapehadadoptedmanyMunseeandChristianbeliefs.Today,mostpracticevariousProtestantreligions,butmanystillretainafunda-mentallyanimistworldviewlargelyindistinctfromthatwhichtheirdistantancestorswouldhavefoundappropriate.ManyEuropeansinterpretedtheManitou of theLenapetobeasu-premedeity.Variousotherbeings,particularlythoseassoci-atedwiththecreationmyth,suggestthat"Manitou"mayhavebeenagenerictermappliedtospirits of allkinds.ReligiousPractitioners.Noindividualsheldstrongritualpower,butsomepeoplewereblessedwiththeabilitytoheal.Ceremonies.Thecomplexritualsheldbeforegoingontheirwinterhuntingroundswereassociatedwithannualre-newalgatherings.ThesebecamestillmorecomplexastheLenapeadoptedincreasingnumbers of introducedbehaviors,particularlyastheybecamemoresedentary.Medicine.Illnesscouldbedispersedbydrivingoutspiritsthatcauseddisease.Speciallydesignatedcurersassistedinthisprocess,aidedbyherbalremediesandthepowers of col-lectivechantsandprayers.DeathandAfterlife.Deathwascausedbyevilspirits,andthepolluteddeadwereburiedingraveslinedwithrushes,bark,andmatsseveralhundredmetersfromtheirsummeren-campments.Complexfuneralceremoniesinvolvedtranspor-tation of thecorpsetoapreparedburialsite,rituallamenta-tion,andparticipationinaritualfeastforthedead.Mourningperiodsvarieddependingondegrees of kinship,withthesurvivingspousecontinuingforafullyear.Some of theseaspects of Lenapesocietycontinuetothisday,ensuringDelaware85ticipatemoreextensivelyinthefur...
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... fewfarmingcommunitiesformedincentralCalifornia,Louisiana,Illinois,andArkansas.ButtheItalianimmigrantsweremostlyanurbangroup,withatleast85percentsettlingincities.Italybecameaunifiednationonlyin1870;thusItalianimmigrantsgenerallyfeltonlyaweakidentitywithItalyandlackedanoverarchingculturaltraditiontypical of otherim-migrantgroups.ThisledtotwouniquedevelopmentsintheUnitedStates.First,strongtiesweremaintainedwiththetownfromwhichemigrationtookplace,andaweakersense of Italianidentityprevailed.Second,withinthefirsttwogen-erations of settlement,asyncreticItalian-AmericanculturedevelopedintheUnitedStates.Keyfeatures of thenewcul-turalidentitywereanAmericanizeddialect of Italianthatre-placedtheregionallanguagesanddialects,adistinctlyItaliantraditionwithintheIrish-dominatedAmericanRomanCath-olicchurchfeaturingamore"emotional-celebratory"set of practices,involvementinlocalpolitics,andtheformation of associations,banks,andlaborunionsthatservedtheItaliancommunity.Atthesametime,thelargepatriarchalfamiliesweregivingwaytosmallfamilies,withintermarriagetonon-ItalianRomanCatholicsincreasinginfrequency.Assimilationhasprogressedrapidlysince World WarII,andtheItaliansarenowamiddle-class,urban-suburbangroup.Althoughmuch of thepopulationhasshiftedtosub-urbs,distinctItalianneighborhoodsremaininmanycities,includingPhiladelphia,NewYork,Chicago,St.Louis,Newark,andProvidence.Atthesametime,theItalian.Americanculturalidentityismaintainedthroughextendedfamilyties,thechurch,uniquefoodpreferencesandprac-tices,andageneralsense of respectforthefamilyanditsold-estmembers.BibliographyAlba,RichardD.(1985).ItalianAmericans.EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.:Prentice-Hall.Belfiglio,C.V.(1983).ItalianExperienceinTexas.Austin:EakinPress.Cinel,Dino(1982).FromItalytoSanFrancisco:TheImmi-grantExperience.Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress.diLeonardo,Micaela(1984).TheVarieties of EthnicExperi-ence:Kinship,Class,andGenderamongCaliforniaItalian-Americans.Ithaca:CornellUniversityPress.Martinelli,PhyllisC.(1987).EthnicityintheSunbelt:Italian-AmericanMigrantsinScottsdale,Arizona.NewYork:AMSPress.Mormino,GaryR.(1986).ImmigrantsontheHill:Italian-AmericansinSt.Louis,188 2-1 982.Urbana:University of Il-linoisPress.Nelli,HumbertS.(1983).FromImmigrantstoEthnics:TheItalianAmericans.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.EastAsians of theUnitedStates101cantnumbersinmanagerialandprofessionalpositions(22.5percentforFilipinosto38percentforChinese),withthelargestpercentages of womenbeingemployedinadministra-tivesupportandservicejobs.Uniqueoccupationpatternsin-clude22percent of Chinese-Americanmeninservicejobs,30.4percent of Filipino-Americanmeninserviceandadmin-istrativesupportpositions,and14.4percent of Korean-Americanmeninsales.Forwomen,18.2percent of Chinese-Americanand24percent of Korean-Americanwomenworkinlow-levellaborerpositions.Grossfiguresindicatethatfull-timeChinese-AmericanandJapanese-AmericanmenhavehigherincomesandFilipino-AmericanandKorean-AmericanmenhavelowerincomesthanWhites.TheChi-neseandJapanesefiguresaresomewhatmisleading,however,inthattheydonotreflectthefactthatmeninthesegroupsoftenhavemoreeducationandworklongerhoursthandoWhites.Korean-Americanshavedrawnconsiderableatten-tionasowners of smallbusinesses,oftengrocerystoresorveg-etablestands,inminorityneighborhoods,suggestingamid-dlemanminorityrolesimilartotheChineseandJapaneseearlier.Kinship,MarriageandFamilyKinship.IntheearlyKorean,Chinese,andFilipinocom-munities,whichwerecomposedalmostentirely of men,tiestofamiliesandwiderkinnetworksweremaintainedthroughreturnvisits,correspondence,andtheremittance of aper-centage of theman'searnings.Inthecommunitiesthatformedinthiscountry,theabsence of EastAsianwomenandantimiscegenationlawsmademarriageandtheformation of familiesandkingroupsdifficult.Somecommunitycohesionwascreatedthroughfictivekingroupsmodeledonclanandextendedfamilystructuresinthehomeland.Chinesemenformedfictiveclanswithrecruitmentandmembershipbasedonimmigrationfromthesamevillageorprovinceorposses-sion of thesamesurname.WhenChinesefamiliesbegantoformlaterintheearlytwentiethcenturywiththearrival of Chinesewomen,theseclanassociationsbecamelessimpor-tant.Filipinosorganizedcompang,fictiveextendedfamiliescomposed of menwhoimmigratedfromthesamevillage,withtheoldestmanusuallyheadingthefamily.AsmoreFili-pinowomenimmigratedtotheUnitedStates,Filipino-Americanfamiliesbecamemorecommon(thoughbefore World WarIIFilipino-Americanmenstilloutnumberedwomenbynearlythreetoone),andthecompadrazgo(godpar-ent)systemwastransferredtotheUnitedStateswitheachin-dividualthenenmeshedinanetwork of actualandfictivekin.ThesituationforJapanese-Americanswasdifferent,asbeginningin1910stablefamiliesbegantoformandJapaneseurbanandruralcommunitiesalsobecomerelativelystable.Althoughthesecond-generationJapanese-Americans,thenisei,werebeingacculturatedintoAmericansociety,thefirst-generation-basedfamily(issei)wasstillstrongenoughtomaintaintraditionalbeliefsregardingappropriatebehaviorbetweensuperiorsandinferiorsaswellasfilialduties.MarriageandFamily.ThemostnoteworthytrendinEastAsian-Americanmarriagesistheshiftfromethnicendoga-moustoethnicexogamousmarriage.Inallgroupssincethe1950stherehasbeenalargeincreaseinthenumber of mar-riagestonon-ethnicgroupmembers,andespeciallytoWhites.ContemporaryEastAsian-Americanfamiliesaregenerallysmallnuclearfamilies.Korean-AmericanandFili-pino-Americanhouseholdsaresomewhatlargerbecause of thelargernumber of childrenintheformerandthepresence of non-nuclearfamilymembersinthelatter.EastAsian-Americanfamiliesarenotablystable,withover84percent of childreninallfourgroupslivingwithboth of theirparents.Nonetheless,thereareconcernsintheChinese-AmericancommunityaboutjuveniledelinquencyandintheKorean-Americanaboutwhatisconsideredahighdivorcerate.ThereisamajordifferenceinhouseholdcompositionbetweenthosealreadysettledintheUnitedStatesandrecentimmi-grants.Householdsamongthelatterfrequentlycontainaddi-tionalrelativesbeyondthenuclearfamilyorfriends,asthesehouseholdsareoftenpart of thechainmigrationprocessthroughwhichrelativesimmigratetotheUnitedStates.WithinhouseholdsinallfourEastAsian-Americangroups,decisionmakinghasbecomemoreegalitarianaspa-triarchalauthorityhasdiminished.Women,however,stillbearthemajorresponsibilityforhouseholdtasks,eventhoughamajority of bothmenandwomenareemployed.Educationalopportunitiesareaffordedbothboysandgirls,andbothsexesareencouragedtoexcelinschool.Socialization.AswithAmericansingeneral,socializationtakesplacethroughthefamily,thelocalcommunity,andtheformaleducationsystem.ManyEastAsiansinthepastcameto America withahighschooleducationandmany of there.centimmigrantshavecollegeand/orprofessionaleducationortechnicaltraining.Thechildren of recentimmigrantsmakefulluse of educationalopportunitiesintheUnitedStates;infacteducationfortheirchildrenisamajorreasonmanyEastAsiansresettle.Programsdesignedtomaintainthetraditionalculture,suchaslanguageclasses,youthgroups,andculturalprogramsareofferedinallmajorEastAsiancommunitiesbyethnicassociationsandchurches.Onemajorproblemfacingmanyrecentimmigrantfamiliesisagenerationalgapbetweenparentswhoprefertospeakthena-tivelanguageandeatnativefoods,stressfamilyobligations,andassociatemainlywithotherethnicgroupmembersandtheirchildrenwhoseethemselvesasAmericans,speakEn-glish,andmakefriendsamongnon-Asian-Americans.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Each of thefourEastAsian-Amer-icangroupsisadiverseethnicgroupcomposed of anumber of distinctsubgroups.Acrossallfourgroups,twointernaldi-visionsaremostobvious.Firstisthedistinctionbetweenthosewhosettledbefore World WarIIandtheirdescendantsandthosewhoarrivedafterthewar.Secondisthedistinctioninthepost -World WarIIgroupbetweentheparentalandsecondgeneration,withthelattercomposed of thosewhowerebornintheUnitedStatesorcamewhentheywereyoung.Beyondthesetwocategories,eachEastAsiangroupdisplaysadditionaldiversityaswellasvarioussocialinstitu-tionsdevelopedintheUnitedStates.Chinese.MajordivisionswithintheChinese-Americancommunityincludethosebasedonplace of origin(HongKong,Taiwan,SoutheastAsia),Cantoneseornon-Cantoneseethnicity,ruralorurbanresidence,andsupportforTaiwanorrecognition of thePeople'sRepublic of China.LocalizedinChinatownsandexcludedfromfullparticipa-tioninAmericansocietyforoveronehundredyears,European-Canadians127BibliographyKirschbaum,JosephM.(1967).SlovaksinCanada.Toronto:CanadianEthnicPressAssociation.Stolarik,M.Mark(1988).'FromFieldtoFactory:TheHisto-riography of SlovakImmigrationtotheU.S.andCanada(197 6-1 987)."EthnicForum8:2 3-3 9.Sutherland,AnthonyX.(1984).TheCanadianSlovakLeague:AHistoy,193 2-1 982.Toronto:CanadianSlovakLeague.SLOVENES.(Slovenians).In1986,anestimated5,890CanadiansclaimedSlovenianethicancestry.SlovenesarepeoplefromtheterritorythatisnowSlovenia,one of thesixrepublics of themodernnation of Yugoslavia.SlovenesinCanada,sincetheyfirstarrived,havebeensometimesmisidentified,firstasHungarians,Italians,orTurks,andlaterasYugoslavians(apolitical,notaculturalcategory).Thus,thefigureaboveunderestimatesthenumber of people of SlovenianancestryinCanada.SlovenianimmigrationtoCanadacanbedividedintotwoperiods:beforeandafter World War11.Thosewhocamebeforethewar,especiallyinthelate1800sandearly1900s,settledmainlyinruralcom-munities,ofteninthewesternprovinces.Many of thosewhocameafter World War11werepoliticalrefugeeswhosettledmainlyincities,especiallyToronto.Theyhavestimulatedarevival of Slovenianethnicidentity,centeredaroundtheirRomanCatholicparishesandanticommunistsentiments.SPANIARDS.In1986,anestimated57,125CanadiansclaimedSpanishethnicancestry.ThisfigureincludesbothSpaniardsandLatinos.Spaniardsarepeoplewhomigrateddi-rectlyfromSpain(perhapswithashortstopelsewhere)orwhoseancestorsdidso.TheyshouldbedifferentiatedfromLatinoswhoarepeople of LatinAmericanancestryButbe-causeSpanishimmigrantseitherhavenotbeencountedatallorwereattimeslumpedwithLatinos,itisimpossibletosayhowmanySpaniardshavesettledinCanada.ThemajorpopulationcentersareOntarioandQuebec,with78percent of theSpanishpopulationinthosetwoprovinces.Forthemostpart,SpanishimmigrantsandtheirdescendantshaverapidlyassimilatedintoCanadiansociety,andnostrongsense of SpanishidentityorculturehaseveremergedLAssimilationhasbeenespeciallyrapidinFrenchCanada.TisisinpartbecauseSpaniardswerefewinnumbercomparedtootherimmigrantgroupsalsoarrivinginthetwentiethcenturyandalsobecauseregionalculturalidentities(Galician,Catalonian,andsoon)weremoreimportantinSpainthanasense of anationalculture.SeealsoLatinosBibliograPhyAnderson,GraceM.(1979)."SpanishandPortuguese-SpeakingImmigrantsinCanada."InTwoNations,ManyCultures:EthnicGroupsinCanada,editedbyJeanL.Elliott,20 6-2 19.Scarborough,Ontario:Prentice-Hall of Canada.SWEDES.In1981,78,360CanadiansclaimedSwedishethnicancestry.Themajorperiod of SwedishsettlementinCanadawasfrom1868to1914.Most of thesepeoplecameafterhavingfirstsettledinMinnesotaand North Dakota.InCanada,theysettledmainlyinthewesternprovinces,withWinnipegbecomingthehub of SwedishactivitiesandBritishColumbiatodayhavingthelargestSwedishpopulation.Themajority of theseearlysettlerswerefarmers,althoughmany of theirdescendantshavemovedtocitieswheretheyworkinin-dustryandbusiness.Other,smallerinfluxes of Swedesfol-lowed World Wars I andII,withthesepeoplesettlingmainlyinOntario.TheruralSwedishcommunitieswerejoinedto-getherthroughvariousorganizationsincludingtheSwedishLutheranchurch,laborunions,temperancegroups,societies,andclubs.Today,SwedesaremuchassimilatedintoCana-diansociety,aresult of theirmovementtocities,activepar-ticipationinthepubliceducationsystem,andtherelativelyfewnewarrivalsinthelastfewdecades.SWISS.In1986,anestimated19,130CanadiansclaimedSwissethnicancestry.Ontarioishometothelargestnumber,followedbyBritishColumbia,Alberta,andQuebec.TheSwisscametoCanadafrombothSwitzerlandandtheUnitedStates,andasubstantialnumberarrivedbeforethetwentiethcentury.ThemajoritywerefromtheGerman-speakingregion of Switzerland,andtheytendedtoaffiliatewithGermansinCanada;thosefromtheFrench-speakingregionaffiliatedwithFrench-Canadians.Today,astrongsense of Swissiden-tityhasdisappeared,andtheSwissaregenerallyassimilatedintoCanadiansociety.SeealsoMennonitesWELSH.In1981,46,620CanadiansclaimedWelsheth-nicancestry.Thisisalmostcertainlyalargeundercount(onlytwentyyearsearliernearlythreetimesasmanyclaimedWelshethnicity)andismostlytheresult of manyWelshbeingclassi-fiedasBritishorasEnglish(theyhaddepartedfromLiver-pool).WelshimmigrationtoCanadabeganwithWelshsol-dierswhoservedwiththeBritishintheAmericanRevolution.Theinfluxpeakedafter1862whengoldminerssettledinBritishColumbia,in1902whenthePatagonianWelshrelocatedfromArgentina,after World War I, after World WarII,andinthemid-1950s.TheWelshinCanadahaveneverformedanationalorganization,althoughlocalso-cietiesandassociationshaveexistedsincetheearlydays of settlementinCanada.Perhapsthemostvisiblesigns of WelshidentitytodayaretheGyrnanfaGanu(hymn-singingfestival)andeisteddod(artsfestival)regularlyheldbyvariousWelshsocieties.Ingeneral,theWelshlumpthemselvesandarelumpedbyothersunderthegeneralcategory of British,and,assuch,aremuchassimilatedintoCanadiansociety.BibliographyBennett,Carol(1985).InSearch of theRedDragon:TheWelshinCanada.Renfrew,Ontario:JuniperBooks.Thomas,Peter(1986).StrangersfromaSecretLand:TheVoy-ages of theBrig'Albion'andtheFounding of theFirstWelshSettlementsinCanada.Toronto-University of TorontoPress.Eurobean-Americans109fromtheLemkianregion of southeasternPolandformedaseparateethnicassociation.Theyhavemadeastrongefforttomaintaintheirethnicidentitythroughanactivepress,con-cemabouttheirnationalidentity,andthemaintenance of sometraditionalpractices.SeealsoUkrainiansBibliographyMagocsi,PaulR(1984).OurPeople:Carpatho-RusynsandTheirDescendantsin North America. Toronto:MulticulturalHistorySociety of Ontario.CROATS(Croatians).In1980,107,855AmericansclaimedCroatianancestryandanother145,115claimedCroatianandotherethnicancestry.Thisisprobablyagrossundercount,asmanyCroatsareidentifiedasYugoslaviansorSerbs.Afigure of atleast500,000isprobablyamoreaccurateestimate of thenumber of people of CroatianancestryintheUnitedStates.Croatiaisone of thesixconstituentrepublics of themodemnation of Yugoslavia.TheU.S.censushasusu-allyclassifiedDalmatians,wholiveontheAdriaticcoast of Yugoslavia,asCroats.Inthelate1700sandearly1800sDal-matianfishermensettledinLouisiana,wheretheywereabletocontinuetheirmaritimetraditions.Themajormigration of Croatsoccurredbetween1880and World War I whentheyformedCroatiancommunitiesinindustrialandminingtownsandcitiesinPennsylvania,Ohio,Illinois,andIndiana.MostCroatsareRomanCatholic,althoughchurchmember-shipdidnotplayamajorroleintheestablishment of Croa-tiancommunitiesasitdidwithothergroups.Croatshaveas-similatedmoreslowlyintoAmericansocietythanmanyothergroups,anditwasnotuntilthemid-1950sthatinner-cityCroatianneighborhoodsbegantobreakupthroughoutmi-grationtothesuburbs.Factorsinvolvedinthemaintenance of Croatcommunitieswerestrongextendedfamilytiesandapattern of sonssettlinginthesamecommunityandworkinginthesamefactoriesastheirfathers.Since World War11atleast60,000CroatshavesettledintheUnitedStatesandhaveledarenewal of Croatethnicidentity,throughtiesmaintainedwiththehomelandandarevitalizedCroatianpress.BibliographyBennett,Linda(1978).PersonalChoiceinEthnicIdentityMaintenance:Serbs,CroatsandSlovenesinWashington.PaloAlto,Calif.:Rand E ResearchAssociates.Kraljec,Francis(1978).CroationMigrationtoandfromtheUnitedStates.PaloAlto,Calif:Ragusan.Prpic,G.J.(1978).SouthSlavicImmigrationin America. Bos-ton:Twayne.CZECHS.In1980,788,724AmericansclaimedCzechancestryandanother1,103,732claimedCzechandotherethnicancestry.Thisfiguremaybesomewhatinflatedasitin-cludesbothethnicCzechsandCzechoslovaks,some of whommaybeethnicallySlovakratherthanCzech.CzechsintheUnitedStatestodayaremainlydescendants of peoplewhoemigratedfromBohemiaandMoraviabetween1850and1914,thetwomajorregions of theCzecharea of thena-tion of Czechoslovakia.Czechssettledbothinfarmingcom-munities(inWisconsin,Minnesota,Nebraska,Iowa,SouthDakota,andTexas)andincities(NewYork,Cleveland,Chi-cago,andOmaha).CzechsettlersdifferedfromotherEuro-peanethnicgroupsinanumber of ways.First,theyhadanunusuallylowreturn-migrationrate.Second,manylefttheRomanCatholicchurchandeitherconvertedtoProtestant-ismoreschewedformalreligiousaffilationaltogether.Third,althoughtheyneverwereaunifiedgroup,theyassimilatedrelativelyslowly,inpartbecause of valuesthatstressedindi-vidualandfamilyself-relianceandbecause of tiestothehomeland.Afterthe1920s,Czechidentitybegantoweakenasfewnewimmigrantsarrived,childrenattendedpublicschools,andintermarriagebecamecommon.Afterthecommunisttakeover of Czechoslovakiain1948,35,000CzechoslovakiansfledtotheUnitedStatesandanadditional10,000orsoarrivedafterthefailed1968revo-lution.ThesegroupscontainedmanyprofessionalswhooftenstayedapartfromtheestablishedCzechcommunitiesintheUnitedStates.TheCzechpresencestillreflectsconsiderableinternaldiversity(rural/urban,early/laterimmigrants).BibliographyBicha,KarelD.(1980)."Community of Cooperation?TheCase of theCzech-Americans."InStudiesinEthnicity:TheEastEuropeanExperiencein America, editedbyC.A.Ward,P.Shashko,andD. E. Pienkos,9 3-1 02.Boulder:EastEuro-peanMonographs.Jerabek,Esther(1976).CzechsandSlovaksin North America: ABibliography.NewYork:CzechoslovakSociety of ArtsandSciencesin America. Skrabanek,R.L.(1985).We'reCzechs.CollegeStation:TexasA&MUniversityPress.DANES.In1980,428,619AmericansclaimedDanishan-cestryandanother1,089,654claimedDanishandotheran-cestry.MostDanesimmigratedtotheUnitedStatesinthelasthalf of thenineteenthcentury.MormonmissionarieswereactiveinDenmarkafter1850,andasizablecontingent of DanessettledinfarmcommunitiesinUtahandsouthernIdaho.Thedescendants of theseDanishMormonsaccounttodayforabout9percent of DanesintheUnitedStates.MostimmigrantssettledintheMidwest,primarilyinWiscon-sin,Iowa,andMinnesota.ThereisalsoasizableDanishan-cestrypopulationinCalifornia,mostlytheproduct of migra-tionwestfollowinginitialsettlementelsewhere.DanesassimilatedmorequicklythanotherScandinavianpeoples,inpartbecause of theirrelativelyfewnumbersandwidedisper-sal,whichencouragedmarriagetonon-Danesandamorerapidloss of theDanishlanguageandadoption of English.Today,asense of DanishethnicitysurvivesthroughtheDanskSamvirke(theAssociation of DanesAbroad),tourstoDenmark,andDanishcustomsaspart of theChristmascele-bration.BibliographyHale,Frederick,ed.(1984).Danesin North America. Seattle:University of WashingtonPress.Mackintosh,Jette(1988)."'LittleDenmark'onthePrairie:A126European-Canadianssale of AlaskatotheUnitedStates.AftertheRussianRevolu-tionalargenumberimmigratedtoCanada,asdidmanydis-placedpersonsandrefugeesafter World War11.Most of theselattertwogroupssettledincities.RussianshaveneverformedacohesiveethnicentityinCanada,partlybecause of internalvan-ationsandpartlybecause of therelativelyfewRussianswhohavearrivedinthepastfortyyears.Inthoseareaswhereasense of Russianidentitydoesexist,ittendstocenteronparticipationintheRussianOrthodoxchurchorinanticommunistorgani-zations.SeealsoByelorussians,Doukhobors,Estonians,Jews,Latvians,Lithuanians,OldBelievers,UkrainiansinCanadaBibliographyJeletzky,T.F.,ed.(1983).RussianCanadians,TheirPastandPresent.Ottawa:BorealisPress.Jones,DavidC.(1987)."SoPretty,SoMiddleEurope,SoForeign-RutheniansandCanadianization."History of Edu-cationReview16:1 3-3 0.Tarasoff,KoozmaJ.(1988).Spells,Splits,andSurvivalinaRussianCanadianCommunity:AStudy of RussianOrganiza-tionsintheGreaterVancouverArea.NewYorlkAMSPress.SCOTS.Thenumber of Canadians of Scottishethnican-cestryisunknown,astheScotsareclassifiedasBritish,alongwiththeEnglish,Irish,andWelsh.Estimatesfromthe1986censusindicatethat6,332,725CanadiansclaimedBritishethnicancestry.Anadditional2,073,830claimedmixedBrit-ishancestryand3,401,870claimedBritishandotherethnicancestry.In1961,1,894,000CanadiansclaimedScottishan-cestry.Theearliestsizablegroups of ScottishsettlerswerethemenfromtheOrkneyIslandswhoworkedfortheHudson'sBayCompanyinwesternCanadaandsoldierswhoservedintheBritisharmy.From1770to1815asubstantialnumber of RomanCatholic,Gaelic-speakingHighlandScotssettledineasternCanadawheretheirdistinctivecommunitiescontin-uedtoexistforanumber of generations,thoughmosthavenowdisappearedintomainstreamsociety.Sinceabout1815,ScottishmigrationtoCanadahasbeendominatedbytheProtestant,English-speakingLowlandScotswhohavesettledallacrossCanadaexceptforNewfoundlandandQuebec.SincethattimeScotshaveconstitutedabout10percent of theCanadianpopulation.Scotshavebeensuccessfulatbothplayingamajorroleinthedevelopment of Canadiansocietyandmaintainingadistinctsense of ethnicidentity.Scotshaveparticipatedinallareas of Canadianlifebuthavebeenmostvisibleinthereligious,educational,business,andpoliti-calsectorswheretheyhavebroughtsuchvaluesasrespectforeducation,intellectualinquiry,hardwork,andthriftintotheCanadiannationalculture.Today,Scottishidentityismani-festedthroughproudself-identificationasaScotaswellasScottishliterarytraditions,music,dance,sportssuchascurl-ing,andeducationalandotherinstitutions.BibliographyEmmerson,Frank(1987).Peoples of theMaritimes:TheScots.FourEastPublications.Hill,Douglas(1972).TheScotsinCanada.London:GentryBooks.McRae,Ellen(1986)."TheGlens of Glengarry'Aye,'TisNotScotland,but,AchhNowIt'llDo!'"CanadianGeograph-icalJournal106:6 6-7 1.Reid,W.Stanford,ed.(1976).TheScottishTraditioninCan-ada.Toronto:McClelland&Stewart.SERBS.In1986,anestimated9,510CanadiansclaimedSerbianethnicancestry.TheyarepeoplefromtheterritorythatisnowSerbia,one of thesixrepublics of themodemna-tion of Yugoslavia.SerbsinCanada,sincetheyfirstarrived,havebeensometimesmisidentified,firstasHungarians,Aus-trians,orTurks,andlaterasYugoslavians(apolitical,notaculturalcategory).Thus,thefigureaboveunderestimatesthenumber of people of SerbianancestryinCanada.SerbsbeganimmigratingtoCanada(bothfromSerbiaandotherregions of YugoslaviaandlaterfromtheUnitedStates)in1850,andthosewhoarrivedbeforetheearly1900ssettledmainlyinthewesternprovinces.Thosewhoarrivedafterward-before World War1,betweenthewars,andsince World WarII-havemoreoftensettledincitiesinOntario.SerbianidentityremainsstronginCanadaandissupportedbyassociations,dubs,societies,Serbian-languageradio,numerouspublica-tions,andtheSerbianOrthodoxchurch.Themajority of SerbsinCanadastillspeakSerbian.BibliographySkoric,Sofija,andGeorgeVidTomashevich,eds.(198 7- 1988).SerbsinOntario:ASocio-CulturalDescription.Toronto:SerbianHeritageAcademy.SLOVAKS.In1981,67,695CanadiansclaimedCzecho-slovakianethnicancestry.Thisfigurerequiresanumber of qualifications.First,Czechoslovakianisnotanethniccate-gory,butanationalone,referringtothecitizens of themod-emnation of Czechoslovakia(Czecho-Slovakia),whosetwomajorethnicgroupsaretheCzechsandtheSlovaks.Second,itislikelyanunderestimate of thenumber of ethnicCzechsandSlovaksinCanada,aspriorto1918theywereofteniden-tifiedasAustriansorHungarians.And,third,thenumber of people of Slovakancestryisprobablytwotothreetimesgreaterthanthose of Czechancestry,with43,070Canadiansbeingidentifiedas of Czechancestryin1981.SlovakscametoandsettledinCanadaduringfourperiods.Thosewhocamefirst,from1885to World War1,settledintheWest,wheretheyfarmed,mined,andworkedforrailroads.Thesec-ondgroupcameafter World War I, andtheytoofarmedandmined,settlingintheWestandalsoinOntarioandQuebec.Thethirdandfourthwaves of immigrationtookplaceafter World WarIIandaftertherevoltagainstcommunistrulein1968andbroughtdisplacedpersonsandrefugeestoCanada.Althoughmorethanathird of theSlovaksinCanadahavemarriednon-SlovaksandSlovaksvalueCanadiancitizen-ship,theSlovaksremainadistinctethnicgroup.Theirethnicidentityhasbeenmaintainedinavariety of ways,includingparticipationinethnicorganizationsandchurchparishesandasharedconcernabouttheirhomeland.102EastAsians of theUnitedStatesChinese-Americansdevelopedacomplexset of interlockingorganizationsthatenabledthemtomaintainelements of theirtraditionalculturewhileadaptingtotheirnewlife.Intheearlyyears,whenthepopulationwasmostlymale,clanandregionalassociationswithaffiliationbasedonsurnameandregion of originservedtoaffiliatemenintheUnitedStatesandmaintaintieswiththehomeland.Otherorganiza-tionsincludingsecretsocieties(tongs),guilds,andcreditas-sociationswerealsodeveloped,all of whichservedeconomic,political,andsocialfunctions.Withthearrival of morewomenandtheformation of familiesinthetwentiethcen-tury,thesecondgeneration of Chinese-Americansappeared.Althoughtheyweresociallyandeconomicallyisolatedfrommainstreamsociety,theylearnedEnglishinschoolandformedorganizationsbasedonmainstreammodelsandinter-ests.Atthesame,theywerelessinterestedinthetraditionalculture,andmembershipintheclanandregionalassocia-tionsdeclined.Inthepost -World War11immigrantgroup,theclanandregionalassociationsandtongshavedeclinedinimportanceasthefocushasshiftedtoformingorganizationsthatwillhelpChinese-AmericanssecurefullrightsasAmeri-cancitizens.Filipinos.ForFilipino-Americans,themajorinternaldis-tinctionisbasedontheregionfromwhichoneemigrated:theIlocanosfromnorthernLuzon,theTagalogsfromcentralLuzon,andtheVisayansfromthecentralPhilippines.Al-thoughthethreegroupsarenolongerasseparateastheyoncewere,regionalendogamyisstillstressedbythepost- World WarIIparentalgeneration,andapreferenceforaffilia-tionwithpeoplefromthesameregionhascontributedtotheabsence of apan-FilipinoorganizationintheUnitedStates.Inthemostlymalepre -World War11Filipinocommunity,fewsocialorganizationsdeveloped.Instead,socialcohesionwasachievedthroughthemaintenance of familyandkingroupsbasedontraditionalpractices.Today,theRomanCatholicchurchisthesocialcenter of manyFilipinocommu-nities,andkinshipandfriendshipnetworksarealsoimpor-tantagents of socialcohesion.Japanese.WithintheJapanese-Americancommunityamajordistinctionismadeonthebasis of generationintheUnitedStateswiththeisseibeingthefirstgeneration,theniseithesecond,thesanseithethird,andtheyonseithefourth.Thesecategoriesareappliedtothosewhoarrivedbe-fore World War11.Thosewhoarrivedafterthewararetechni-callyissei,butarenotreferredtoassuch.JapaneseintheUnitedStatesalsoincludeJapanesebusinessmenandwivesorex-wives of AmericanswhoworkedinJapanafter World WarII.BoththesegroupsexistoutsidetheJapanese-Americancommunity.IntheprewaryearsinCalifornia,Japanese-Americansformedanetwork of interlockingbusi-nesses,suchasroominghouses,laundries,groceries,andsoon,whichservedtheJapanese-AmericanandotherEastAsian-Americancommunities.Atthesametime,theisseimaintainedacohesivecommunitythrougheducationalandculturalorganizations,acreditassociation,andregionalasso-ciations.Theniseimovedawayfromthemoretraditionalgroupsandchoseinsteadtoformtheirownorganizationsoftenbasedonexistingmainstreammodelsandactivitiessuchasrecreationleagues.Today,theJapanese-Americancommunityissociallycomplexwithdistinctionsmadeonthebasis of generation,age,politicalaffiliation,life-style,andoc-cupation.Atthesametime,Japanesevaluesemphasizinggroupinterestsoverindividualinterests,deference,loyalty,andreciprocitygoverneverydaybehaviorformanyJapanese-Americansandareamajorsource of socialcohesion.Koreans.TheKorean-Americancommunitytodayiscomposedmainly of peoplewhoimmigratedtotheUnitedStatesafter World WarIIandtheirchildren.Onebasicdis-tinctioninthecommunityismadeamongthoseborninKorea(Ilse),thosebornintheUnitedStates(Eseorsamee,andthosewhocametotheUnitedStateswhentheywereyoung.TheIlsetendtospeakKoreanratherthanEnglish,havestrongtiestoKorea,andemphasizetheroleandauthor-ity of thefamilyandthehusband/father.ThoseintheyoungergenerationaremoreassimilatedintoAmericansoci-ety.UnliketheotherEastAsiangroups,organizationsbasedonkinshiporregionalaffiliationsrarelyformedamongKorean-Americans.Rather,mostorganizationshaveformedonthebasis of commoninterestsandincludeclubs,churches,associations,andpoliticalgroups.One of themoreimportantarethealumniassociations(highschoolandcol-lege)whichenmeshKorean-Americansinlifelongsocialandeconomicnetworks.LivingoutsidetheKorean-Americancommunityareperhapsasmanyas100,000wivesorex-wives of AmericanservicemenwhoservedinKorea,theirchildren,andthousands of KoreanchildrenadoptedintoWhitefami-lies.PoliticalOrganizaion.Becausetheyweredeniedcitizen-shipandtherighttovote,EastAsian-Americansbefore World War11wereessentiallypowerlesstodirectlyinfluencelocal,state,orfederalpoliciesandactionsthataffectedthem.Withinthemostlymale,relativelyisolatedEastAsian-Americancommunities,socialcontrolanddecisionmakingwasbasedontraditionalbeliefsandcustomsthatusuallyac-cordedmuchauthoritytotheoldermeninthecommunity.Atthesametime,theregionalandclanassociations,guilds,secretsocieties,andotherorganizationsservedasspecialin-terestgroupstoadvancetheinterests of theirmembers.EastAsian-AmericaninterestswithinAmericansocietywereoftenhandledbyumbrellaorganizations,whichincludedtheChineseConsolidatedBenevolentAssociationandlatertheChinese-AmericanCitizensAlliance,theJapanese-Amer-icanCitizen'sLeague,andtheKoreanAssociation.Apan-Filipinopoliticalorganizationdidnotdevelop,thoughFilipi-noswereactiveinlabormovementsinHawaiiandCalifornia.Politicsinthehomelandhaveandcontinuetobeamajorconcernandasource of conflictespeciallyintheChinese-AmericanandKorean-Americancommunities.SomeKorean-Americansaffiliateonthebasis of tiestofactionsinKorea,andamajordivisionintheChinese-Americancom-munityinvolvesthosewhoemphasizetiestoTaiwanversusthosewhorecognizeandwanttiesstrengthenedwiththePeo-ple'sRepublic of China.Japanese-AmericanshavebeenactiveinHawaiianpoli-ticsandholdmanyelectiveoffices,adevelopmentthathassometimesledtoconflictwithotherethnicgroups.Onthemainland,especiallysincethe1960sandtosomeextentasaresult of thecivilrightsmovement,ChineseandJapanese-Americansespeciallyhavebeenmoreactiveinvoicingtheirconcerns,participatinginthemajorpoliticalpartypolitics,runningforoffice,andseekinggovernmentemployment.16European-AmericansfromthesecommunitiesandhavefocusedtheirattentiononanticommunistactivitiesandRomanian-U.S.relations.Thecommunityhasrecentlycoalescedaroundtheoverthrow of thecommunistleadership of Romaniain198 9-1 990.BibliographyBobango,GeraldJ.(1978)."TheUnionandLeague of Ro-manianSocieties:An'AssimilatingForce.'"EastEuropeanQuarterly12:8 5-9 2.Roceris,Alexandra(1982).LanguageMaintenancewithinanAmericanCommunity:TheCase of Romanian.GrassLakeandJackson,Mich:Romanian-AmericanHeritageCenter.RUSSIANS.In1980,1,379,585AmericansclaimedRus-sianancestryandanother1,401,847claimedRussianandotherancestry.Thecategory"Russian"generallyincludespeoplewhoemigratedfromwhatwastheRussianEmpireandisnowtheSovietUnion.Thisincludesanumber of culturallydistinctgroupsincludingethnicRussians,Ukrainians,Geor-gians,Latvians,Lithuanians,Estonians,Belorussians(Byelo-russians,WhiteRussians),Galicians,RussianJews,Douk-hobors,OldBelievers,Molokans,Carpatho-Rusyns,andCossacks.Stretchedtoitslimits,Russianscanalsoincludepeoplesfromnon-Europeanregions of theSovietUnionsuchastheAzerbaijani,Kalmyk,andTurkestaniwhodonotcon-siderthemselvesRussian.Inshort,"Russians"ismorecor-rectlyviewedasaterritorial-politicallabelthananethnicone,exceptwhenappliedspecificallytoethnicRussians.RussiansimmigratedtotheUnitedStatesinfivestages.Thefirstgroupwascomposed of traderswhosettledinAlaskatotradeforfurswiththelocalAmericanIndiangroups.WhenRussiasoldAlaskatotheUnitedStatesin1867,theyeitherreturnedhomeormigratedtoCalifornia.Fromthe1880sto World War I, RussianssettledinindustrialcitiesintheEastandMidwest.AftertheRussianRevolution of 1917,alargeinflux of mostlymiddle-class,anticommunistRussiansalsosettledinlargecities.After World War11,Russiandis-placedpersonsandrefugeesmadetheirwayto ... fewfarmingcommunitiesformedincentralCalifornia,Louisiana,Illinois,andArkansas.ButtheItalianimmigrantsweremostlyanurbangroup,withatleast85percentsettlingincities.Italybecameaunifiednationonlyin1870;thusItalianimmigrantsgenerallyfeltonlyaweakidentitywithItalyandlackedanoverarchingculturaltraditiontypical of otherim-migrantgroups.ThisledtotwouniquedevelopmentsintheUnitedStates.First,strongtiesweremaintainedwiththetownfromwhichemigrationtookplace,andaweakersense of Italianidentityprevailed.Second,withinthefirsttwogen-erations of settlement,asyncreticItalian-AmericanculturedevelopedintheUnitedStates.Keyfeatures of thenewcul-turalidentitywereanAmericanizeddialect of Italianthatre-placedtheregionallanguagesanddialects,adistinctlyItaliantraditionwithintheIrish-dominatedAmericanRomanCath-olicchurchfeaturingamore"emotional-celebratory"set of practices,involvementinlocalpolitics,andtheformation of associations,banks,andlaborunionsthatservedtheItaliancommunity.Atthesametime,thelargepatriarchalfamiliesweregivingwaytosmallfamilies,withintermarriagetonon-ItalianRomanCatholicsincreasinginfrequency.Assimilationhasprogressedrapidlysince World WarII,andtheItaliansarenowamiddle-class,urban-suburbangroup.Althoughmuch of thepopulationhasshiftedtosub-urbs,distinctItalianneighborhoodsremaininmanycities,includingPhiladelphia,NewYork,Chicago,St.Louis,Newark,andProvidence.Atthesametime,theItalian.Americanculturalidentityismaintainedthroughextendedfamilyties,thechurch,uniquefoodpreferencesandprac-tices,andageneralsense of respectforthefamilyanditsold-estmembers.BibliographyAlba,RichardD.(1985).ItalianAmericans.EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.:Prentice-Hall.Belfiglio,C.V.(1983).ItalianExperienceinTexas.Austin:EakinPress.Cinel,Dino(1982).FromItalytoSanFrancisco:TheImmi-grantExperience.Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress.diLeonardo,Micaela(1984).TheVarieties of EthnicExperi-ence:Kinship,Class,andGenderamongCaliforniaItalian-Americans.Ithaca:CornellUniversityPress.Martinelli,PhyllisC.(1987).EthnicityintheSunbelt:Italian-AmericanMigrantsinScottsdale,Arizona.NewYork:AMSPress.Mormino,GaryR.(1986).ImmigrantsontheHill:Italian-AmericansinSt.Louis,188 2-1 982.Urbana:University of Il-linoisPress.Nelli,HumbertS.(1983).FromImmigrantstoEthnics:TheItalianAmericans.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.EastAsians of theUnitedStates101cantnumbersinmanagerialandprofessionalpositions(22.5percentforFilipinosto38percentforChinese),withthelargestpercentages of womenbeingemployedinadministra-tivesupportandservicejobs.Uniqueoccupationpatternsin-clude22percent of Chinese-Americanmeninservicejobs,30.4percent of Filipino-Americanmeninserviceandadmin-istrativesupportpositions,and14.4percent of Korean-Americanmeninsales.Forwomen,18.2percent of Chinese-Americanand24percent of Korean-Americanwomenworkinlow-levellaborerpositions.Grossfiguresindicatethatfull-timeChinese-AmericanandJapanese-AmericanmenhavehigherincomesandFilipino-AmericanandKorean-AmericanmenhavelowerincomesthanWhites.TheChi-neseandJapanesefiguresaresomewhatmisleading,however,inthattheydonotreflectthefactthatmeninthesegroupsoftenhavemoreeducationandworklongerhoursthandoWhites.Korean-Americanshavedrawnconsiderableatten-tionasowners of smallbusinesses,oftengrocerystoresorveg-etablestands,inminorityneighborhoods,suggestingamid-dlemanminorityrolesimilartotheChineseandJapaneseearlier.Kinship,MarriageandFamilyKinship.IntheearlyKorean,Chinese,andFilipinocom-munities,whichwerecomposedalmostentirely of men,tiestofamiliesandwiderkinnetworksweremaintainedthroughreturnvisits,correspondence,andtheremittance of aper-centage of theman'searnings.Inthecommunitiesthatformedinthiscountry,theabsence of EastAsianwomenandantimiscegenationlawsmademarriageandtheformation of familiesandkingroupsdifficult.Somecommunitycohesionwascreatedthroughfictivekingroupsmodeledonclanandextendedfamilystructuresinthehomeland.Chinesemenformedfictiveclanswithrecruitmentandmembershipbasedonimmigrationfromthesamevillageorprovinceorposses-sion of thesamesurname.WhenChinesefamiliesbegantoformlaterintheearlytwentiethcenturywiththearrival of Chinesewomen,theseclanassociationsbecamelessimpor-tant.Filipinosorganizedcompang,fictiveextendedfamiliescomposed of menwhoimmigratedfromthesamevillage,withtheoldestmanusuallyheadingthefamily.AsmoreFili-pinowomenimmigratedtotheUnitedStates,Filipino-Americanfamiliesbecamemorecommon(thoughbefore World WarIIFilipino-Americanmenstilloutnumberedwomenbynearlythreetoone),andthecompadrazgo(godpar-ent)systemwastransferredtotheUnitedStateswitheachin-dividualthenenmeshedinanetwork of actualandfictivekin.ThesituationforJapanese-Americanswasdifferent,asbeginningin1910stablefamiliesbegantoformandJapaneseurbanandruralcommunitiesalsobecomerelativelystable.Althoughthesecond-generationJapanese-Americans,thenisei,werebeingacculturatedintoAmericansociety,thefirst-generation-basedfamily(issei)wasstillstrongenoughtomaintaintraditionalbeliefsregardingappropriatebehaviorbetweensuperiorsandinferiorsaswellasfilialduties.MarriageandFamily.ThemostnoteworthytrendinEastAsian-Americanmarriagesistheshiftfromethnicendoga-moustoethnicexogamousmarriage.Inallgroupssincethe1950stherehasbeenalargeincreaseinthenumber of mar-riagestonon-ethnicgroupmembers,andespeciallytoWhites.ContemporaryEastAsian-Americanfamiliesaregenerallysmallnuclearfamilies.Korean-AmericanandFili-pino-Americanhouseholdsaresomewhatlargerbecause of thelargernumber of childrenintheformerandthepresence of non-nuclearfamilymembersinthelatter.EastAsian-Americanfamiliesarenotablystable,withover84percent of childreninallfourgroupslivingwithboth of theirparents.Nonetheless,thereareconcernsintheChinese-AmericancommunityaboutjuveniledelinquencyandintheKorean-Americanaboutwhatisconsideredahighdivorcerate.ThereisamajordifferenceinhouseholdcompositionbetweenthosealreadysettledintheUnitedStatesandrecentimmi-grants.Householdsamongthelatterfrequentlycontainaddi-tionalrelativesbeyondthenuclearfamilyorfriends,asthesehouseholdsareoftenpart of thechainmigrationprocessthroughwhichrelativesimmigratetotheUnitedStates.WithinhouseholdsinallfourEastAsian-Americangroups,decisionmakinghasbecomemoreegalitarianaspa-triarchalauthorityhasdiminished.Women,however,stillbearthemajorresponsibilityforhouseholdtasks,eventhoughamajority of bothmenandwomenareemployed.Educationalopportunitiesareaffordedbothboysandgirls,andbothsexesareencouragedtoexcelinschool.Socialization.AswithAmericansingeneral,socializationtakesplacethroughthefamily,thelocalcommunity,andtheformaleducationsystem.ManyEastAsiansinthepastcameto America withahighschooleducationandmany of there.centimmigrantshavecollegeand/orprofessionaleducationortechnicaltraining.Thechildren of recentimmigrantsmakefulluse of educationalopportunitiesintheUnitedStates;infacteducationfortheirchildrenisamajorreasonmanyEastAsiansresettle.Programsdesignedtomaintainthetraditionalculture,suchaslanguageclasses,youthgroups,andculturalprogramsareofferedinallmajorEastAsiancommunitiesbyethnicassociationsandchurches.Onemajorproblemfacingmanyrecentimmigrantfamiliesisagenerationalgapbetweenparentswhoprefertospeakthena-tivelanguageandeatnativefoods,stressfamilyobligations,andassociatemainlywithotherethnicgroupmembersandtheirchildrenwhoseethemselvesasAmericans,speakEn-glish,andmakefriendsamongnon-Asian-Americans.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Each of thefourEastAsian-Amer-icangroupsisadiverseethnicgroupcomposed of anumber of distinctsubgroups.Acrossallfourgroups,twointernaldi-visionsaremostobvious.Firstisthedistinctionbetweenthosewhosettledbefore World WarIIandtheirdescendantsandthosewhoarrivedafterthewar.Secondisthedistinctioninthepost -World WarIIgroupbetweentheparentalandsecondgeneration,withthelattercomposed of thosewhowerebornintheUnitedStatesorcamewhentheywereyoung.Beyondthesetwocategories,eachEastAsiangroupdisplaysadditionaldiversityaswellasvarioussocialinstitu-tionsdevelopedintheUnitedStates.Chinese.MajordivisionswithintheChinese-Americancommunityincludethosebasedonplace of origin(HongKong,Taiwan,SoutheastAsia),Cantoneseornon-Cantoneseethnicity,ruralorurbanresidence,andsupportforTaiwanorrecognition of thePeople'sRepublic of China.LocalizedinChinatownsandexcludedfromfullparticipa-tioninAmericansocietyforoveronehundredyears,European-Canadians127BibliographyKirschbaum,JosephM.(1967).SlovaksinCanada.Toronto:CanadianEthnicPressAssociation.Stolarik,M.Mark(1988).'FromFieldtoFactory:TheHisto-riography of SlovakImmigrationtotheU.S.andCanada(197 6-1 987)."EthnicForum8:2 3-3 9.Sutherland,AnthonyX.(1984).TheCanadianSlovakLeague:AHistoy,193 2-1 982.Toronto:CanadianSlovakLeague.SLOVENES.(Slovenians).In1986,anestimated5,890CanadiansclaimedSlovenianethicancestry.SlovenesarepeoplefromtheterritorythatisnowSlovenia,one of thesixrepublics of themodernnation of Yugoslavia.SlovenesinCanada,sincetheyfirstarrived,havebeensometimesmisidentified,firstasHungarians,Italians,orTurks,andlaterasYugoslavians(apolitical,notaculturalcategory).Thus,thefigureaboveunderestimatesthenumber of people of SlovenianancestryinCanada.SlovenianimmigrationtoCanadacanbedividedintotwoperiods:beforeandafter World War11.Thosewhocamebeforethewar,especiallyinthelate1800sandearly1900s,settledmainlyinruralcom-munities,ofteninthewesternprovinces.Many of thosewhocameafter World War11werepoliticalrefugeeswhosettledmainlyincities,especiallyToronto.Theyhavestimulatedarevival of Slovenianethnicidentity,centeredaroundtheirRomanCatholicparishesandanticommunistsentiments.SPANIARDS.In1986,anestimated57,125CanadiansclaimedSpanishethnicancestry.ThisfigureincludesbothSpaniardsandLatinos.Spaniardsarepeoplewhomigrateddi-rectlyfromSpain(perhapswithashortstopelsewhere)orwhoseancestorsdidso.TheyshouldbedifferentiatedfromLatinoswhoarepeople of LatinAmericanancestryButbe-causeSpanishimmigrantseitherhavenotbeencountedatallorwereattimeslumpedwithLatinos,itisimpossibletosayhowmanySpaniardshavesettledinCanada.ThemajorpopulationcentersareOntarioandQuebec,with78percent of theSpanishpopulationinthosetwoprovinces.Forthemostpart,SpanishimmigrantsandtheirdescendantshaverapidlyassimilatedintoCanadiansociety,andnostrongsense of SpanishidentityorculturehaseveremergedLAssimilationhasbeenespeciallyrapidinFrenchCanada.TisisinpartbecauseSpaniardswerefewinnumbercomparedtootherimmigrantgroupsalsoarrivinginthetwentiethcenturyandalsobecauseregionalculturalidentities(Galician,Catalonian,andsoon)weremoreimportantinSpainthanasense of anationalculture.SeealsoLatinosBibliograPhyAnderson,GraceM.(1979)."SpanishandPortuguese-SpeakingImmigrantsinCanada."InTwoNations,ManyCultures:EthnicGroupsinCanada,editedbyJeanL.Elliott,20 6-2 19.Scarborough,Ontario:Prentice-Hall of Canada.SWEDES.In1981,78,360CanadiansclaimedSwedishethnicancestry.Themajorperiod of SwedishsettlementinCanadawasfrom1868to1914.Most of thesepeoplecameafterhavingfirstsettledinMinnesotaand North Dakota.InCanada,theysettledmainlyinthewesternprovinces,withWinnipegbecomingthehub of SwedishactivitiesandBritishColumbiatodayhavingthelargestSwedishpopulation.Themajority of theseearlysettlerswerefarmers,althoughmany of theirdescendantshavemovedtocitieswheretheyworkinin-dustryandbusiness.Other,smallerinfluxes of Swedesfol-lowed World Wars I andII,withthesepeoplesettlingmainlyinOntario.TheruralSwedishcommunitieswerejoinedto-getherthroughvariousorganizationsincludingtheSwedishLutheranchurch,laborunions,temperancegroups,societies,andclubs.Today,SwedesaremuchassimilatedintoCana-diansociety,aresult of theirmovementtocities,activepar-ticipationinthepubliceducationsystem,andtherelativelyfewnewarrivalsinthelastfewdecades.SWISS.In1986,anestimated19,130CanadiansclaimedSwissethnicancestry.Ontarioishometothelargestnumber,followedbyBritishColumbia,Alberta,andQuebec.TheSwisscametoCanadafrombothSwitzerlandandtheUnitedStates,andasubstantialnumberarrivedbeforethetwentiethcentury.ThemajoritywerefromtheGerman-speakingregion of Switzerland,andtheytendedtoaffiliatewithGermansinCanada;thosefromtheFrench-speakingregionaffiliatedwithFrench-Canadians.Today,astrongsense of Swissiden-tityhasdisappeared,andtheSwissaregenerallyassimilatedintoCanadiansociety.SeealsoMennonitesWELSH.In1981,46,620CanadiansclaimedWelsheth-nicancestry.Thisisalmostcertainlyalargeundercount(onlytwentyyearsearliernearlythreetimesasmanyclaimedWelshethnicity)andismostlytheresult of manyWelshbeingclassi-fiedasBritishorasEnglish(theyhaddepartedfromLiver-pool).WelshimmigrationtoCanadabeganwithWelshsol-dierswhoservedwiththeBritishintheAmericanRevolution.Theinfluxpeakedafter1862whengoldminerssettledinBritishColumbia,in1902whenthePatagonianWelshrelocatedfromArgentina,after World War I, after World WarII,andinthemid-1950s.TheWelshinCanadahaveneverformedanationalorganization,althoughlocalso-cietiesandassociationshaveexistedsincetheearlydays of settlementinCanada.Perhapsthemostvisiblesigns of WelshidentitytodayaretheGyrnanfaGanu(hymn-singingfestival)andeisteddod(artsfestival)regularlyheldbyvariousWelshsocieties.Ingeneral,theWelshlumpthemselvesandarelumpedbyothersunderthegeneralcategory of British,and,assuch,aremuchassimilatedintoCanadiansociety.BibliographyBennett,Carol(1985).InSearch of theRedDragon:TheWelshinCanada.Renfrew,Ontario:JuniperBooks.Thomas,Peter(1986).StrangersfromaSecretLand:TheVoy-ages of theBrig'Albion'andtheFounding of theFirstWelshSettlementsinCanada.Toronto-University of TorontoPress.Eurobean-Americans109fromtheLemkianregion of southeasternPolandformedaseparateethnicassociation.Theyhavemadeastrongefforttomaintaintheirethnicidentitythroughanactivepress,con-cemabouttheirnationalidentity,andthemaintenance of sometraditionalpractices.SeealsoUkrainiansBibliographyMagocsi,PaulR(1984).OurPeople:Carpatho-RusynsandTheirDescendantsin North America. Toronto:MulticulturalHistorySociety of Ontario.CROATS(Croatians).In1980,107,855AmericansclaimedCroatianancestryandanother145,115claimedCroatianandotherethnicancestry.Thisisprobablyagrossundercount,asmanyCroatsareidentifiedasYugoslaviansorSerbs.Afigure of atleast500,000isprobablyamoreaccurateestimate of thenumber of people of CroatianancestryintheUnitedStates.Croatiaisone of thesixconstituentrepublics of themodemnation of Yugoslavia.TheU.S.censushasusu-allyclassifiedDalmatians,wholiveontheAdriaticcoast of Yugoslavia,asCroats.Inthelate1700sandearly1800sDal-matianfishermensettledinLouisiana,wheretheywereabletocontinuetheirmaritimetraditions.Themajormigration of Croatsoccurredbetween1880and World War I whentheyformedCroatiancommunitiesinindustrialandminingtownsandcitiesinPennsylvania,Ohio,Illinois,andIndiana.MostCroatsareRomanCatholic,althoughchurchmember-shipdidnotplayamajorroleintheestablishment of Croa-tiancommunitiesasitdidwithothergroups.Croatshaveas-similatedmoreslowlyintoAmericansocietythanmanyothergroups,anditwasnotuntilthemid-1950sthatinner-cityCroatianneighborhoodsbegantobreakupthroughoutmi-grationtothesuburbs.Factorsinvolvedinthemaintenance of Croatcommunitieswerestrongextendedfamilytiesandapattern of sonssettlinginthesamecommunityandworkinginthesamefactoriesastheirfathers.Since World War11atleast60,000CroatshavesettledintheUnitedStatesandhaveledarenewal of Croatethnicidentity,throughtiesmaintainedwiththehomelandandarevitalizedCroatianpress.BibliographyBennett,Linda(1978).PersonalChoiceinEthnicIdentityMaintenance:Serbs,CroatsandSlovenesinWashington.PaloAlto,Calif.:Rand E ResearchAssociates.Kraljec,Francis(1978).CroationMigrationtoandfromtheUnitedStates.PaloAlto,Calif:Ragusan.Prpic,G.J.(1978).SouthSlavicImmigrationin America. Bos-ton:Twayne.CZECHS.In1980,788,724AmericansclaimedCzechancestryandanother1,103,732claimedCzechandotherethnicancestry.Thisfiguremaybesomewhatinflatedasitin-cludesbothethnicCzechsandCzechoslovaks,some of whommaybeethnicallySlovakratherthanCzech.CzechsintheUnitedStatestodayaremainlydescendants of peoplewhoemigratedfromBohemiaandMoraviabetween1850and1914,thetwomajorregions of theCzecharea of thena-tion of Czechoslovakia.Czechssettledbothinfarmingcom-munities(inWisconsin,Minnesota,Nebraska,Iowa,SouthDakota,andTexas)andincities(NewYork,Cleveland,Chi-cago,andOmaha).CzechsettlersdifferedfromotherEuro-peanethnicgroupsinanumber of ways.First,theyhadanunusuallylowreturn-migrationrate.Second,manylefttheRomanCatholicchurchandeitherconvertedtoProtestant-ismoreschewedformalreligiousaffilationaltogether.Third,althoughtheyneverwereaunifiedgroup,theyassimilatedrelativelyslowly,inpartbecause of valuesthatstressedindi-vidualandfamilyself-relianceandbecause of tiestothehomeland.Afterthe1920s,Czechidentitybegantoweakenasfewnewimmigrantsarrived,childrenattendedpublicschools,andintermarriagebecamecommon.Afterthecommunisttakeover of Czechoslovakiain1948,35,000CzechoslovakiansfledtotheUnitedStatesandanadditional10,000orsoarrivedafterthefailed1968revo-lution.ThesegroupscontainedmanyprofessionalswhooftenstayedapartfromtheestablishedCzechcommunitiesintheUnitedStates.TheCzechpresencestillreflectsconsiderableinternaldiversity(rural/urban,early/laterimmigrants).BibliographyBicha,KarelD.(1980)."Community of Cooperation?TheCase of theCzech-Americans."InStudiesinEthnicity:TheEastEuropeanExperiencein America, editedbyC.A.Ward,P.Shashko,andD. E. Pienkos,9 3-1 02.Boulder:EastEuro-peanMonographs.Jerabek,Esther(1976).CzechsandSlovaksin North America: ABibliography.NewYork:CzechoslovakSociety of ArtsandSciencesin America. Skrabanek,R.L.(1985).We'reCzechs.CollegeStation:TexasA&MUniversityPress.DANES.In1980,428,619AmericansclaimedDanishan-cestryandanother1,089,654claimedDanishandotheran-cestry.MostDanesimmigratedtotheUnitedStatesinthelasthalf of thenineteenthcentury.MormonmissionarieswereactiveinDenmarkafter1850,andasizablecontingent of DanessettledinfarmcommunitiesinUtahandsouthernIdaho.Thedescendants of theseDanishMormonsaccounttodayforabout9percent of DanesintheUnitedStates.MostimmigrantssettledintheMidwest,primarilyinWiscon-sin,Iowa,andMinnesota.ThereisalsoasizableDanishan-cestrypopulationinCalifornia,mostlytheproduct of migra-tionwestfollowinginitialsettlementelsewhere.DanesassimilatedmorequicklythanotherScandinavianpeoples,inpartbecause of theirrelativelyfewnumbersandwidedisper-sal,whichencouragedmarriagetonon-Danesandamorerapidloss of theDanishlanguageandadoption of English.Today,asense of DanishethnicitysurvivesthroughtheDanskSamvirke(theAssociation of DanesAbroad),tourstoDenmark,andDanishcustomsaspart of theChristmascele-bration.BibliographyHale,Frederick,ed.(1984).Danesin North America. Seattle:University of WashingtonPress.Mackintosh,Jette(1988)."'LittleDenmark'onthePrairie:A126European-Canadianssale of AlaskatotheUnitedStates.AftertheRussianRevolu-tionalargenumberimmigratedtoCanada,asdidmanydis-placedpersonsandrefugeesafter World War11.Most of theselattertwogroupssettledincities.RussianshaveneverformedacohesiveethnicentityinCanada,partlybecause of internalvan-ationsandpartlybecause of therelativelyfewRussianswhohavearrivedinthepastfortyyears.Inthoseareaswhereasense of Russianidentitydoesexist,ittendstocenteronparticipationintheRussianOrthodoxchurchorinanticommunistorgani-zations.SeealsoByelorussians,Doukhobors,Estonians,Jews,Latvians,Lithuanians,OldBelievers,UkrainiansinCanadaBibliographyJeletzky,T.F.,ed.(1983).RussianCanadians,TheirPastandPresent.Ottawa:BorealisPress.Jones,DavidC.(1987)."SoPretty,SoMiddleEurope,SoForeign-RutheniansandCanadianization."History of Edu-cationReview16:1 3-3 0.Tarasoff,KoozmaJ.(1988).Spells,Splits,andSurvivalinaRussianCanadianCommunity:AStudy of RussianOrganiza-tionsintheGreaterVancouverArea.NewYorlkAMSPress.SCOTS.Thenumber of Canadians of Scottishethnican-cestryisunknown,astheScotsareclassifiedasBritish,alongwiththeEnglish,Irish,andWelsh.Estimatesfromthe1986censusindicatethat6,332,725CanadiansclaimedBritishethnicancestry.Anadditional2,073,830claimedmixedBrit-ishancestryand3,401,870claimedBritishandotherethnicancestry.In1961,1,894,000CanadiansclaimedScottishan-cestry.Theearliestsizablegroups of ScottishsettlerswerethemenfromtheOrkneyIslandswhoworkedfortheHudson'sBayCompanyinwesternCanadaandsoldierswhoservedintheBritisharmy.From1770to1815asubstantialnumber of RomanCatholic,Gaelic-speakingHighlandScotssettledineasternCanadawheretheirdistinctivecommunitiescontin-uedtoexistforanumber of generations,thoughmosthavenowdisappearedintomainstreamsociety.Sinceabout1815,ScottishmigrationtoCanadahasbeendominatedbytheProtestant,English-speakingLowlandScotswhohavesettledallacrossCanadaexceptforNewfoundlandandQuebec.SincethattimeScotshaveconstitutedabout10percent of theCanadianpopulation.Scotshavebeensuccessfulatbothplayingamajorroleinthedevelopment of Canadiansocietyandmaintainingadistinctsense of ethnicidentity.Scotshaveparticipatedinallareas of Canadianlifebuthavebeenmostvisibleinthereligious,educational,business,andpoliti-calsectorswheretheyhavebroughtsuchvaluesasrespectforeducation,intellectualinquiry,hardwork,andthriftintotheCanadiannationalculture.Today,Scottishidentityismani-festedthroughproudself-identificationasaScotaswellasScottishliterarytraditions,music,dance,sportssuchascurl-ing,andeducationalandotherinstitutions.BibliographyEmmerson,Frank(1987).Peoples of theMaritimes:TheScots.FourEastPublications.Hill,Douglas(1972).TheScotsinCanada.London:GentryBooks.McRae,Ellen(1986)."TheGlens of Glengarry'Aye,'TisNotScotland,but,AchhNowIt'llDo!'"CanadianGeograph-icalJournal106:6 6-7 1.Reid,W.Stanford,ed.(1976).TheScottishTraditioninCan-ada.Toronto:McClelland&Stewart.SERBS.In1986,anestimated9,510CanadiansclaimedSerbianethnicancestry.TheyarepeoplefromtheterritorythatisnowSerbia,one of thesixrepublics of themodemna-tion of Yugoslavia.SerbsinCanada,sincetheyfirstarrived,havebeensometimesmisidentified,firstasHungarians,Aus-trians,orTurks,andlaterasYugoslavians(apolitical,notaculturalcategory).Thus,thefigureaboveunderestimatesthenumber of people of SerbianancestryinCanada.SerbsbeganimmigratingtoCanada(bothfromSerbiaandotherregions of YugoslaviaandlaterfromtheUnitedStates)in1850,andthosewhoarrivedbeforetheearly1900ssettledmainlyinthewesternprovinces.Thosewhoarrivedafterward-before World War1,betweenthewars,andsince World WarII-havemoreoftensettledincitiesinOntario.SerbianidentityremainsstronginCanadaandissupportedbyassociations,dubs,societies,Serbian-languageradio,numerouspublica-tions,andtheSerbianOrthodoxchurch.Themajority of SerbsinCanadastillspeakSerbian.BibliographySkoric,Sofija,andGeorgeVidTomashevich,eds.(198 7- 1988).SerbsinOntario:ASocio-CulturalDescription.Toronto:SerbianHeritageAcademy.SLOVAKS.In1981,67,695CanadiansclaimedCzecho-slovakianethnicancestry.Thisfigurerequiresanumber of qualifications.First,Czechoslovakianisnotanethniccate-gory,butanationalone,referringtothecitizens of themod-emnation of Czechoslovakia(Czecho-Slovakia),whosetwomajorethnicgroupsaretheCzechsandtheSlovaks.Second,itislikelyanunderestimate of thenumber of ethnicCzechsandSlovaksinCanada,aspriorto1918theywereofteniden-tifiedasAustriansorHungarians.And,third,thenumber of people of Slovakancestryisprobablytwotothreetimesgreaterthanthose of Czechancestry,with43,070Canadiansbeingidentifiedas of Czechancestryin1981.SlovakscametoandsettledinCanadaduringfourperiods.Thosewhocamefirst,from1885to World War1,settledintheWest,wheretheyfarmed,mined,andworkedforrailroads.Thesec-ondgroupcameafter World War I, andtheytoofarmedandmined,settlingintheWestandalsoinOntarioandQuebec.Thethirdandfourthwaves of immigrationtookplaceafter World WarIIandaftertherevoltagainstcommunistrulein1968andbroughtdisplacedpersonsandrefugeestoCanada.Althoughmorethanathird of theSlovaksinCanadahavemarriednon-SlovaksandSlovaksvalueCanadiancitizen-ship,theSlovaksremainadistinctethnicgroup.Theirethnicidentityhasbeenmaintainedinavariety of ways,includingparticipationinethnicorganizationsandchurchparishesandasharedconcernabouttheirhomeland.102EastAsians of theUnitedStatesChinese-Americansdevelopedacomplexset of interlockingorganizationsthatenabledthemtomaintainelements of theirtraditionalculturewhileadaptingtotheirnewlife.Intheearlyyears,whenthepopulationwasmostlymale,clanandregionalassociationswithaffiliationbasedonsurnameandregion of originservedtoaffiliatemenintheUnitedStatesandmaintaintieswiththehomeland.Otherorganiza-tionsincludingsecretsocieties(tongs),guilds,andcreditas-sociationswerealsodeveloped,all of whichservedeconomic,political,andsocialfunctions.Withthearrival of morewomenandtheformation of familiesinthetwentiethcen-tury,thesecondgeneration of Chinese-Americansappeared.Althoughtheyweresociallyandeconomicallyisolatedfrommainstreamsociety,theylearnedEnglishinschoolandformedorganizationsbasedonmainstreammodelsandinter-ests.Atthesame,theywerelessinterestedinthetraditionalculture,andmembershipintheclanandregionalassocia-tionsdeclined.Inthepost -World War11immigrantgroup,theclanandregionalassociationsandtongshavedeclinedinimportanceasthefocushasshiftedtoformingorganizationsthatwillhelpChinese-AmericanssecurefullrightsasAmeri-cancitizens.Filipinos.ForFilipino-Americans,themajorinternaldis-tinctionisbasedontheregionfromwhichoneemigrated:theIlocanosfromnorthernLuzon,theTagalogsfromcentralLuzon,andtheVisayansfromthecentralPhilippines.Al-thoughthethreegroupsarenolongerasseparateastheyoncewere,regionalendogamyisstillstressedbythepost- World WarIIparentalgeneration,andapreferenceforaffilia-tionwithpeoplefromthesameregionhascontributedtotheabsence of apan-FilipinoorganizationintheUnitedStates.Inthemostlymalepre -World War11Filipinocommunity,fewsocialorganizationsdeveloped.Instead,socialcohesionwasachievedthroughthemaintenance of familyandkingroupsbasedontraditionalpractices.Today,theRomanCatholicchurchisthesocialcenter of manyFilipinocommu-nities,andkinshipandfriendshipnetworksarealsoimpor-tantagents of socialcohesion.Japanese.WithintheJapanese-Americancommunityamajordistinctionismadeonthebasis of generationintheUnitedStateswiththeisseibeingthefirstgeneration,theniseithesecond,thesanseithethird,andtheyonseithefourth.Thesecategoriesareappliedtothosewhoarrivedbe-fore World War11.Thosewhoarrivedafterthewararetechni-callyissei,butarenotreferredtoassuch.JapaneseintheUnitedStatesalsoincludeJapanesebusinessmenandwivesorex-wives of AmericanswhoworkedinJapanafter World WarII.BoththesegroupsexistoutsidetheJapanese-Americancommunity.IntheprewaryearsinCalifornia,Japanese-Americansformedanetwork of interlockingbusi-nesses,suchasroominghouses,laundries,groceries,andsoon,whichservedtheJapanese-AmericanandotherEastAsian-Americancommunities.Atthesametime,theisseimaintainedacohesivecommunitythrougheducationalandculturalorganizations,acreditassociation,andregionalasso-ciations.Theniseimovedawayfromthemoretraditionalgroupsandchoseinsteadtoformtheirownorganizationsoftenbasedonexistingmainstreammodelsandactivitiessuchasrecreationleagues.Today,theJapanese-Americancommunityissociallycomplexwithdistinctionsmadeonthebasis of generation,age,politicalaffiliation,life-style,andoc-cupation.Atthesametime,Japanesevaluesemphasizinggroupinterestsoverindividualinterests,deference,loyalty,andreciprocitygoverneverydaybehaviorformanyJapanese-Americansandareamajorsource of socialcohesion.Koreans.TheKorean-Americancommunitytodayiscomposedmainly of peoplewhoimmigratedtotheUnitedStatesafter World WarIIandtheirchildren.Onebasicdis-tinctioninthecommunityismadeamongthoseborninKorea(Ilse),thosebornintheUnitedStates(Eseorsamee,andthosewhocametotheUnitedStateswhentheywereyoung.TheIlsetendtospeakKoreanratherthanEnglish,havestrongtiestoKorea,andemphasizetheroleandauthor-ity of thefamilyandthehusband/father.ThoseintheyoungergenerationaremoreassimilatedintoAmericansoci-ety.UnliketheotherEastAsiangroups,organizationsbasedonkinshiporregionalaffiliationsrarelyformedamongKorean-Americans.Rather,mostorganizationshaveformedonthebasis of commoninterestsandincludeclubs,churches,associations,andpoliticalgroups.One of themoreimportantarethealumniassociations(highschoolandcol-lege)whichenmeshKorean-Americansinlifelongsocialandeconomicnetworks.LivingoutsidetheKorean-Americancommunityareperhapsasmanyas100,000wivesorex-wives of AmericanservicemenwhoservedinKorea,theirchildren,andthousands of KoreanchildrenadoptedintoWhitefami-lies.PoliticalOrganizaion.Becausetheyweredeniedcitizen-shipandtherighttovote,EastAsian-Americansbefore World War11wereessentiallypowerlesstodirectlyinfluencelocal,state,orfederalpoliciesandactionsthataffectedthem.Withinthemostlymale,relativelyisolatedEastAsian-Americancommunities,socialcontrolanddecisionmakingwasbasedontraditionalbeliefsandcustomsthatusuallyac-cordedmuchauthoritytotheoldermeninthecommunity.Atthesametime,theregionalandclanassociations,guilds,secretsocieties,andotherorganizationsservedasspecialin-terestgroupstoadvancetheinterests of theirmembers.EastAsian-AmericaninterestswithinAmericansocietywereoftenhandledbyumbrellaorganizations,whichincludedtheChineseConsolidatedBenevolentAssociationandlatertheChinese-AmericanCitizensAlliance,theJapanese-Amer-icanCitizen'sLeague,andtheKoreanAssociation.Apan-Filipinopoliticalorganizationdidnotdevelop,thoughFilipi-noswereactiveinlabormovementsinHawaiiandCalifornia.Politicsinthehomelandhaveandcontinuetobeamajorconcernandasource of conflictespeciallyintheChinese-AmericanandKorean-Americancommunities.SomeKorean-Americansaffiliateonthebasis of tiestofactionsinKorea,andamajordivisionintheChinese-Americancom-munityinvolvesthosewhoemphasizetiestoTaiwanversusthosewhorecognizeandwanttiesstrengthenedwiththePeo-ple'sRepublic of China.Japanese-AmericanshavebeenactiveinHawaiianpoli-ticsandholdmanyelectiveoffices,adevelopmentthathassometimesledtoconflictwithotherethnicgroups.Onthemainland,especiallysincethe1960sandtosomeextentasaresult of thecivilrightsmovement,ChineseandJapanese-Americansespeciallyhavebeenmoreactiveinvoicingtheirconcerns,participatinginthemajorpoliticalpartypolitics,runningforoffice,andseekinggovernmentemployment.16European-AmericansfromthesecommunitiesandhavefocusedtheirattentiononanticommunistactivitiesandRomanian-U.S.relations.Thecommunityhasrecentlycoalescedaroundtheoverthrow of thecommunistleadership of Romaniain198 9-1 990.BibliographyBobango,GeraldJ.(1978)."TheUnionandLeague of Ro-manianSocieties:An'AssimilatingForce.'"EastEuropeanQuarterly12:8 5-9 2.Roceris,Alexandra(1982).LanguageMaintenancewithinanAmericanCommunity:TheCase of Romanian.GrassLakeandJackson,Mich:Romanian-AmericanHeritageCenter.RUSSIANS.In1980,1,379,585AmericansclaimedRus-sianancestryandanother1,401,847claimedRussianandotherancestry.Thecategory"Russian"generallyincludespeoplewhoemigratedfromwhatwastheRussianEmpireandisnowtheSovietUnion.Thisincludesanumber of culturallydistinctgroupsincludingethnicRussians,Ukrainians,Geor-gians,Latvians,Lithuanians,Estonians,Belorussians(Byelo-russians,WhiteRussians),Galicians,RussianJews,Douk-hobors,OldBelievers,Molokans,Carpatho-Rusyns,andCossacks.Stretchedtoitslimits,Russianscanalsoincludepeoplesfromnon-Europeanregions of theSovietUnionsuchastheAzerbaijani,Kalmyk,andTurkestaniwhodonotcon-siderthemselvesRussian.Inshort,"Russians"ismorecor-rectlyviewedasaterritorial-politicallabelthananethnicone,exceptwhenappliedspecificallytoethnicRussians.RussiansimmigratedtotheUnitedStatesinfivestages.Thefirstgroupwascomposed of traderswhosettledinAlaskatotradeforfurswiththelocalAmericanIndiangroups.WhenRussiasoldAlaskatotheUnitedStatesin1867,theyeitherreturnedhomeormigratedtoCalifornia.Fromthe1880sto World War I, RussianssettledinindustrialcitiesintheEastandMidwest.AftertheRussianRevolution of 1917,alargeinflux of mostlymiddle-class,anticommunistRussiansalsosettledinlargecities.After World War11,Russiandis-placedpersonsandrefugeesmadetheirwayto ... fewfarmingcommunitiesformedincentralCalifornia,Louisiana,Illinois,andArkansas.ButtheItalianimmigrantsweremostlyanurbangroup,withatleast85percentsettlingincities.Italybecameaunifiednationonlyin1870;thusItalianimmigrantsgenerallyfeltonlyaweakidentitywithItalyandlackedanoverarchingculturaltraditiontypical of otherim-migrantgroups.ThisledtotwouniquedevelopmentsintheUnitedStates.First,strongtiesweremaintainedwiththetownfromwhichemigrationtookplace,andaweakersense of Italianidentityprevailed.Second,withinthefirsttwogen-erations of settlement,asyncreticItalian-AmericanculturedevelopedintheUnitedStates.Keyfeatures of thenewcul-turalidentitywereanAmericanizeddialect of Italianthatre-placedtheregionallanguagesanddialects,adistinctlyItaliantraditionwithintheIrish-dominatedAmericanRomanCath-olicchurchfeaturingamore"emotional-celebratory"set of practices,involvementinlocalpolitics,andtheformation of associations,banks,andlaborunionsthatservedtheItaliancommunity.Atthesametime,thelargepatriarchalfamiliesweregivingwaytosmallfamilies,withintermarriagetonon-ItalianRomanCatholicsincreasinginfrequency.Assimilationhasprogressedrapidlysince World WarII,andtheItaliansarenowamiddle-class,urban-suburbangroup.Althoughmuch of thepopulationhasshiftedtosub-urbs,distinctItalianneighborhoodsremaininmanycities,includingPhiladelphia,NewYork,Chicago,St.Louis,Newark,andProvidence.Atthesametime,theItalian.Americanculturalidentityismaintainedthroughextendedfamilyties,thechurch,uniquefoodpreferencesandprac-tices,andageneralsense of respectforthefamilyanditsold-estmembers.BibliographyAlba,RichardD.(1985).ItalianAmericans.EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.:Prentice-Hall.Belfiglio,C.V.(1983).ItalianExperienceinTexas.Austin:EakinPress.Cinel,Dino(1982).FromItalytoSanFrancisco:TheImmi-grantExperience.Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress.diLeonardo,Micaela(1984).TheVarieties of EthnicExperi-ence:Kinship,Class,andGenderamongCaliforniaItalian-Americans.Ithaca:CornellUniversityPress.Martinelli,PhyllisC.(1987).EthnicityintheSunbelt:Italian-AmericanMigrantsinScottsdale,Arizona.NewYork:AMSPress.Mormino,GaryR.(1986).ImmigrantsontheHill:Italian-AmericansinSt.Louis,188 2-1 982.Urbana:University of Il-linoisPress.Nelli,HumbertS.(1983).FromImmigrantstoEthnics:TheItalianAmericans.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.EastAsians of theUnitedStates101cantnumbersinmanagerialandprofessionalpositions(22.5percentforFilipinosto38percentforChinese),withthelargestpercentages of womenbeingemployedinadministra-tivesupportandservicejobs.Uniqueoccupationpatternsin-clude22percent of Chinese-Americanmeninservicejobs,30.4percent of Filipino-Americanmeninserviceandadmin-istrativesupportpositions,and14.4percent of Korean-Americanmeninsales.Forwomen,18.2percent of Chinese-Americanand24percent of Korean-Americanwomenworkinlow-levellaborerpositions.Grossfiguresindicatethatfull-timeChinese-AmericanandJapanese-AmericanmenhavehigherincomesandFilipino-AmericanandKorean-AmericanmenhavelowerincomesthanWhites.TheChi-neseandJapanesefiguresaresomewhatmisleading,however,inthattheydonotreflectthefactthatmeninthesegroupsoftenhavemoreeducationandworklongerhoursthandoWhites.Korean-Americanshavedrawnconsiderableatten-tionasowners of smallbusinesses,oftengrocerystoresorveg-etablestands,inminorityneighborhoods,suggestingamid-dlemanminorityrolesimilartotheChineseandJapaneseearlier.Kinship,MarriageandFamilyKinship.IntheearlyKorean,Chinese,andFilipinocom-munities,whichwerecomposedalmostentirely of men,tiestofamiliesandwiderkinnetworksweremaintainedthroughreturnvisits,correspondence,andtheremittance of aper-centage of theman'searnings.Inthecommunitiesthatformedinthiscountry,theabsence of EastAsianwomenandantimiscegenationlawsmademarriageandtheformation of familiesandkingroupsdifficult.Somecommunitycohesionwascreatedthroughfictivekingroupsmodeledonclanandextendedfamilystructuresinthehomeland.Chinesemenformedfictiveclanswithrecruitmentandmembershipbasedonimmigrationfromthesamevillageorprovinceorposses-sion of thesamesurname.WhenChinesefamiliesbegantoformlaterintheearlytwentiethcenturywiththearrival of Chinesewomen,theseclanassociationsbecamelessimpor-tant.Filipinosorganizedcompang,fictiveextendedfamiliescomposed of menwhoimmigratedfromthesamevillage,withtheoldestmanusuallyheadingthefamily.AsmoreFili-pinowomenimmigratedtotheUnitedStates,Filipino-Americanfamiliesbecamemorecommon(thoughbefore World WarIIFilipino-Americanmenstilloutnumberedwomenbynearlythreetoone),andthecompadrazgo(godpar-ent)systemwastransferredtotheUnitedStateswitheachin-dividualthenenmeshedinanetwork of actualandfictivekin.ThesituationforJapanese-Americanswasdifferent,asbeginningin1910stablefamiliesbegantoformandJapaneseurbanandruralcommunitiesalsobecomerelativelystable.Althoughthesecond-generationJapanese-Americans,thenisei,werebeingacculturatedintoAmericansociety,thefirst-generation-basedfamily(issei)wasstillstrongenoughtomaintaintraditionalbeliefsregardingappropriatebehaviorbetweensuperiorsandinferiorsaswellasfilialduties.MarriageandFamily.ThemostnoteworthytrendinEastAsian-Americanmarriagesistheshiftfromethnicendoga-moustoethnicexogamousmarriage.Inallgroupssincethe1950stherehasbeenalargeincreaseinthenumber of mar-riagestonon-ethnicgroupmembers,andespeciallytoWhites.ContemporaryEastAsian-Americanfamiliesaregenerallysmallnuclearfamilies.Korean-AmericanandFili-pino-Americanhouseholdsaresomewhatlargerbecause of thelargernumber of childrenintheformerandthepresence of non-nuclearfamilymembersinthelatter.EastAsian-Americanfamiliesarenotablystable,withover84percent of childreninallfourgroupslivingwithboth of theirparents.Nonetheless,thereareconcernsintheChinese-AmericancommunityaboutjuveniledelinquencyandintheKorean-Americanaboutwhatisconsideredahighdivorcerate.ThereisamajordifferenceinhouseholdcompositionbetweenthosealreadysettledintheUnitedStatesandrecentimmi-grants.Householdsamongthelatterfrequentlycontainaddi-tionalrelativesbeyondthenuclearfamilyorfriends,asthesehouseholdsareoftenpart of thechainmigrationprocessthroughwhichrelativesimmigratetotheUnitedStates.WithinhouseholdsinallfourEastAsian-Americangroups,decisionmakinghasbecomemoreegalitarianaspa-triarchalauthorityhasdiminished.Women,however,stillbearthemajorresponsibilityforhouseholdtasks,eventhoughamajority of bothmenandwomenareemployed.Educationalopportunitiesareaffordedbothboysandgirls,andbothsexesareencouragedtoexcelinschool.Socialization.AswithAmericansingeneral,socializationtakesplacethroughthefamily,thelocalcommunity,andtheformaleducationsystem.ManyEastAsiansinthepastcameto America withahighschooleducationandmany of there.centimmigrantshavecollegeand/orprofessionaleducationortechnicaltraining.Thechildren of recentimmigrantsmakefulluse of educationalopportunitiesintheUnitedStates;infacteducationfortheirchildrenisamajorreasonmanyEastAsiansresettle.Programsdesignedtomaintainthetraditionalculture,suchaslanguageclasses,youthgroups,andculturalprogramsareofferedinallmajorEastAsiancommunitiesbyethnicassociationsandchurches.Onemajorproblemfacingmanyrecentimmigrantfamiliesisagenerationalgapbetweenparentswhoprefertospeakthena-tivelanguageandeatnativefoods,stressfamilyobligations,andassociatemainlywithotherethnicgroupmembersandtheirchildrenwhoseethemselvesasAmericans,speakEn-glish,andmakefriendsamongnon-Asian-Americans.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Each of thefourEastAsian-Amer-icangroupsisadiverseethnicgroupcomposed of anumber of distinctsubgroups.Acrossallfourgroups,twointernaldi-visionsaremostobvious.Firstisthedistinctionbetweenthosewhosettledbefore World WarIIandtheirdescendantsandthosewhoarrivedafterthewar.Secondisthedistinctioninthepost -World WarIIgroupbetweentheparentalandsecondgeneration,withthelattercomposed of thosewhowerebornintheUnitedStatesorcamewhentheywereyoung.Beyondthesetwocategories,eachEastAsiangroupdisplaysadditionaldiversityaswellasvarioussocialinstitu-tionsdevelopedintheUnitedStates.Chinese.MajordivisionswithintheChinese-Americancommunityincludethosebasedonplace of origin(HongKong,Taiwan,SoutheastAsia),Cantoneseornon-Cantoneseethnicity,ruralorurbanresidence,andsupportforTaiwanorrecognition of thePeople'sRepublic of China.LocalizedinChinatownsandexcludedfromfullparticipa-tioninAmericansocietyforoveronehundredyears,European-Canadians127BibliographyKirschbaum,JosephM.(1967).SlovaksinCanada.Toronto:CanadianEthnicPressAssociation.Stolarik,M.Mark(1988).'FromFieldtoFactory:TheHisto-riography of SlovakImmigrationtotheU.S.andCanada(197 6-1 987)."EthnicForum8:2 3-3 9.Sutherland,AnthonyX.(1984).TheCanadianSlovakLeague:AHistoy,193 2-1 982.Toronto:CanadianSlovakLeague.SLOVENES.(Slovenians).In1986,anestimated5,890CanadiansclaimedSlovenianethicancestry.SlovenesarepeoplefromtheterritorythatisnowSlovenia,one of thesixrepublics of themodernnation of Yugoslavia.SlovenesinCanada,sincetheyfirstarrived,havebeensometimesmisidentified,firstasHungarians,Italians,orTurks,andlaterasYugoslavians(apolitical,notaculturalcategory).Thus,thefigureaboveunderestimatesthenumber of people of SlovenianancestryinCanada.SlovenianimmigrationtoCanadacanbedividedintotwoperiods:beforeandafter World War11.Thosewhocamebeforethewar,especiallyinthelate1800sandearly1900s,settledmainlyinruralcom-munities,ofteninthewesternprovinces.Many of thosewhocameafter World War11werepoliticalrefugeeswhosettledmainlyincities,especiallyToronto.Theyhavestimulatedarevival of Slovenianethnicidentity,centeredaroundtheirRomanCatholicparishesandanticommunistsentiments.SPANIARDS.In1986,anestimated57,125CanadiansclaimedSpanishethnicancestry.ThisfigureincludesbothSpaniardsandLatinos.Spaniardsarepeoplewhomigrateddi-rectlyfromSpain(perhapswithashortstopelsewhere)orwhoseancestorsdidso.TheyshouldbedifferentiatedfromLatinoswhoarepeople of LatinAmericanancestryButbe-causeSpanishimmigrantseitherhavenotbeencountedatallorwereattimeslumpedwithLatinos,itisimpossibletosayhowmanySpaniardshavesettledinCanada.ThemajorpopulationcentersareOntarioandQuebec,with78percent of theSpanishpopulationinthosetwoprovinces.Forthemostpart,SpanishimmigrantsandtheirdescendantshaverapidlyassimilatedintoCanadiansociety,andnostrongsense of SpanishidentityorculturehaseveremergedLAssimilationhasbeenespeciallyrapidinFrenchCanada.TisisinpartbecauseSpaniardswerefewinnumbercomparedtootherimmigrantgroupsalsoarrivinginthetwentiethcenturyandalsobecauseregionalculturalidentities(Galician,Catalonian,andsoon)weremoreimportantinSpainthanasense of anationalculture.SeealsoLatinosBibliograPhyAnderson,GraceM.(1979)."SpanishandPortuguese-SpeakingImmigrantsinCanada."InTwoNations,ManyCultures:EthnicGroupsinCanada,editedbyJeanL.Elliott,20 6-2 19.Scarborough,Ontario:Prentice-Hall of Canada.SWEDES.In1981,78,360CanadiansclaimedSwedishethnicancestry.Themajorperiod of SwedishsettlementinCanadawasfrom1868to1914.Most of thesepeoplecameafterhavingfirstsettledinMinnesotaand North Dakota.InCanada,theysettledmainlyinthewesternprovinces,withWinnipegbecomingthehub of SwedishactivitiesandBritishColumbiatodayhavingthelargestSwedishpopulation.Themajority of theseearlysettlerswerefarmers,althoughmany of theirdescendantshavemovedtocitieswheretheyworkinin-dustryandbusiness.Other,smallerinfluxes of Swedesfol-lowed World Wars I andII,withthesepeoplesettlingmainlyinOntario.TheruralSwedishcommunitieswerejoinedto-getherthroughvariousorganizationsincludingtheSwedishLutheranchurch,laborunions,temperancegroups,societies,andclubs.Today,SwedesaremuchassimilatedintoCana-diansociety,aresult of theirmovementtocities,activepar-ticipationinthepubliceducationsystem,andtherelativelyfewnewarrivalsinthelastfewdecades.SWISS.In1986,anestimated19,130CanadiansclaimedSwissethnicancestry.Ontarioishometothelargestnumber,followedbyBritishColumbia,Alberta,andQuebec.TheSwisscametoCanadafrombothSwitzerlandandtheUnitedStates,andasubstantialnumberarrivedbeforethetwentiethcentury.ThemajoritywerefromtheGerman-speakingregion of Switzerland,andtheytendedtoaffiliatewithGermansinCanada;thosefromtheFrench-speakingregionaffiliatedwithFrench-Canadians.Today,astrongsense of Swissiden-tityhasdisappeared,andtheSwissaregenerallyassimilatedintoCanadiansociety.SeealsoMennonitesWELSH.In1981,46,620CanadiansclaimedWelsheth-nicancestry.Thisisalmostcertainlyalargeundercount(onlytwentyyearsearliernearlythreetimesasmanyclaimedWelshethnicity)andismostlytheresult of manyWelshbeingclassi-fiedasBritishorasEnglish(theyhaddepartedfromLiver-pool).WelshimmigrationtoCanadabeganwithWelshsol-dierswhoservedwiththeBritishintheAmericanRevolution.Theinfluxpeakedafter1862whengoldminerssettledinBritishColumbia,in1902whenthePatagonianWelshrelocatedfromArgentina,after World War I, after World WarII,andinthemid-1950s.TheWelshinCanadahaveneverformedanationalorganization,althoughlocalso-cietiesandassociationshaveexistedsincetheearlydays of settlementinCanada.Perhapsthemostvisiblesigns of WelshidentitytodayaretheGyrnanfaGanu(hymn-singingfestival)andeisteddod(artsfestival)regularlyheldbyvariousWelshsocieties.Ingeneral,theWelshlumpthemselvesandarelumpedbyothersunderthegeneralcategory of British,and,assuch,aremuchassimilatedintoCanadiansociety.BibliographyBennett,Carol(1985).InSearch of theRedDragon:TheWelshinCanada.Renfrew,Ontario:JuniperBooks.Thomas,Peter(1986).StrangersfromaSecretLand:TheVoy-ages of theBrig'Albion'andtheFounding of theFirstWelshSettlementsinCanada.Toronto-University of TorontoPress.Eurobean-Americans109fromtheLemkianregion of southeasternPolandformedaseparateethnicassociation.Theyhavemadeastrongefforttomaintaintheirethnicidentitythroughanactivepress,con-cemabouttheirnationalidentity,andthemaintenance of sometraditionalpractices.SeealsoUkrainiansBibliographyMagocsi,PaulR(1984).OurPeople:Carpatho-RusynsandTheirDescendantsin North America. Toronto:MulticulturalHistorySociety of Ontario.CROATS(Croatians).In1980,107,855AmericansclaimedCroatianancestryandanother145,115claimedCroatianandotherethnicancestry.Thisisprobablyagrossundercount,asmanyCroatsareidentifiedasYugoslaviansorSerbs.Afigure of atleast500,000isprobablyamoreaccurateestimate of thenumber of people of CroatianancestryintheUnitedStates.Croatiaisone of thesixconstituentrepublics of themodemnation of Yugoslavia.TheU.S.censushasusu-allyclassifiedDalmatians,wholiveontheAdriaticcoast of Yugoslavia,asCroats.Inthelate1700sandearly1800sDal-matianfishermensettledinLouisiana,wheretheywereabletocontinuetheirmaritimetraditions.Themajormigration of Croatsoccurredbetween1880and World War I whentheyformedCroatiancommunitiesinindustrialandminingtownsandcitiesinPennsylvania,Ohio,Illinois,andIndiana.MostCroatsareRomanCatholic,althoughchurchmember-shipdidnotplayamajorroleintheestablishment of Croa-tiancommunitiesasitdidwithothergroups.Croatshaveas-similatedmoreslowlyintoAmericansocietythanmanyothergroups,anditwasnotuntilthemid-1950sthatinner-cityCroatianneighborhoodsbegantobreakupthroughoutmi-grationtothesuburbs.Factorsinvolvedinthemaintenance of Croatcommunitieswerestrongextendedfamilytiesandapattern of sonssettlinginthesamecommunityandworkinginthesamefactoriesastheirfathers.Since World War11atleast60,000CroatshavesettledintheUnitedStatesandhaveledarenewal of Croatethnicidentity,throughtiesmaintainedwiththehomelandandarevitalizedCroatianpress.BibliographyBennett,Linda(1978).PersonalChoiceinEthnicIdentityMaintenance:Serbs,CroatsandSlovenesinWashington.PaloAlto,Calif.:Rand E ResearchAssociates.Kraljec,Francis(1978).CroationMigrationtoandfromtheUnitedStates.PaloAlto,Calif:Ragusan.Prpic,G.J.(1978).SouthSlavicImmigrationin America. Bos-ton:Twayne.CZECHS.In1980,788,724AmericansclaimedCzechancestryandanother1,103,732claimedCzechandotherethnicancestry.Thisfiguremaybesomewhatinflatedasitin-cludesbothethnicCzechsandCzechoslovaks,some of whommaybeethnicallySlovakratherthanCzech.CzechsintheUnitedStatestodayaremainlydescendants of peoplewhoemigratedfromBohemiaandMoraviabetween1850and1914,thetwomajorregions of theCzecharea of thena-tion of Czechoslovakia.Czechssettledbothinfarmingcom-munities(inWisconsin,Minnesota,Nebraska,Iowa,SouthDakota,andTexas)andincities(NewYork,Cleveland,Chi-cago,andOmaha).CzechsettlersdifferedfromotherEuro-peanethnicgroupsinanumber of ways.First,theyhadanunusuallylowreturn-migrationrate.Second,manylefttheRomanCatholicchurchandeitherconvertedtoProtestant-ismoreschewedformalreligiousaffilationaltogether.Third,althoughtheyneverwereaunifiedgroup,theyassimilatedrelativelyslowly,inpartbecause of valuesthatstressedindi-vidualandfamilyself-relianceandbecause of tiestothehomeland.Afterthe1920s,Czechidentitybegantoweakenasfewnewimmigrantsarrived,childrenattendedpublicschools,andintermarriagebecamecommon.Afterthecommunisttakeover of Czechoslovakiain1948,35,000CzechoslovakiansfledtotheUnitedStatesandanadditional10,000orsoarrivedafterthefailed1968revo-lution.ThesegroupscontainedmanyprofessionalswhooftenstayedapartfromtheestablishedCzechcommunitiesintheUnitedStates.TheCzechpresencestillreflectsconsiderableinternaldiversity(rural/urban,early/laterimmigrants).BibliographyBicha,KarelD.(1980)."Community of Cooperation?TheCase of theCzech-Americans."InStudiesinEthnicity:TheEastEuropeanExperiencein America, editedbyC.A.Ward,P.Shashko,andD. E. Pienkos,9 3-1 02.Boulder:EastEuro-peanMonographs.Jerabek,Esther(1976).CzechsandSlovaksin North America: ABibliography.NewYork:CzechoslovakSociety of ArtsandSciencesin America. Skrabanek,R.L.(1985).We'reCzechs.CollegeStation:TexasA&MUniversityPress.DANES.In1980,428,619AmericansclaimedDanishan-cestryandanother1,089,654claimedDanishandotheran-cestry.MostDanesimmigratedtotheUnitedStatesinthelasthalf of thenineteenthcentury.MormonmissionarieswereactiveinDenmarkafter1850,andasizablecontingent of DanessettledinfarmcommunitiesinUtahandsouthernIdaho.Thedescendants of theseDanishMormonsaccounttodayforabout9percent of DanesintheUnitedStates.MostimmigrantssettledintheMidwest,primarilyinWiscon-sin,Iowa,andMinnesota.ThereisalsoasizableDanishan-cestrypopulationinCalifornia,mostlytheproduct of migra-tionwestfollowinginitialsettlementelsewhere.DanesassimilatedmorequicklythanotherScandinavianpeoples,inpartbecause of theirrelativelyfewnumbersandwidedisper-sal,whichencouragedmarriagetonon-Danesandamorerapidloss of theDanishlanguageandadoption of English.Today,asense of DanishethnicitysurvivesthroughtheDanskSamvirke(theAssociation of DanesAbroad),tourstoDenmark,andDanishcustomsaspart of theChristmascele-bration.BibliographyHale,Frederick,ed.(1984).Danesin North America. Seattle:University of WashingtonPress.Mackintosh,Jette(1988)."'LittleDenmark'onthePrairie:A126European-Canadianssale of AlaskatotheUnitedStates.AftertheRussianRevolu-tionalargenumberimmigratedtoCanada,asdidmanydis-placedpersonsandrefugeesafter World War11.Most of theselattertwogroupssettledincities.RussianshaveneverformedacohesiveethnicentityinCanada,partlybecause of internalvan-ationsandpartlybecause of therelativelyfewRussianswhohavearrivedinthepastfortyyears.Inthoseareaswhereasense of Russianidentitydoesexist,ittendstocenteronparticipationintheRussianOrthodoxchurchorinanticommunistorgani-zations.SeealsoByelorussians,Doukhobors,Estonians,Jews,Latvians,Lithuanians,OldBelievers,UkrainiansinCanadaBibliographyJeletzky,T.F.,ed.(1983).RussianCanadians,TheirPastandPresent.Ottawa:BorealisPress.Jones,DavidC.(1987)."SoPretty,SoMiddleEurope,SoForeign-RutheniansandCanadianization."History of Edu-cationReview16:1 3-3 0.Tarasoff,KoozmaJ.(1988).Spells,Splits,andSurvivalinaRussianCanadianCommunity:AStudy of RussianOrganiza-tionsintheGreaterVancouverArea.NewYorlkAMSPress.SCOTS.Thenumber of Canadians of Scottishethnican-cestryisunknown,astheScotsareclassifiedasBritish,alongwiththeEnglish,Irish,andWelsh.Estimatesfromthe1986censusindicatethat6,332,725CanadiansclaimedBritishethnicancestry.Anadditional2,073,830claimedmixedBrit-ishancestryand3,401,870claimedBritishandotherethnicancestry.In1961,1,894,000CanadiansclaimedScottishan-cestry.Theearliestsizablegroups of ScottishsettlerswerethemenfromtheOrkneyIslandswhoworkedfortheHudson'sBayCompanyinwesternCanadaandsoldierswhoservedintheBritisharmy.From1770to1815asubstantialnumber of RomanCatholic,Gaelic-speakingHighlandScotssettledineasternCanadawheretheirdistinctivecommunitiescontin-uedtoexistforanumber of generations,thoughmosthavenowdisappearedintomainstreamsociety.Sinceabout1815,ScottishmigrationtoCanadahasbeendominatedbytheProtestant,English-speakingLowlandScotswhohavesettledallacrossCanadaexceptforNewfoundlandandQuebec.SincethattimeScotshaveconstitutedabout10percent of theCanadianpopulation.Scotshavebeensuccessfulatbothplayingamajorroleinthedevelopment of Canadiansocietyandmaintainingadistinctsense of ethnicidentity.Scotshaveparticipatedinallareas of Canadianlifebuthavebeenmostvisibleinthereligious,educational,business,andpoliti-calsectorswheretheyhavebroughtsuchvaluesasrespectforeducation,intellectualinquiry,hardwork,andthriftintotheCanadiannationalculture.Today,Scottishidentityismani-festedthroughproudself-identificationasaScotaswellasScottishliterarytraditions,music,dance,sportssuchascurl-ing,andeducationalandotherinstitutions.BibliographyEmmerson,Frank(1987).Peoples of theMaritimes:TheScots.FourEastPublications.Hill,Douglas(1972).TheScotsinCanada.London:GentryBooks.McRae,Ellen(1986)."TheGlens of Glengarry'Aye,'TisNotScotland,but,AchhNowIt'llDo!'"CanadianGeograph-icalJournal106:6 6-7 1.Reid,W.Stanford,ed.(1976).TheScottishTraditioninCan-ada.Toronto:McClelland&Stewart.SERBS.In1986,anestimated9,510CanadiansclaimedSerbianethnicancestry.TheyarepeoplefromtheterritorythatisnowSerbia,one of thesixrepublics of themodemna-tion of Yugoslavia.SerbsinCanada,sincetheyfirstarrived,havebeensometimesmisidentified,firstasHungarians,Aus-trians,orTurks,andlaterasYugoslavians(apolitical,notaculturalcategory).Thus,thefigureaboveunderestimatesthenumber of people of SerbianancestryinCanada.SerbsbeganimmigratingtoCanada(bothfromSerbiaandotherregions of YugoslaviaandlaterfromtheUnitedStates)in1850,andthosewhoarrivedbeforetheearly1900ssettledmainlyinthewesternprovinces.Thosewhoarrivedafterward-before World War1,betweenthewars,andsince World WarII-havemoreoftensettledincitiesinOntario.SerbianidentityremainsstronginCanadaandissupportedbyassociations,dubs,societies,Serbian-languageradio,numerouspublica-tions,andtheSerbianOrthodoxchurch.Themajority of SerbsinCanadastillspeakSerbian.BibliographySkoric,Sofija,andGeorgeVidTomashevich,eds.(198 7- 1988).SerbsinOntario:ASocio-CulturalDescription.Toronto:SerbianHeritageAcademy.SLOVAKS.In1981,67,695CanadiansclaimedCzecho-slovakianethnicancestry.Thisfigurerequiresanumber of qualifications.First,Czechoslovakianisnotanethniccate-gory,butanationalone,referringtothecitizens of themod-emnation of Czechoslovakia(Czecho-Slovakia),whosetwomajorethnicgroupsaretheCzechsandtheSlovaks.Second,itislikelyanunderestimate of thenumber of ethnicCzechsandSlovaksinCanada,aspriorto1918theywereofteniden-tifiedasAustriansorHungarians.And,third,thenumber of people of Slovakancestryisprobablytwotothreetimesgreaterthanthose of Czechancestry,with43,070Canadiansbeingidentifiedas of Czechancestryin1981.SlovakscametoandsettledinCanadaduringfourperiods.Thosewhocamefirst,from1885to World War1,settledintheWest,wheretheyfarmed,mined,andworkedforrailroads.Thesec-ondgroupcameafter World War I, andtheytoofarmedandmined,settlingintheWestandalsoinOntarioandQuebec.Thethirdandfourthwaves of immigrationtookplaceafter World WarIIandaftertherevoltagainstcommunistrulein1968andbroughtdisplacedpersonsandrefugeestoCanada.Althoughmorethanathird of theSlovaksinCanadahavemarriednon-SlovaksandSlovaksvalueCanadiancitizen-ship,theSlovaksremainadistinctethnicgroup.Theirethnicidentityhasbeenmaintainedinavariety of ways,includingparticipationinethnicorganizationsandchurchparishesandasharedconcernabouttheirhomeland.102EastAsians of theUnitedStatesChinese-Americansdevelopedacomplexset of interlockingorganizationsthatenabledthemtomaintainelements of theirtraditionalculturewhileadaptingtotheirnewlife.Intheearlyyears,whenthepopulationwasmostlymale,clanandregionalassociationswithaffiliationbasedonsurnameandregion of originservedtoaffiliatemenintheUnitedStatesandmaintaintieswiththehomeland.Otherorganiza-tionsincludingsecretsocieties(tongs),guilds,andcreditas-sociationswerealsodeveloped,all of whichservedeconomic,political,andsocialfunctions.Withthearrival of morewomenandtheformation of familiesinthetwentiethcen-tury,thesecondgeneration of Chinese-Americansappeared.Althoughtheyweresociallyandeconomicallyisolatedfrommainstreamsociety,theylearnedEnglishinschoolandformedorganizationsbasedonmainstreammodelsandinter-ests.Atthesame,theywerelessinterestedinthetraditionalculture,andmembershipintheclanandregionalassocia-tionsdeclined.Inthepost -World War11immigrantgroup,theclanandregionalassociationsandtongshavedeclinedinimportanceasthefocushasshiftedtoformingorganizationsthatwillhelpChinese-AmericanssecurefullrightsasAmeri-cancitizens.Filipinos.ForFilipino-Americans,themajorinternaldis-tinctionisbasedontheregionfromwhichoneemigrated:theIlocanosfromnorthernLuzon,theTagalogsfromcentralLuzon,andtheVisayansfromthecentralPhilippines.Al-thoughthethreegroupsarenolongerasseparateastheyoncewere,regionalendogamyisstillstressedbythepost- World WarIIparentalgeneration,andapreferenceforaffilia-tionwithpeoplefromthesameregionhascontributedtotheabsence of apan-FilipinoorganizationintheUnitedStates.Inthemostlymalepre -World War11Filipinocommunity,fewsocialorganizationsdeveloped.Instead,socialcohesionwasachievedthroughthemaintenance of familyandkingroupsbasedontraditionalpractices.Today,theRomanCatholicchurchisthesocialcenter of manyFilipinocommu-nities,andkinshipandfriendshipnetworksarealsoimpor-tantagents of socialcohesion.Japanese.WithintheJapanese-Americancommunityamajordistinctionismadeonthebasis of generationintheUnitedStateswiththeisseibeingthefirstgeneration,theniseithesecond,thesanseithethird,andtheyonseithefourth.Thesecategoriesareappliedtothosewhoarrivedbe-fore World War11.Thosewhoarrivedafterthewararetechni-callyissei,butarenotreferredtoassuch.JapaneseintheUnitedStatesalsoincludeJapanesebusinessmenandwivesorex-wives of AmericanswhoworkedinJapanafter World WarII.BoththesegroupsexistoutsidetheJapanese-Americancommunity.IntheprewaryearsinCalifornia,Japanese-Americansformedanetwork of interlockingbusi-nesses,suchasroominghouses,laundries,groceries,andsoon,whichservedtheJapanese-AmericanandotherEastAsian-Americancommunities.Atthesametime,theisseimaintainedacohesivecommunitythrougheducationalandculturalorganizations,acreditassociation,andregionalasso-ciations.Theniseimovedawayfromthemoretraditionalgroupsandchoseinsteadtoformtheirownorganizationsoftenbasedonexistingmainstreammodelsandactivitiessuchasrecreationleagues.Today,theJapanese-Americancommunityissociallycomplexwithdistinctionsmadeonthebasis of generation,age,politicalaffiliation,life-style,andoc-cupation.Atthesametime,Japanesevaluesemphasizinggroupinterestsoverindividualinterests,deference,loyalty,andreciprocitygoverneverydaybehaviorformanyJapanese-Americansandareamajorsource of socialcohesion.Koreans.TheKorean-Americancommunitytodayiscomposedmainly of peoplewhoimmigratedtotheUnitedStatesafter World WarIIandtheirchildren.Onebasicdis-tinctioninthecommunityismadeamongthoseborninKorea(Ilse),thosebornintheUnitedStates(Eseorsamee,andthosewhocametotheUnitedStateswhentheywereyoung.TheIlsetendtospeakKoreanratherthanEnglish,havestrongtiestoKorea,andemphasizetheroleandauthor-ity of thefamilyandthehusband/father.ThoseintheyoungergenerationaremoreassimilatedintoAmericansoci-ety.UnliketheotherEastAsiangroups,organizationsbasedonkinshiporregionalaffiliationsrarelyformedamongKorean-Americans.Rather,mostorganizationshaveformedonthebasis of commoninterestsandincludeclubs,churches,associations,andpoliticalgroups.One of themoreimportantarethealumniassociations(highschoolandcol-lege)whichenmeshKorean-Americansinlifelongsocialandeconomicnetworks.LivingoutsidetheKorean-Americancommunityareperhapsasmanyas100,000wivesorex-wives of AmericanservicemenwhoservedinKorea,theirchildren,andthousands of KoreanchildrenadoptedintoWhitefami-lies.PoliticalOrganizaion.Becausetheyweredeniedcitizen-shipandtherighttovote,EastAsian-Americansbefore World War11wereessentiallypowerlesstodirectlyinfluencelocal,state,orfederalpoliciesandactionsthataffectedthem.Withinthemostlymale,relativelyisolatedEastAsian-Americancommunities,socialcontrolanddecisionmakingwasbasedontraditionalbeliefsandcustomsthatusuallyac-cordedmuchauthoritytotheoldermeninthecommunity.Atthesametime,theregionalandclanassociations,guilds,secretsocieties,andotherorganizationsservedasspecialin-terestgroupstoadvancetheinterests of theirmembers.EastAsian-AmericaninterestswithinAmericansocietywereoftenhandledbyumbrellaorganizations,whichincludedtheChineseConsolidatedBenevolentAssociationandlatertheChinese-AmericanCitizensAlliance,theJapanese-Amer-icanCitizen'sLeague,andtheKoreanAssociation.Apan-Filipinopoliticalorganizationdidnotdevelop,thoughFilipi-noswereactiveinlabormovementsinHawaiiandCalifornia.Politicsinthehomelandhaveandcontinuetobeamajorconcernandasource of conflictespeciallyintheChinese-AmericanandKorean-Americancommunities.SomeKorean-Americansaffiliateonthebasis of tiestofactionsinKorea,andamajordivisionintheChinese-Americancom-munityinvolvesthosewhoemphasizetiestoTaiwanversusthosewhorecognizeandwanttiesstrengthenedwiththePeo-ple'sRepublic of China.Japanese-AmericanshavebeenactiveinHawaiianpoli-ticsandholdmanyelectiveoffices,adevelopmentthathassometimesledtoconflictwithotherethnicgroups.Onthemainland,especiallysincethe1960sandtosomeextentasaresult of thecivilrightsmovement,ChineseandJapanese-Americansespeciallyhavebeenmoreactiveinvoicingtheirconcerns,participatinginthemajorpoliticalpartypolitics,runningforoffice,andseekinggovernmentemployment.16European-AmericansfromthesecommunitiesandhavefocusedtheirattentiononanticommunistactivitiesandRomanian-U.S.relations.Thecommunityhasrecentlycoalescedaroundtheoverthrow of thecommunistleadership of Romaniain198 9-1 990.BibliographyBobango,GeraldJ.(1978)."TheUnionandLeague of Ro-manianSocieties:An'AssimilatingForce.'"EastEuropeanQuarterly12:8 5-9 2.Roceris,Alexandra(1982).LanguageMaintenancewithinanAmericanCommunity:TheCase of Romanian.GrassLakeandJackson,Mich:Romanian-AmericanHeritageCenter.RUSSIANS.In1980,1,379,585AmericansclaimedRus-sianancestryandanother1,401,847claimedRussianandotherancestry.Thecategory"Russian"generallyincludespeoplewhoemigratedfromwhatwastheRussianEmpireandisnowtheSovietUnion.Thisincludesanumber of culturallydistinctgroupsincludingethnicRussians,Ukrainians,Geor-gians,Latvians,Lithuanians,Estonians,Belorussians(Byelo-russians,WhiteRussians),Galicians,RussianJews,Douk-hobors,OldBelievers,Molokans,Carpatho-Rusyns,andCossacks.Stretchedtoitslimits,Russianscanalsoincludepeoplesfromnon-Europeanregions of theSovietUnionsuchastheAzerbaijani,Kalmyk,andTurkestaniwhodonotcon-siderthemselvesRussian.Inshort,"Russians"ismorecor-rectlyviewedasaterritorial-politicallabelthananethnicone,exceptwhenappliedspecificallytoethnicRussians.RussiansimmigratedtotheUnitedStatesinfivestages.Thefirstgroupwascomposed of traderswhosettledinAlaskatotradeforfurswiththelocalAmericanIndiangroups.WhenRussiasoldAlaskatotheUnitedStatesin1867,theyeitherreturnedhomeormigratedtoCalifornia.Fromthe1880sto World War I, RussianssettledinindustrialcitiesintheEastandMidwest.AftertheRussianRevolution of 1917,alargeinflux of mostlymiddle-class,anticommunistRussiansalsosettledinlargecities.After World War11,Russiandis-placedpersonsandrefugeesmadetheirwayto...
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Encyclopedia of World CulturesVolume I - NORTH AMERICA - F,G pdf
... withamem-ber of thespouse'slineage;failuretodosobroughtretribu-tionfromthewomen of theoffendedlineageintheform of thedestruction of theoffender'sproperty.DomesticUnit.Eachhouseholdconsisted of anextendedfamily of betweenfiveandthirtypersons.Eachextendedfam-ilyconstitutedaneconomicunitwhosememberscooperatedinhuntingandagriculturalactivities.Inheritance.Ritualpositionsandpoliticalofficeswerecontrolledbylineagesandinheritedpatrilineally.Socialization.Corporalpunishment of childrenwasrare,thepreferredmethodbeingforcedfastingtoinstillcorrectbe-havior.Duringherfirstmenstruation,agirlwasisolatedinaseparatelodgefortendaysasaprecautionagainstendanger-ingothersandherself;duringsubsequentmenstrualperiodsshewassimilarlyisolatedbutforshorterperiods of time.Forboys,pubertywasmarkedbyavisionquest,undertakeninisolation,withtheobject of gainingspiritualpower.Girlsalsosoughtvisions,butnotinisolationnoraspart of menstrualseclusion.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Foxsocietywassplitintotwodivi-sionswhoselinescrosscutclanandlineagedivisions.Thetwodivisionswererepresentedbythecolorswhiteandblackandorganizedthepeopleforgames,ceremonies,dances,andwar-fare.Thefirstbornchild of acouplewasassignedtothedivi-siontowhichthefatherdidnotbelong,andsubsequentchil-drenwereassignedtoalternatedivisionsaccordingtotheirorder of birth.Numerouspermanentandtemporaryvolun-taryassociationsexistedforraiding,ritual,andotherpur-poses.PoliticalOrganization.Politically,Foxsocietywasdi-videdintopeaceandwarorganizations,eachwithitsownchiefandsubordinateofficeholders.Thepeacechiefhadlit-tleauthorityandfunctionedprimarilyasamoderator;hewasselectedforthepositionfromaspecificlineagewhichcon-trolledrightstotheofficebyatribalcouncil.Duringtimes of warandotherthreateningperiods,thewarchiefandthewarorganizationheldconsiderablepower.Forthewarchief,thisstemmedfromhiscontroloverthecamppolice,anorganiza-tion of warriorsthatenforceddecisionsmadebythetribalcouncil.Intheearlynineteenthcentury,thewarchiefac-quiredofficethroughsuccessfulleadershipinwarfare.Atanearliertime,however,clanaffiliationmayhavebeenanim-portantfactorinaccesstotheoffice.Membershipinthetri-balcouncilwascontrolledbyaspecificlineageanditsrespon-sibilitiesincludedissuessuchaspeaceandwar,relationswithothertribes,andtheselection of winterhuntinggrounds.132FrenchCanadiansThemainproductsaremilk,pork,beef,fruits,andvegetables,grains,andgreenhousecrops.Forestshaveattractedpulpandpapercompanies.IndustrialArts.FrenchCanadiansmaketraditionalandmodemcrafts.Thetraditionalcraftsfocusonre-creations of folkobjects.Themodemiscreativeandfunctional.Craft-workistaughtintechnicalschoolsandorganizedinassocia-tionsholdingannualexpositions.Trade.CitiesandsuburbshaveshoppingcentersandAmerican-stylestores.Therearealsoopen-airmarketsduringthesummerforfruitsandvegetables,butmostpeoplebuytheirfoodinsupermarketchains.Arecenttrend,however,istobuyfruits,vegetables,andmeatdirectlyfromthefarm.Division of Labor.Traditionally,womenworkingonthefarmperformedagreatvariety of tasks.Manyhandledallthefarmresponsibilitieswhiletheirhusbandslumberedintheforestsformonths.Theyalsoreceivedmoreeducationthanmenandmanagedthefamilymoney.Outside of agriculture,theycouldworkonlyasteachers,nurses,orindustrialwork-ers.Thisrigiddivision of laborwaschallengedbyastrongfeministmovementduringthe1970s.Since1975,stepshavebeentakentogivewomenequalaccesstouniversityeduca-tion,professions,andtraditionallymalejobs.TheQuebecgovernmenthasfollowedaffirmativeactionguidelinesforwomensince1981,andthefeministmovementhasbeenin-stitutionalizedthroughtheformation of aConsultativeCouncilonthestatus of womenin1977,andaFeminineConditionMinistryin1979.Importantchangeshavere-sultedinthedivision of laborbetweenthesexesinthework-placeandinthefamily,withtheyoungergenerationnowtak-ingsexualequalityforgranted.LandTenure.Quebecisacapitalistsociety.Privateown-ershipistheruleforagricultural,industrial,andcommercialproperty.Familyfarmsarepredominantwithasinglefarmownerorapartnershipbetweenspousesoramongrelatives.Kinship,MarriageandFamilyKinship.FrenchCanadiansreckondescentbilaterally.Kinshipterminologydistinguishesthepaternalfromthema-ternallinebyaddingthetermpaternelandmaterneltotermslikeuncle,aunt,orcousin.First,second,andthirdcousinsarerecognized.Genealogicalknowledgeisanimportantso-cialassetinwhichwomenexcel.Inruralareas,womencaneasilystateeverykinshiptietheyhavewithhundreds of per-sonsforfiveorsixgenerations.Residencewastraditionallypatrilocalforthesoninheritingthepaternalfarmbutneo-localforothersonsanddaughters.Nowitisneolocalforall.Marriage.Traditionally,menandwomenhadtoeithermarryorremaincelibate,takingcare of theirelderlyparentsorenteringreligiouscommunities.Marriagewasreligiousanddivorceprohibitedbythechurch.Sexualitywasseverelyre-pressedandonlyallowedasameanstoproducechildren.Marriedcouplesfeltobligatedtohaveagreatnumber of chil-drentoensurethesurvival of theFrenchCanadiannation.Aradicalchangehastakenplacesince1960,withfewermenandwomenenteringreligiouscommunitiesandcivilmar-riage,birthcontrol,anddivorcenowthenorm.Thetypicalfamilynowhasonlytwochildren,and50percent of newmar-riagesendindivorce.Sexualityhasbeenliberalized,andawoman'seconomicstatusinmarriagehasbeenrecognizedbycivillawinmarriagecontractsandindivorcesettlements.DomesticUnit.Famille-souche,consisting of amarriedcouple,theirnumerouschildren,grandparents,andunmar-riedbrothersorsistersonthepaternalfarm,wasthetradi-tionalpattern.Forsonsanddaughtersleavingthefamille-souche,thenuclearfamilywastherule.Thenuclearfamilywithfivepersonsorlessisnowprevalent,withagrowingpro-portion of single-parentfamiliesasaconsequence of thelargenumber of divorces.Agriculturalfamilieshavefollowedtheurbanpattern.Inheritance.Patrilineallandtransmissionwastherule,withonlyoneson(usuallyone of theyoungerones)inherit-ingthepaternalfarm,theothersonshavingbeengivenlandearlierbytheirfather.Womenwerenotallowedtoinheritland,thoughtheynowcan.Forinheritance of othergoods,Englishpracticeshavebeenfollowedsincethenineteenthcentury.Socialization.Traditionally,childreninruralareasre-ceivedonlyaminimalformaleducationforthreetosixyears.Theyworkedonthefarmfromtheage of twelvetothetime of theirmarriage.Emphasiswasplacedoncapacitytoworkhardandonrespectforadultsandchurchauthority.Onlyaminor-ityhadanopportunitytoattendthecollegesanduniversitiescontrolledbytheclergy.Since1960,religiouseducationalin-stitutionshavebeennationalized,anduniversalaccesstofor-maleducationhasbeenpromoted.Familialeducationismoreliberalandpermissivesincefamiliesarenowsmaller.Withthechangingroles of menandwomen,agreaterempha-sishasbeenputonthesocialization of boysandgirlsfree of sexualstereotypesinfamiliesandatschool.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Theclassstructure of modemQue-beciscomplexandconsists of severalstrata:(1)anAnglo-phonebourgeoisie;(2)aFrenchCanadianmiddlebourgeoi-siehavinginterestsinfinancialinstitutions,middle-sizedindustries,andcontrollingstatisteconomicinstitutions,whichsupportsthefederalistpoliticalpositionwithminimalnationalistclaims;and(3)apettybourgeoisieincludingpublic-sectormanagersandemployees,professionals,andsmallentrepreneursinindustryandcommerce,whichsup-portsthenationalistparty.Theworkingclassisnumericallyimportantandisdividedintotwogroups:workersorganizedinstrongassertiveunionsthathavewonacceptablesalariesandworkingconditions,andpoorlypaidnonunionizedwork-ers.Inagriculture,familyfarmsarethemajority.Farmersareorganizedandcontrolthesale of agriculturalproductsthroughquotas.Quebechasmoreunemployedpersonsthanotherprovinces;almost15percent of thepopulationcollectsunemploymentinsuranceorsocialsecuritypayments.PoliticalOrganization.Quebecisaprovincewithitsownparliamentwithinafederation.AccordingtotheCanadianConstitution,theprovincialparliamenthasjurisdictionovereducational,health,agricultural,economic,andsocialpolicyintheprovince.Quebecgovernmentshavesoughtadditionalautonomyfromthefederalgovernmentsincethe1940s.Thepoliticalsystemisbipartisanwithtwomajorpoliticalpartiesandathirdandfourth of marginalinfluence.ThedominantpoliticalpartyhasbeentheLiberalparty(196 0-1 976;198 4- 134GosiuteGosiuteTheGosiute(Goshute)liveintheareaaroundtheGreatSaltLakeandtothewestinUtahandNevada.TheyspeakaSho-shoneanlanguage.About450 of themnowsurviveinUtahandNevadaontheGoshuteandSkullValleyIndianReserva-tionsandinnearbycommunities.SeeWesternShoshoneBibliographyThomas,DavidHurst,LorannS.A.Pendleton,andStephenC.Cappanari(1986).'WesternShoshone."InHandbook of North AmericanIndians.Vol.11,GreatBasin,editedbyWar-renLd'Azevedo,26 2-2 83.Washington,D.C.:SmithsonianInstitution.GrosVentreETHNONYmS:Atsina,FallIndians,GrosVentre of thePrairie,Hitunena,Minnetarees of FortdePrairie,RapidIndi-ans,WhiteClayPeopleTheGrosVentre(Aaninena,Haaninin)areanAlgon-kian-speakingAmericanIndiangroupcloselyrelatedtotheArapaho.IntheeighteenthcenturytheylivedontheCana-dianplainsintheforks of theSaskatchewanRiverregion.Lateinthecentury,weakenedbythesmallpoxepidemic of 1780,theymovedsouthtotheMilkRiverregionin north- centralMontanaandhaveremainedthereeversince.From1818to1823somemovedfurthersouthandlivedwiththeArapaho,butlaterrejoinedthegroup.TheirlongalliancewiththeBlackfooteffectivelyendedwhentheyalignedthem-selveswiththeCrow,andbothgroupsweredefeatedbytheBlackfootin1867.TheU.S.governmentestablishedtheFortBelknapRes-ervationforthemandtheAssiniboininMontanaTerritoryin1888,andtheyhavemostlyremainedonthereservationsincethen.Estimatesplacethe1950GrosVentrereservationpop-ulationat1,100andthecombinedGrosVentre-Assiniboinpopulationat1,870in1980.Onthereservation,theFortBelknapCommunityCouncilisthegoverningbody.IthastwelvemembersfromfourdistrictswiththeGrosVentreandAssiniboinhavingequalrepresentation.Tribalincomede-rivesmainlyfromlandleases.TherearesomesmallIndian-ownedstoresandatriballyownedutilitycommission.Therearelargedeposits of gravel,bentonite,gas,andoilontheres-ervation,withonlygravelextractedandsold.TheLaborDayCelebrationandtheMid-WinterFairarethetwomajorreser-vationwidefestivals.Aboriginally,theGrosVentreweredividedintotwelveautonomousbands.Eachbandwasledbyachiefwhousuallymadedecisionsinconsultationwithothermalemembers of theband.Eachbandalsohadotherchiefs,affordedthatsta-tusbecause of theirprowessinwar.Inwinter,thebandscampedseparately,usuallyinwoodedareasalongwaterwaysasprotectionfromtheharshweather.Inthewarmermonthstheycoalescedforthespringandfallbisonhunts,andforvar-iousceremonies,includingtheSunDance.Atthesetimes,theycampedinacircle,withanopeningfacingtotheeast,andwitheachbandhavingitsownplaceinthecircle.Sub-sistencewasbasedonthebison,everypart of theanimalbeingusedinsomeway-themeatwasroasted,boiled,ordried,thehidesusedforclothing,tipicovers,andtradewithWhites.Thetipicoverscouldalsobeconvertedintoroundboatsforcrossinglargerivers.Deer,elk,andantelopewerealsohunted,andberries,fruits,androotswerecollectedbywomen.Therewasonceatradition of potterymaking,butal-mostnonehasbeenmadeinthelasttwocenturies.Menen-gagedinhuntingandwarfare,whilewomendidmost of theworkaroundthecamp.Allgirlsweregiveninmarriagebeforepubertytooldermen,butmenusuallydelayedmarriageuntiltheyweretwentyyearsold.Polygynywascommon,aswasdivorce,whichwasusuallyinitiatedbythehusband.Mostwomenmarriedthreeorfourtimesduringtheirlifetime.Thesororateandleviratewerecustomary.Eachchildbelongedtotheband of hisorherfather.Therewasstrictmother-in-lawavoidance,withmoth-er-in-lawandson-in-lawforbiddentospeak,look,orbeinthesametipiwitheachother.Father-in-lawavoidancewaslessrestrictive.Atadolescence,boysenteredone of theage-gradedsocietiesandalsobecameamember of eithertheStarSocietyortheWolfSociety,each of whichhadpeacekeepingandsocialfunctions.Atdeath,theindividualhadascaffoldburial,inatreeorinacave,withsomepersonalpossessions.TheFlatPipeandFeatheredPipeRiteswereimportantcere-monies,withpersonalsupernaturalpowersandvisionsalsosignificant.Today,theGrosVentrearepredominatlyRomanCatholic.BibliographyCooper,JohnM.(1956).TheGrosVentre of Montana.Pt.2,ReligionandRitual.CatholicUniversity of America, Anthro-pologicalSeries,no.16.Washington,D.C.Flannery,Regina(1953).TheGrosVentre of Montana.Pt.1,SocialLife.CatholicUniversity of America, AnthropologicalSeries,no.15.Washington,D.C.Fowler,Loretta(1987).SharedSymbols,ContestedMeanings:GrosVentreCultureandHistory.Ithaca,N.Y.:CornellUni-versityPress.Kroeber,AlfredL.(1907).Ethnology of theGrosVentre.AmericanMuseum of NaturalHistory,AnthropologicalPa-pers1,14 5-2 81.NewYork.128FlatheadFlatheadETHNONYMS:Salish,SelishTheFlatheadareanAmericanIndiangroupnumberingaboutfourthousandwholivewithmembers of theKalispelandKutenaiAmericanIndiangroupsontheFlatheadIndianReservationinnorthwesternMontana.TheFlatheadareaSalishan-speakinggroupwhointheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturiesnumberedbetweenthreethousandandsixthousandandinhabitedtheregion of westernMontanaandWyoming north of theGallatinRiverbetweentheRockyMountainsandtheLittleBeltrange.Aboriginally,theFlatheadhuntedbisonontheplainsandotherlargegameinthemountains;fishingandgatheringsupplementedtheirdiet.Bisonhuntingincreasedinimpor-tanceafterhorseswereacquiredin1700,andfurtradingbe-cameanimportantpart of theeconomybeginningintheearlynineteenthcentury.TheFlatheadwerelooselyorgan-izedintobandscomposed of severalrelatedfamiliesandledbyachief.Tribalgovernmentonthereservationtodayconsists of aten-memberelectedtribalcouncil,whichisresponsibleforselectingatribalchairmanandvicechairman.Forestindus-triesarethemainsource of incomeonthereservation.Religiouslifecenteredaroundguardianspiritsobtainedindreamsorvisionsinducedbyfastingandprayer.TheFlat-headbelieved ... withamem-ber of thespouse'slineage;failuretodosobroughtretribu-tionfromthewomen of theoffendedlineageintheform of thedestruction of theoffender'sproperty.DomesticUnit.Eachhouseholdconsisted of anextendedfamily of betweenfiveandthirtypersons.Eachextendedfam-ilyconstitutedaneconomicunitwhosememberscooperatedinhuntingandagriculturalactivities.Inheritance.Ritualpositionsandpoliticalofficeswerecontrolledbylineagesandinheritedpatrilineally.Socialization.Corporalpunishment of childrenwasrare,thepreferredmethodbeingforcedfastingtoinstillcorrectbe-havior.Duringherfirstmenstruation,agirlwasisolatedinaseparatelodgefortendaysasaprecautionagainstendanger-ingothersandherself;duringsubsequentmenstrualperiodsshewassimilarlyisolatedbutforshorterperiods of time.Forboys,pubertywasmarkedbyavisionquest,undertakeninisolation,withtheobject of gainingspiritualpower.Girlsalsosoughtvisions,butnotinisolationnoraspart of menstrualseclusion.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Foxsocietywassplitintotwodivi-sionswhoselinescrosscutclanandlineagedivisions.Thetwodivisionswererepresentedbythecolorswhiteandblackandorganizedthepeopleforgames,ceremonies,dances,andwar-fare.Thefirstbornchild of acouplewasassignedtothedivi-siontowhichthefatherdidnotbelong,andsubsequentchil-drenwereassignedtoalternatedivisionsaccordingtotheirorder of birth.Numerouspermanentandtemporaryvolun-taryassociationsexistedforraiding,ritual,andotherpur-poses.PoliticalOrganization.Politically,Foxsocietywasdi-videdintopeaceandwarorganizations,eachwithitsownchiefandsubordinateofficeholders.Thepeacechiefhadlit-tleauthorityandfunctionedprimarilyasamoderator;hewasselectedforthepositionfromaspecificlineagewhichcon-trolledrightstotheofficebyatribalcouncil.Duringtimes of warandotherthreateningperiods,thewarchiefandthewarorganizationheldconsiderablepower.Forthewarchief,thisstemmedfromhiscontroloverthecamppolice,anorganiza-tion of warriorsthatenforceddecisionsmadebythetribalcouncil.Intheearlynineteenthcentury,thewarchiefac-quiredofficethroughsuccessfulleadershipinwarfare.Atanearliertime,however,clanaffiliationmayhavebeenanim-portantfactorinaccesstotheoffice.Membershipinthetri-balcouncilwascontrolledbyaspecificlineageanditsrespon-sibilitiesincludedissuessuchaspeaceandwar,relationswithothertribes,andtheselection of winterhuntinggrounds.132FrenchCanadiansThemainproductsaremilk,pork,beef,fruits,andvegetables,grains,andgreenhousecrops.Forestshaveattractedpulpandpapercompanies.IndustrialArts.FrenchCanadiansmaketraditionalandmodemcrafts.Thetraditionalcraftsfocusonre-creations of folkobjects.Themodemiscreativeandfunctional.Craft-workistaughtintechnicalschoolsandorganizedinassocia-tionsholdingannualexpositions.Trade.CitiesandsuburbshaveshoppingcentersandAmerican-stylestores.Therearealsoopen-airmarketsduringthesummerforfruitsandvegetables,butmostpeoplebuytheirfoodinsupermarketchains.Arecenttrend,however,istobuyfruits,vegetables,andmeatdirectlyfromthefarm.Division of Labor.Traditionally,womenworkingonthefarmperformedagreatvariety of tasks.Manyhandledallthefarmresponsibilitieswhiletheirhusbandslumberedintheforestsformonths.Theyalsoreceivedmoreeducationthanmenandmanagedthefamilymoney.Outside of agriculture,theycouldworkonlyasteachers,nurses,orindustrialwork-ers.Thisrigiddivision of laborwaschallengedbyastrongfeministmovementduringthe1970s.Since1975,stepshavebeentakentogivewomenequalaccesstouniversityeduca-tion,professions,andtraditionallymalejobs.TheQuebecgovernmenthasfollowedaffirmativeactionguidelinesforwomensince1981,andthefeministmovementhasbeenin-stitutionalizedthroughtheformation of aConsultativeCouncilonthestatus of womenin1977,andaFeminineConditionMinistryin1979.Importantchangeshavere-sultedinthedivision of laborbetweenthesexesinthework-placeandinthefamily,withtheyoungergenerationnowtak-ingsexualequalityforgranted.LandTenure.Quebecisacapitalistsociety.Privateown-ershipistheruleforagricultural,industrial,andcommercialproperty.Familyfarmsarepredominantwithasinglefarmownerorapartnershipbetweenspousesoramongrelatives.Kinship,MarriageandFamilyKinship.FrenchCanadiansreckondescentbilaterally.Kinshipterminologydistinguishesthepaternalfromthema-ternallinebyaddingthetermpaternelandmaterneltotermslikeuncle,aunt,orcousin.First,second,andthirdcousinsarerecognized.Genealogicalknowledgeisanimportantso-cialassetinwhichwomenexcel.Inruralareas,womencaneasilystateeverykinshiptietheyhavewithhundreds of per-sonsforfiveorsixgenerations.Residencewastraditionallypatrilocalforthesoninheritingthepaternalfarmbutneo-localforothersonsanddaughters.Nowitisneolocalforall.Marriage.Traditionally,menandwomenhadtoeithermarryorremaincelibate,takingcare of theirelderlyparentsorenteringreligiouscommunities.Marriagewasreligiousanddivorceprohibitedbythechurch.Sexualitywasseverelyre-pressedandonlyallowedasameanstoproducechildren.Marriedcouplesfeltobligatedtohaveagreatnumber of chil-drentoensurethesurvival of theFrenchCanadiannation.Aradicalchangehastakenplacesince1960,withfewermenandwomenenteringreligiouscommunitiesandcivilmar-riage,birthcontrol,anddivorcenowthenorm.Thetypicalfamilynowhasonlytwochildren,and50percent of newmar-riagesendindivorce.Sexualityhasbeenliberalized,andawoman'seconomicstatusinmarriagehasbeenrecognizedbycivillawinmarriagecontractsandindivorcesettlements.DomesticUnit.Famille-souche,consisting of amarriedcouple,theirnumerouschildren,grandparents,andunmar-riedbrothersorsistersonthepaternalfarm,wasthetradi-tionalpattern.Forsonsanddaughtersleavingthefamille-souche,thenuclearfamilywastherule.Thenuclearfamilywithfivepersonsorlessisnowprevalent,withagrowingpro-portion of single-parentfamiliesasaconsequence of thelargenumber of divorces.Agriculturalfamilieshavefollowedtheurbanpattern.Inheritance.Patrilineallandtransmissionwastherule,withonlyoneson(usuallyone of theyoungerones)inherit-ingthepaternalfarm,theothersonshavingbeengivenlandearlierbytheirfather.Womenwerenotallowedtoinheritland,thoughtheynowcan.Forinheritance of othergoods,Englishpracticeshavebeenfollowedsincethenineteenthcentury.Socialization.Traditionally,childreninruralareasre-ceivedonlyaminimalformaleducationforthreetosixyears.Theyworkedonthefarmfromtheage of twelvetothetime of theirmarriage.Emphasiswasplacedoncapacitytoworkhardandonrespectforadultsandchurchauthority.Onlyaminor-ityhadanopportunitytoattendthecollegesanduniversitiescontrolledbytheclergy.Since1960,religiouseducationalin-stitutionshavebeennationalized,anduniversalaccesstofor-maleducationhasbeenpromoted.Familialeducationismoreliberalandpermissivesincefamiliesarenowsmaller.Withthechangingroles of menandwomen,agreaterempha-sishasbeenputonthesocialization of boysandgirlsfree of sexualstereotypesinfamiliesandatschool.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Theclassstructure of modemQue-beciscomplexandconsists of severalstrata:(1)anAnglo-phonebourgeoisie;(2)aFrenchCanadianmiddlebourgeoi-siehavinginterestsinfinancialinstitutions,middle-sizedindustries,andcontrollingstatisteconomicinstitutions,whichsupportsthefederalistpoliticalpositionwithminimalnationalistclaims;and(3)apettybourgeoisieincludingpublic-sectormanagersandemployees,professionals,andsmallentrepreneursinindustryandcommerce,whichsup-portsthenationalistparty.Theworkingclassisnumericallyimportantandisdividedintotwogroups:workersorganizedinstrongassertiveunionsthathavewonacceptablesalariesandworkingconditions,andpoorlypaidnonunionizedwork-ers.Inagriculture,familyfarmsarethemajority.Farmersareorganizedandcontrolthesale of agriculturalproductsthroughquotas.Quebechasmoreunemployedpersonsthanotherprovinces;almost15percent of thepopulationcollectsunemploymentinsuranceorsocialsecuritypayments.PoliticalOrganization.Quebecisaprovincewithitsownparliamentwithinafederation.AccordingtotheCanadianConstitution,theprovincialparliamenthasjurisdictionovereducational,health,agricultural,economic,andsocialpolicyintheprovince.Quebecgovernmentshavesoughtadditionalautonomyfromthefederalgovernmentsincethe1940s.Thepoliticalsystemisbipartisanwithtwomajorpoliticalpartiesandathirdandfourth of marginalinfluence.ThedominantpoliticalpartyhasbeentheLiberalparty(196 0-1 976;198 4- 134GosiuteGosiuteTheGosiute(Goshute)liveintheareaaroundtheGreatSaltLakeandtothewestinUtahandNevada.TheyspeakaSho-shoneanlanguage.About450 of themnowsurviveinUtahandNevadaontheGoshuteandSkullValleyIndianReserva-tionsandinnearbycommunities.SeeWesternShoshoneBibliographyThomas,DavidHurst,LorannS.A.Pendleton,andStephenC.Cappanari(1986).'WesternShoshone."InHandbook of North AmericanIndians.Vol.11,GreatBasin,editedbyWar-renLd'Azevedo,26 2-2 83.Washington,D.C.:SmithsonianInstitution.GrosVentreETHNONYmS:Atsina,FallIndians,GrosVentre of thePrairie,Hitunena,Minnetarees of FortdePrairie,RapidIndi-ans,WhiteClayPeopleTheGrosVentre(Aaninena,Haaninin)areanAlgon-kian-speakingAmericanIndiangroupcloselyrelatedtotheArapaho.IntheeighteenthcenturytheylivedontheCana-dianplainsintheforks of theSaskatchewanRiverregion.Lateinthecentury,weakenedbythesmallpoxepidemic of 1780,theymovedsouthtotheMilkRiverregionin north- centralMontanaandhaveremainedthereeversince.From1818to1823somemovedfurthersouthandlivedwiththeArapaho,butlaterrejoinedthegroup.TheirlongalliancewiththeBlackfooteffectivelyendedwhentheyalignedthem-selveswiththeCrow,andbothgroupsweredefeatedbytheBlackfootin1867.TheU.S.governmentestablishedtheFortBelknapRes-ervationforthemandtheAssiniboininMontanaTerritoryin1888,andtheyhavemostlyremainedonthereservationsincethen.Estimatesplacethe1950GrosVentrereservationpop-ulationat1,100andthecombinedGrosVentre-Assiniboinpopulationat1,870in1980.Onthereservation,theFortBelknapCommunityCouncilisthegoverningbody.IthastwelvemembersfromfourdistrictswiththeGrosVentreandAssiniboinhavingequalrepresentation.Tribalincomede-rivesmainlyfromlandleases.TherearesomesmallIndian-ownedstoresandatriballyownedutilitycommission.Therearelargedeposits of gravel,bentonite,gas,andoilontheres-ervation,withonlygravelextractedandsold.TheLaborDayCelebrationandtheMid-WinterFairarethetwomajorreser-vationwidefestivals.Aboriginally,theGrosVentreweredividedintotwelveautonomousbands.Eachbandwasledbyachiefwhousuallymadedecisionsinconsultationwithothermalemembers of theband.Eachbandalsohadotherchiefs,affordedthatsta-tusbecause of theirprowessinwar.Inwinter,thebandscampedseparately,usuallyinwoodedareasalongwaterwaysasprotectionfromtheharshweather.Inthewarmermonthstheycoalescedforthespringandfallbisonhunts,andforvar-iousceremonies,includingtheSunDance.Atthesetimes,theycampedinacircle,withanopeningfacingtotheeast,andwitheachbandhavingitsownplaceinthecircle.Sub-sistencewasbasedonthebison,everypart of theanimalbeingusedinsomeway-themeatwasroasted,boiled,ordried,thehidesusedforclothing,tipicovers,andtradewithWhites.Thetipicoverscouldalsobeconvertedintoroundboatsforcrossinglargerivers.Deer,elk,andantelopewerealsohunted,andberries,fruits,androotswerecollectedbywomen.Therewasonceatradition of potterymaking,butal-mostnonehasbeenmadeinthelasttwocenturies.Menen-gagedinhuntingandwarfare,whilewomendidmost of theworkaroundthecamp.Allgirlsweregiveninmarriagebeforepubertytooldermen,butmenusuallydelayedmarriageuntiltheyweretwentyyearsold.Polygynywascommon,aswasdivorce,whichwasusuallyinitiatedbythehusband.Mostwomenmarriedthreeorfourtimesduringtheirlifetime.Thesororateandleviratewerecustomary.Eachchildbelongedtotheband of hisorherfather.Therewasstrictmother-in-lawavoidance,withmoth-er-in-lawandson-in-lawforbiddentospeak,look,orbeinthesametipiwitheachother.Father-in-lawavoidancewaslessrestrictive.Atadolescence,boysenteredone of theage-gradedsocietiesandalsobecameamember of eithertheStarSocietyortheWolfSociety,each of whichhadpeacekeepingandsocialfunctions.Atdeath,theindividualhadascaffoldburial,inatreeorinacave,withsomepersonalpossessions.TheFlatPipeandFeatheredPipeRiteswereimportantcere-monies,withpersonalsupernaturalpowersandvisionsalsosignificant.Today,theGrosVentrearepredominatlyRomanCatholic.BibliographyCooper,JohnM.(1956).TheGrosVentre of Montana.Pt.2,ReligionandRitual.CatholicUniversity of America, Anthro-pologicalSeries,no.16.Washington,D.C.Flannery,Regina(1953).TheGrosVentre of Montana.Pt.1,SocialLife.CatholicUniversity of America, AnthropologicalSeries,no.15.Washington,D.C.Fowler,Loretta(1987).SharedSymbols,ContestedMeanings:GrosVentreCultureandHistory.Ithaca,N.Y.:CornellUni-versityPress.Kroeber,AlfredL.(1907).Ethnology of theGrosVentre.AmericanMuseum of NaturalHistory,AnthropologicalPa-pers1,14 5-2 81.NewYork.128FlatheadFlatheadETHNONYMS:Salish,SelishTheFlatheadareanAmericanIndiangroupnumberingaboutfourthousandwholivewithmembers of theKalispelandKutenaiAmericanIndiangroupsontheFlatheadIndianReservationinnorthwesternMontana.TheFlatheadareaSalishan-speakinggroupwhointheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturiesnumberedbetweenthreethousandandsixthousandandinhabitedtheregion of westernMontanaandWyoming north of theGallatinRiverbetweentheRockyMountainsandtheLittleBeltrange.Aboriginally,theFlatheadhuntedbisonontheplainsandotherlargegameinthemountains;fishingandgatheringsupplementedtheirdiet.Bisonhuntingincreasedinimpor-tanceafterhorseswereacquiredin1700,andfurtradingbe-cameanimportantpart of theeconomybeginningintheearlynineteenthcentury.TheFlatheadwerelooselyorgan-izedintobandscomposed of severalrelatedfamiliesandledbyachief.Tribalgovernmentonthereservationtodayconsists of aten-memberelectedtribalcouncil,whichisresponsibleforselectingatribalchairmanandvicechairman.Forestindus-triesarethemainsource of incomeonthereservation.Religiouslifecenteredaroundguardianspiritsobtainedindreamsorvisionsinducedbyfastingandprayer.TheFlat-headbelieved ... withamem-ber of thespouse'slineage;failuretodosobroughtretribu-tionfromthewomen of theoffendedlineageintheform of thedestruction of theoffender'sproperty.DomesticUnit.Eachhouseholdconsisted of anextendedfamily of betweenfiveandthirtypersons.Eachextendedfam-ilyconstitutedaneconomicunitwhosememberscooperatedinhuntingandagriculturalactivities.Inheritance.Ritualpositionsandpoliticalofficeswerecontrolledbylineagesandinheritedpatrilineally.Socialization.Corporalpunishment of childrenwasrare,thepreferredmethodbeingforcedfastingtoinstillcorrectbe-havior.Duringherfirstmenstruation,agirlwasisolatedinaseparatelodgefortendaysasaprecautionagainstendanger-ingothersandherself;duringsubsequentmenstrualperiodsshewassimilarlyisolatedbutforshorterperiods of time.Forboys,pubertywasmarkedbyavisionquest,undertakeninisolation,withtheobject of gainingspiritualpower.Girlsalsosoughtvisions,butnotinisolationnoraspart of menstrualseclusion.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Foxsocietywassplitintotwodivi-sionswhoselinescrosscutclanandlineagedivisions.Thetwodivisionswererepresentedbythecolorswhiteandblackandorganizedthepeopleforgames,ceremonies,dances,andwar-fare.Thefirstbornchild of acouplewasassignedtothedivi-siontowhichthefatherdidnotbelong,andsubsequentchil-drenwereassignedtoalternatedivisionsaccordingtotheirorder of birth.Numerouspermanentandtemporaryvolun-taryassociationsexistedforraiding,ritual,andotherpur-poses.PoliticalOrganization.Politically,Foxsocietywasdi-videdintopeaceandwarorganizations,eachwithitsownchiefandsubordinateofficeholders.Thepeacechiefhadlit-tleauthorityandfunctionedprimarilyasamoderator;hewasselectedforthepositionfromaspecificlineagewhichcon-trolledrightstotheofficebyatribalcouncil.Duringtimes of warandotherthreateningperiods,thewarchiefandthewarorganizationheldconsiderablepower.Forthewarchief,thisstemmedfromhiscontroloverthecamppolice,anorganiza-tion of warriorsthatenforceddecisionsmadebythetribalcouncil.Intheearlynineteenthcentury,thewarchiefac-quiredofficethroughsuccessfulleadershipinwarfare.Atanearliertime,however,clanaffiliationmayhavebeenanim-portantfactorinaccesstotheoffice.Membershipinthetri-balcouncilwascontrolledbyaspecificlineageanditsrespon-sibilitiesincludedissuessuchaspeaceandwar,relationswithothertribes,andtheselection of winterhuntinggrounds.132FrenchCanadiansThemainproductsaremilk,pork,beef,fruits,andvegetables,grains,andgreenhousecrops.Forestshaveattractedpulpandpapercompanies.IndustrialArts.FrenchCanadiansmaketraditionalandmodemcrafts.Thetraditionalcraftsfocusonre-creations of folkobjects.Themodemiscreativeandfunctional.Craft-workistaughtintechnicalschoolsandorganizedinassocia-tionsholdingannualexpositions.Trade.CitiesandsuburbshaveshoppingcentersandAmerican-stylestores.Therearealsoopen-airmarketsduringthesummerforfruitsandvegetables,butmostpeoplebuytheirfoodinsupermarketchains.Arecenttrend,however,istobuyfruits,vegetables,andmeatdirectlyfromthefarm.Division of Labor.Traditionally,womenworkingonthefarmperformedagreatvariety of tasks.Manyhandledallthefarmresponsibilitieswhiletheirhusbandslumberedintheforestsformonths.Theyalsoreceivedmoreeducationthanmenandmanagedthefamilymoney.Outside of agriculture,theycouldworkonlyasteachers,nurses,orindustrialwork-ers.Thisrigiddivision of laborwaschallengedbyastrongfeministmovementduringthe1970s.Since1975,stepshavebeentakentogivewomenequalaccesstouniversityeduca-tion,professions,andtraditionallymalejobs.TheQuebecgovernmenthasfollowedaffirmativeactionguidelinesforwomensince1981,andthefeministmovementhasbeenin-stitutionalizedthroughtheformation of aConsultativeCouncilonthestatus of womenin1977,andaFeminineConditionMinistryin1979.Importantchangeshavere-sultedinthedivision of laborbetweenthesexesinthework-placeandinthefamily,withtheyoungergenerationnowtak-ingsexualequalityforgranted.LandTenure.Quebecisacapitalistsociety.Privateown-ershipistheruleforagricultural,industrial,andcommercialproperty.Familyfarmsarepredominantwithasinglefarmownerorapartnershipbetweenspousesoramongrelatives.Kinship,MarriageandFamilyKinship.FrenchCanadiansreckondescentbilaterally.Kinshipterminologydistinguishesthepaternalfromthema-ternallinebyaddingthetermpaternelandmaterneltotermslikeuncle,aunt,orcousin.First,second,andthirdcousinsarerecognized.Genealogicalknowledgeisanimportantso-cialassetinwhichwomenexcel.Inruralareas,womencaneasilystateeverykinshiptietheyhavewithhundreds of per-sonsforfiveorsixgenerations.Residencewastraditionallypatrilocalforthesoninheritingthepaternalfarmbutneo-localforothersonsanddaughters.Nowitisneolocalforall.Marriage.Traditionally,menandwomenhadtoeithermarryorremaincelibate,takingcare of theirelderlyparentsorenteringreligiouscommunities.Marriagewasreligiousanddivorceprohibitedbythechurch.Sexualitywasseverelyre-pressedandonlyallowedasameanstoproducechildren.Marriedcouplesfeltobligatedtohaveagreatnumber of chil-drentoensurethesurvival of theFrenchCanadiannation.Aradicalchangehastakenplacesince1960,withfewermenandwomenenteringreligiouscommunitiesandcivilmar-riage,birthcontrol,anddivorcenowthenorm.Thetypicalfamilynowhasonlytwochildren,and50percent of newmar-riagesendindivorce.Sexualityhasbeenliberalized,andawoman'seconomicstatusinmarriagehasbeenrecognizedbycivillawinmarriagecontractsandindivorcesettlements.DomesticUnit.Famille-souche,consisting of amarriedcouple,theirnumerouschildren,grandparents,andunmar-riedbrothersorsistersonthepaternalfarm,wasthetradi-tionalpattern.Forsonsanddaughtersleavingthefamille-souche,thenuclearfamilywastherule.Thenuclearfamilywithfivepersonsorlessisnowprevalent,withagrowingpro-portion of single-parentfamiliesasaconsequence of thelargenumber of divorces.Agriculturalfamilieshavefollowedtheurbanpattern.Inheritance.Patrilineallandtransmissionwastherule,withonlyoneson(usuallyone of theyoungerones)inherit-ingthepaternalfarm,theothersonshavingbeengivenlandearlierbytheirfather.Womenwerenotallowedtoinheritland,thoughtheynowcan.Forinheritance of othergoods,Englishpracticeshavebeenfollowedsincethenineteenthcentury.Socialization.Traditionally,childreninruralareasre-ceivedonlyaminimalformaleducationforthreetosixyears.Theyworkedonthefarmfromtheage of twelvetothetime of theirmarriage.Emphasiswasplacedoncapacitytoworkhardandonrespectforadultsandchurchauthority.Onlyaminor-ityhadanopportunitytoattendthecollegesanduniversitiescontrolledbytheclergy.Since1960,religiouseducationalin-stitutionshavebeennationalized,anduniversalaccesstofor-maleducationhasbeenpromoted.Familialeducationismoreliberalandpermissivesincefamiliesarenowsmaller.Withthechangingroles of menandwomen,agreaterempha-sishasbeenputonthesocialization of boysandgirlsfree of sexualstereotypesinfamiliesandatschool.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Theclassstructure of modemQue-beciscomplexandconsists of severalstrata:(1)anAnglo-phonebourgeoisie;(2)aFrenchCanadianmiddlebourgeoi-siehavinginterestsinfinancialinstitutions,middle-sizedindustries,andcontrollingstatisteconomicinstitutions,whichsupportsthefederalistpoliticalpositionwithminimalnationalistclaims;and(3)apettybourgeoisieincludingpublic-sectormanagersandemployees,professionals,andsmallentrepreneursinindustryandcommerce,whichsup-portsthenationalistparty.Theworkingclassisnumericallyimportantandisdividedintotwogroups:workersorganizedinstrongassertiveunionsthathavewonacceptablesalariesandworkingconditions,andpoorlypaidnonunionizedwork-ers.Inagriculture,familyfarmsarethemajority.Farmersareorganizedandcontrolthesale of agriculturalproductsthroughquotas.Quebechasmoreunemployedpersonsthanotherprovinces;almost15percent of thepopulationcollectsunemploymentinsuranceorsocialsecuritypayments.PoliticalOrganization.Quebecisaprovincewithitsownparliamentwithinafederation.AccordingtotheCanadianConstitution,theprovincialparliamenthasjurisdictionovereducational,health,agricultural,economic,andsocialpolicyintheprovince.Quebecgovernmentshavesoughtadditionalautonomyfromthefederalgovernmentsincethe1940s.Thepoliticalsystemisbipartisanwithtwomajorpoliticalpartiesandathirdandfourth of marginalinfluence.ThedominantpoliticalpartyhasbeentheLiberalparty(196 0-1 976;198 4- 134GosiuteGosiuteTheGosiute(Goshute)liveintheareaaroundtheGreatSaltLakeandtothewestinUtahandNevada.TheyspeakaSho-shoneanlanguage.About450 of themnowsurviveinUtahandNevadaontheGoshuteandSkullValleyIndianReserva-tionsandinnearbycommunities.SeeWesternShoshoneBibliographyThomas,DavidHurst,LorannS.A.Pendleton,andStephenC.Cappanari(1986).'WesternShoshone."InHandbook of North AmericanIndians.Vol.11,GreatBasin,editedbyWar-renLd'Azevedo,26 2-2 83.Washington,D.C.:SmithsonianInstitution.GrosVentreETHNONYmS:Atsina,FallIndians,GrosVentre of thePrairie,Hitunena,Minnetarees of FortdePrairie,RapidIndi-ans,WhiteClayPeopleTheGrosVentre(Aaninena,Haaninin)areanAlgon-kian-speakingAmericanIndiangroupcloselyrelatedtotheArapaho.IntheeighteenthcenturytheylivedontheCana-dianplainsintheforks of theSaskatchewanRiverregion.Lateinthecentury,weakenedbythesmallpoxepidemic of 1780,theymovedsouthtotheMilkRiverregionin north- centralMontanaandhaveremainedthereeversince.From1818to1823somemovedfurthersouthandlivedwiththeArapaho,butlaterrejoinedthegroup.TheirlongalliancewiththeBlackfooteffectivelyendedwhentheyalignedthem-selveswiththeCrow,andbothgroupsweredefeatedbytheBlackfootin1867.TheU.S.governmentestablishedtheFortBelknapRes-ervationforthemandtheAssiniboininMontanaTerritoryin1888,andtheyhavemostlyremainedonthereservationsincethen.Estimatesplacethe1950GrosVentrereservationpop-ulationat1,100andthecombinedGrosVentre-Assiniboinpopulationat1,870in1980.Onthereservation,theFortBelknapCommunityCouncilisthegoverningbody.IthastwelvemembersfromfourdistrictswiththeGrosVentreandAssiniboinhavingequalrepresentation.Tribalincomede-rivesmainlyfromlandleases.TherearesomesmallIndian-ownedstoresandatriballyownedutilitycommission.Therearelargedeposits of gravel,bentonite,gas,andoilontheres-ervation,withonlygravelextractedandsold.TheLaborDayCelebrationandtheMid-WinterFairarethetwomajorreser-vationwidefestivals.Aboriginally,theGrosVentreweredividedintotwelveautonomousbands.Eachbandwasledbyachiefwhousuallymadedecisionsinconsultationwithothermalemembers of theband.Eachbandalsohadotherchiefs,affordedthatsta-tusbecause of theirprowessinwar.Inwinter,thebandscampedseparately,usuallyinwoodedareasalongwaterwaysasprotectionfromtheharshweather.Inthewarmermonthstheycoalescedforthespringandfallbisonhunts,andforvar-iousceremonies,includingtheSunDance.Atthesetimes,theycampedinacircle,withanopeningfacingtotheeast,andwitheachbandhavingitsownplaceinthecircle.Sub-sistencewasbasedonthebison,everypart of theanimalbeingusedinsomeway-themeatwasroasted,boiled,ordried,thehidesusedforclothing,tipicovers,andtradewithWhites.Thetipicoverscouldalsobeconvertedintoroundboatsforcrossinglargerivers.Deer,elk,andantelopewerealsohunted,andberries,fruits,androotswerecollectedbywomen.Therewasonceatradition of potterymaking,butal-mostnonehasbeenmadeinthelasttwocenturies.Menen-gagedinhuntingandwarfare,whilewomendidmost of theworkaroundthecamp.Allgirlsweregiveninmarriagebeforepubertytooldermen,butmenusuallydelayedmarriageuntiltheyweretwentyyearsold.Polygynywascommon,aswasdivorce,whichwasusuallyinitiatedbythehusband.Mostwomenmarriedthreeorfourtimesduringtheirlifetime.Thesororateandleviratewerecustomary.Eachchildbelongedtotheband of hisorherfather.Therewasstrictmother-in-lawavoidance,withmoth-er-in-lawandson-in-lawforbiddentospeak,look,orbeinthesametipiwitheachother.Father-in-lawavoidancewaslessrestrictive.Atadolescence,boysenteredone of theage-gradedsocietiesandalsobecameamember of eithertheStarSocietyortheWolfSociety,each of whichhadpeacekeepingandsocialfunctions.Atdeath,theindividualhadascaffoldburial,inatreeorinacave,withsomepersonalpossessions.TheFlatPipeandFeatheredPipeRiteswereimportantcere-monies,withpersonalsupernaturalpowersandvisionsalsosignificant.Today,theGrosVentrearepredominatlyRomanCatholic.BibliographyCooper,JohnM.(1956).TheGrosVentre of Montana.Pt.2,ReligionandRitual.CatholicUniversity of America, Anthro-pologicalSeries,no.16.Washington,D.C.Flannery,Regina(1953).TheGrosVentre of Montana.Pt.1,SocialLife.CatholicUniversity of America, AnthropologicalSeries,no.15.Washington,D.C.Fowler,Loretta(1987).SharedSymbols,ContestedMeanings:GrosVentreCultureandHistory.Ithaca,N.Y.:CornellUni-versityPress.Kroeber,AlfredL.(1907).Ethnology of theGrosVentre.AmericanMuseum of NaturalHistory,AnthropologicalPa-pers1,14 5-2 81.NewYork.128FlatheadFlatheadETHNONYMS:Salish,SelishTheFlatheadareanAmericanIndiangroupnumberingaboutfourthousandwholivewithmembers of theKalispelandKutenaiAmericanIndiangroupsontheFlatheadIndianReservationinnorthwesternMontana.TheFlatheadareaSalishan-speakinggroupwhointheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturiesnumberedbetweenthreethousandandsixthousandandinhabitedtheregion of westernMontanaandWyoming north of theGallatinRiverbetweentheRockyMountainsandtheLittleBeltrange.Aboriginally,theFlatheadhuntedbisonontheplainsandotherlargegameinthemountains;fishingandgatheringsupplementedtheirdiet.Bisonhuntingincreasedinimpor-tanceafterhorseswereacquiredin1700,andfurtradingbe-cameanimportantpart of theeconomybeginningintheearlynineteenthcentury.TheFlatheadwerelooselyorgan-izedintobandscomposed of severalrelatedfamiliesandledbyachief.Tribalgovernmentonthereservationtodayconsists of aten-memberelectedtribalcouncil,whichisresponsibleforselectingatribalchairmanandvicechairman.Forestindus-triesarethemainsource of incomeonthereservation.Religiouslifecenteredaroundguardianspiritsobtainedindreamsorvisionsinducedbyfastingandprayer.TheFlat-headbelieved...
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... of GeorgianBayinpresent-dayOntario,Canada.Atthattimetheynumberedaboutthirtythousand,butfollowingsmallpoxepidemicsinthe1630swerereducedtoabouttenthousandby1639.In1648and1649theHuronconfederacywasdestroyedbytheIroquoisinawarforcontrol of thefurtrade.AftertheirdefeattheHurondispersed,withsomejoiningothertribesorbeingadoptedbytheIroquois.Onegroup of thedefeatedHurontookrefugewithJesuitmissionariesandwereeventu-allyestablishedonareservenearQuebec,Canada,in1697.TheybecameknownastheHuron of Lorette.Intheeight-eenthcenturyasmallgroup of HuronknownastheWyandotwhohadfledwestafterthedefeat of theconfederacysettledinOhioandsoutheasternMichigan.Later,intheearly1840s,theWyandotwereforcedtoremovetoKansas.In1857and1858theWyandotremovedonceagaintoOkla-homaandsettledonlandgiventothembytheSeneca.Inthe1980stheWyandotinOklahomaandtheHuron of Lorettenumberedabouttwothousand.Theannualcycle of Huronsubsistenceactivitiesin-cludeddeerhunting,fishing,gathering,andthecultivation of maize,beans,squash,tobacco,andothercrops.TheHuronwerestrategicallysituatedintheindigenoustradenetworksconnectingfarmingpeoplestotheirsouthandhuntingpeo-plestotheir north, andthustradewasalsoanimportantpart of theireconomy.Agricultureandgatheringweretherespon-sibility of thewomen;themenwereresponsiblefortrading,hunting,fishing,andwarfare.Huronsocietywasorganizedintoeightexogamousma-trilinealclans,whichcutacrosstribalandvillageboundaries.Eachlocalizedclansegmenthadacivilandawarchief.Vil-lageaffairsweregovernedbyindependentwarandcivilcoun-cilsmadeup of theseniorwarriorsandelderlymen of theclansegments.Inthevillagecouncilsthecivilandwarchiefs of theclansegmentsactedasspokesmen,anddecisionsweremadebyconsensus.Abovethelevel of thevillagetheHuronwereorganizedintofourorfivetribesunitedbyacouncil of clansegmentchiefsfromeach of thevillages.Thetribalcouncilmetatleastonceeveryyearandcouldbebroughtto-getherontheinitiative of theclansegmentchiefsonanymat-tersinvolvingtheinterests of morethanonevillage.TheHuronbelievedthatallanimateandinanimatethingshadaspirit,themostpowerful of whichwasthespirit of theskycontrollingthewind,seasons,andothernaturalphenomena.Inaddition,theyweregreatlyconcernedwiththeinterpretation of dreams,whichwereviewedasomensorthedesires of one'ssoulthatwouldresultinillnessifleftun-fulfilled.Shamansservedtointerpretandfulfilldreamsandcureillness.BibliographyDelage,Denys(1982)."Conversionetidentity:LecasdesHuronsetdesIroquois(163 4-1 664)."Culture2:7 5-8 2.140HareHareparticipateddirectlyinthetrade,andmanyannuallyvisitedFortGoodHopetoexchangepeltsandprovisionsforEuropeangoods.In1859,theRomanCatholicOblatesar-rivedandseveralyearslaterbuiltamissionandchurchfortheHare,whointimebecamenominalCatholics,manygather-ingforthreereligiouscelebrationseachyear.Throughoutthenineteenthcentury,theHarewereperiodicallyaffectedbyep-idemicdiseases.In1921,theHaresignedTreaty11withCanada.After World WarII,thegovernmentbecameinvolvedinalmosteveryaspect of Harelifethroughhealth,education,game,andsocialwelfareprogramsandregulations.Thenumbers of WhiteslivingamongtheHareincreased-by1972,to50Whitesinapopulation of about370HareIndiansatFortGoodHope.SettlementsInaboriginaldays,theHaremostprobablylivedinbandscomposedflexiblyandonthebasis of kinshipandaffinity.Theirsiteswerelocatedatadvantageousfishingandhuntingspots,andthebandsrangedinsizefromsmalltolarge-thelatterifataskdemandedcooperationasdidtheannualhuntforcaribouforclothingandfood.AfterEuropeantraderscame,theactivities of theHareandtheircamplocationswereadjustedtoaccommodate.Inthenineteenthcentury,onemajorsettlementgrewatFortGoodHope,itselforiginallypositionedandmovedseveraltimesfortheconvenience of transportationandthetrade;butfewHareIndianslivedthereforanylength of timebefore1900.AtFortGoodHopetodayarethepermanentresidences of over3,509nativepeople,twomissions,theHudson'sBayCompany,andvariousgovernmentalservices-school,po-lice,nursingstation,andadministration.Inthetwentiethcentury,amajoraggregation of HareatColvilleLake(67°2'N,126°5'W)initiallydeclinedbecause of deathsandbe-causethestoreandmissionwerelocatedatFortGoodHope.Butsince1960theestablishment of amissionandtradingposthaveagainmadeColvilleLakeasmallpermanentinde-pendentsettlement.Theconstruction of awinterroadhaseasedtraveltoandfromFortGoodHope.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Traditionally,theHarewerehuntersandfishers.Bothlargeandsmallgameandbirdswereshotwithbowsandarrows,speared,snared,surrounded,ornetted.Formerly,acooperativeAugust-Septemberhuntforcaribouwasveryimportant,aswasasec-ondhuntinApril.Therest of theyear,theHarefishedforlaketrout,whitefish,andotherspeciesandhuntedsmallgamelikebirdsandhares.ForsomeHareIndianswholivedneartheMackenzieRiver,thedependenceonhareswassogreatthatwhenthepopulation of theseruminantscrashed,whichoccurredcyclically,starvationandonoccasioncanni-balismweretheresults.AfterEuropeanfurtradersarrived,theHareadjustedtheirannualcycletoaccommodatetrap-ping:marten,lynx,andminkinwinter,beaverandmuskratsinlatewinterandspring.Dogsincreasedinimportanceandnumbersasfurtrappingdid.Before1900,musk-oxenwereimportanttothediet;inrecentyears,moosehaverepopu-latedHareterritoryandmanyareshot.Forthelastonehun-dredyears,theHarehavesupplementedtheirdietwithtea,flour,sugar,andotherstore-purchasedfoods.Today,fewHareIndiansdependonthebushaloneforfulfillingalltheirneeds,andmostspendsummermonthsintown,hopingforfire-fightingjobs.Theidealistocombinewagelaborwithsubsistenceactivities,includingtrapping,duringthecourse of theyear.Indeed,thoughthereplace-mentvalue of fishandgameconsumedissubstantial,thebulk of anyperson'sorfamily'sincomeisfromwagelabororwelfareandtransferpayments.IndustrialArts.Fromwood,roots,caribouandhareskins,sinew,bone,antler,andstone,theaboriginalHaremadeandusedspruce-framedbirchbarkcanoes,snowshoes,netsandsnares,bowsandarrows,clothing,basketsinwhichliquid,withtheaid of hotstones,wasboiled,scrapers,andotherproducts.Today,store-purchasedgoodshavereplacedmost of theaboriginaltechnology.Formerly,someclothingwasdecoratedwithporcupinequillweaving;today,silkembroi-deryandbeadworkinfloralandgeometricdesignsadornjack-ets,vests,moccasins,gauntlets,andmukluks.Trade.Unliketheirneighbors,theKutchinandtheYellowknife,theHarewerenotknowntobeinterestedtradersormiddlemen.Nevertheless,theyparticipatedinthetradewithEuropeanfurtradersfromthelateeighteenthcenturyonandannuallybroughttheskinsandmeat of caribouandmusk-oxenandfurs of beavers,martens,andmuskratstoex-changeforEuropeangoodsand,after1890,tea,flour,andotherfoods.Inthenineteenthcentury,middlemenHareIn-dianstradedEuropeangoodsoccasionallywithMackenzieDeltaInuit.Division of Labor.Althoughfewtasksweretheexclusiveprovince of eithermenorwomenthroughoutthehistoricpe-riod,womenhavetendedtobeprincipallyresponsiblefortak-ingcare of youngchildren,makingclothing,collectingber-ries,preparingfood,dryingfish,andpullingtoboggans;andmenforhunting,fishing,trapping,andmakingdrums.Eventoday,somewomendonothandleoruseboatsontheirownbecausetodosowouldbringbadluck.LandTenure.Thereisnopermanentownership of landorresources.TheHarehavealwaysbeenabletohunt,fish,andtrapwheretheywish,aslongastheyfeelsecureandaslongasnooneelsehashabituallyused,andplanstocontinuetouse,aspecificarea.In1950,theHarewereassignedagameareanorthwest of GreatBearLakeastheirexclusivehuntingandtrappingarea,whichrepresentedafraction of theirformerrange.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Thereisnoconcreteindicationthatdescenthasbeenotherthanbilateral,despitecertainter-minologicalandmarriagepatternslinkedelsewheretouni-lineality.TheHarehaveusedbothconsanguinealandaffinaltiestojoinaspecificresidentialgroup,whichusuallyhasasacoreseveralpeoplecloselyrelatedbyblood.Nodescentgroupsform.KinshipTerminology.ForthetraditionalHare,terminol-ogyinthefirstascendinggenerationwasamixture of bifur-catecollateral(females)andbifurcatemerging(males).InHaitians137EdenshawDavidson,aHaidaWoman.Seattle:University of WashingtonPress.Boelscher,Marianne(1988).TheCurtainWithin:HaidaSo-cialandMythicalDiscourse.Vancouver:University of BritishColumbiaPress.MacDonald,GeorgeF.(1983).HaidaMonumentalArt:Vil-lages of theQueenCharlotteIslands.Vancouver:University of BritishColumbiaPress.Steams,MaryLee(1981).HaidaCultureinCustody.Seattle:University of WashingtonPress.Swanton,JohnR.(1905).ContributionstotheEthnology of theHaida.AmericanMuseum of NaturalHistory,Memoirno.5, 1-3 00.MARGARETB.BLACKMANHaitiansOrientationIdentification.HaitiansareBlacksfromtheisland of Haiti,whichoccupiesone-third of theisland of HispaniolaintheCaribbeanSea.Theothertwo-thirds of Hispaniolaisoc-cupiedbytheDominicanRepublic.ContemporaryHaitiansaredescendants of AfricanslavesimportedbytheFrenchcol-oniststoworkonthesugarplantationsintheeighteenthcen-tury.Haitihasbeenanindependentnationsince1804whenaslaverevoltoverthrewtheFrenchgovernment.HaitiansinHaitiareahomogeneousgroup,withthemajordistinctionsbasedonsocialclassandurban-ruralresidence.Ninetyper-cent of thepopulationisrural,andtheother10percentismostlymulattoandformstheelite.IntheUnitedStates,theHaitianpopulationiscomposed of naturalizedU.S.citizens,legalimmigrants,legalnonimmigrants(students,govem-mentworkers),childrenbornintheUnitedStates,andun-documentedaliensandrefugees.Thelargenumber of Hai-tianswhohavecometo North America sincethemid-1970shasmadethegrouphighlyvisibleandhasresultedintheirbeingthevictims of economic,political,andresidentialracialdiscrimination.HaitiansseethemselvesasdistinctivelyHai-tian,withtheidentities of WestIndianorBlackbeing of sec-ondaryimportance.Location.IntheUnitedStates,HaitiansliveprimarilyinNewYorkCity,Chicago,Washington,D.C.,Philadelphia,Boston,andMiami.Perhapsasmanyasone-halfliveinNewYorkCity.InCanada,HaitianslivemainlyinMontreal.Demography.EstimatesplacetheHaitianpopulationintheUnitedStatesatabout800,000withperhapsasmanyasone-halfthatnumberclassifiedasundocumentedaliensorrefugees.AboutaquarterarechildrenbornintheUnitedStates.InCanada,Haitiansnumberabout25,000.Inbothcountries,mostHaitianshavearrivedinthelastthirtyyears.LinguisticAffiliation.HaitiansspeakHaitianCreole,whichisadistinctlanguage,notadialect of French.About8percent,most of whomaretheelite,alsospeakFrench.Be-cause of regularcontactwiththeUnitedStates,theuse of English,especiallyincities,isincreasing.In North America, mostrecentimmigrantsspeakHaitianCreole,whilethosewhocameearlierandtheirAmerican-bomchildrenspeakEnglish.HistoryandCulturalRelationsHaitiisuniqueinanumber of ways:itisthesecondoldestin-dependentnationintheNew World; itistheonlynationinhistorytoachieveindependencethroughaslaverevolt;itisthepoorestnationinthehemisphere;anditscultureisthemoststronglyAfricancultureintheNew World. Migrationto North America wentthroughfourstages.Duringtheperiod of Frenchcolonizationinthe1700ssomeFrenchandtheirslavesmigratedtothesoutherncoloniesandsettlements.Theperiod of theHaitianRevolution(179 1-1 803)broughtsome50,000WhitesandBlacksto North America, withmostsettlingincitiesintheEastandtheSouth.From1915to1934HaitiwasoccupiedbytheUnitedStatesandthousands of middle-classHaitiansimmigratedtotheUnitedStates.Mostsettledincities,establishingbusinessesorobtainingprofessionalemployment,andeventuallyassimilatedintomainstreamsociety.From1957to1986HaitiwasruledbytheDuvaliers,firstFrancois"Papa Doc& quot;andthenhisson,Jean-Claude.TheDuvaliers'repressiveruledrovethousands of middle-classHaitians north from1957to1971.Beginningintheearly1970s,Haitian"boatpeople"beganarrivinginFlorida.Unlikemost of theearlierimmi-grants,theyweremainlyrural,poor,uneducated,andmale.After1977thenumber of theseimmigrantsincreaseddra-matically,makingthemhighlyvisibleandleadingtooftenre-pressivegovernmentactionincludingdeportationorintem-mentindetentioncamps.Althoughthecourtsputanendtomost of theseabuses,thepublicstereotypedHaitiansaspoor,illiterate,illegalaliens.Haitianswerethenidentifiedasanat-riskgroupforcontractingtheAIDSvirus,aclassificationthatwaslaterrescindedbythegovernment.Notsurpisingly,Hai-tianswhohavearrivedsincethe1970sandconstitutethema-jority of thosein North America, aresubjecttovariousforms of racialandculturaldiscrimination.Because of linguisticandculturaldifferences,theyusuallydonotaffiliatewiththeAfrican-AmericancommunityorwithBlackWestIndians.ThechildrenbornintheUnitedStates,however,adoptEnglishastheirprimarylanguageandassociatewithAfrican-Americans.SettlementsInthecitieswheretheyhavesettled,Haitianstendtoliveinthesameneighborhoodsandoftenonthesameblocksandinthesamebuildings.InNewYork,themajorHaitiancommu-nitiesareinQueensandBrooklyn,withQueensseenasthehomeforthosewhoaremoreaffluentandowntheirownhomes.'LittleHaiti"inMiamiisprobablythemostdistinc-Hare141one'sowngeneration,Iroquoiscousintermswereused;andteknonymywascommon.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Monogamy,perhapsserial,wasprobablythemostcommontraditionalmarriagepattern;polyandry,whichwassometimesfraternal,occurred,andpolygyny,especiallysororal,mayhavebeenpreferredbutwasuncommon.TheHareobservedanuclearfamilyincesttaboo,andmarriageproscriptionextendedtoparallelcousins.Marriagetocrosscousinswaspreferred.Bride-servicewasperformed,andini-tialuxorilocalitymightbecontinuedorfollowedbyvirilocal-ity;bilocalityseemedtheultimatepattern.Thelevirateand,perhaps,thesororatewerebothobserved.Because of mis-sionaryinfluence,polygyny,polyandry,actualcross-cousinmarriage,andchildbetrothalhavedisappeared.Marriageinadulthood,churchceremony,monogamy,absence of divorce,livingout of wedlockwithapartnerwhomaybedoingthesame,andinitialuxorilocalityandultimateneolocalityaretherule.DomesticUnit.Thenuclearfamilyhasalwaysbeenthebasicunit of economiccooperation.Thehouseholdhasal-waysconsisted of anuclearfamily, of afamilyextendedbybride-serviceorinitialuxorilocalityorawidoworwidowerandadoptedchild, of abilateralextendedfamily(usuallywithasiblingcore),or of individualswhohavejoinedeachotherforsometasklikehunting,trapping,ortrade.Inheritance.Thereisnoset of rulesforinheritance,per-hapsbecauselandandrightsarenotindividuallyowned.Tra-ditionally,individualsdestroyedmuch of theirownpropertyatthedeath of arelative.Today,propertylikeacabinisinher-itedbyaspouse,child,closerelativewhoisinneed,orafriend.Socialization.Youngchildren,malesmorethanfemales,areindulgedandtreatedwithaffection.Sanctionislargelythroughridicule;spankingisveryrareandoccursonlywhenachildputshimselfindanger.Youngchildrenbegintheirat-temptstouseadulttechnologyatanearlyageandlearnmainlybytrialanderrorandimitation.Today,whenchildrenandadolescentsarenotinschool,theyareexpectedtohelpwitharange of increasinglygender-specifichouseholdchores.Childrenenculturateemotionalrestraint,independence,re.sourcefulness,flexibility,andreciprocity.Formerly,girlsun-derwentexclusionandobservedanumber of ... of GeorgianBayinpresent-dayOntario,Canada.Atthattimetheynumberedaboutthirtythousand,butfollowingsmallpoxepidemicsinthe1630swerereducedtoabouttenthousandby1639.In1648and1649theHuronconfederacywasdestroyedbytheIroquoisinawarforcontrol of thefurtrade.AftertheirdefeattheHurondispersed,withsomejoiningothertribesorbeingadoptedbytheIroquois.Onegroup of thedefeatedHurontookrefugewithJesuitmissionariesandwereeventu-allyestablishedonareservenearQuebec,Canada,in1697.TheybecameknownastheHuron of Lorette.Intheeight-eenthcenturyasmallgroup of HuronknownastheWyandotwhohadfledwestafterthedefeat of theconfederacysettledinOhioandsoutheasternMichigan.Later,intheearly1840s,theWyandotwereforcedtoremovetoKansas.In1857and1858theWyandotremovedonceagaintoOkla-homaandsettledonlandgiventothembytheSeneca.Inthe1980stheWyandotinOklahomaandtheHuron of Lorettenumberedabouttwothousand.Theannualcycle of Huronsubsistenceactivitiesin-cludeddeerhunting,fishing,gathering,andthecultivation of maize,beans,squash,tobacco,andothercrops.TheHuronwerestrategicallysituatedintheindigenoustradenetworksconnectingfarmingpeoplestotheirsouthandhuntingpeo-plestotheir north, andthustradewasalsoanimportantpart of theireconomy.Agricultureandgatheringweretherespon-sibility of thewomen;themenwereresponsiblefortrading,hunting,fishing,andwarfare.Huronsocietywasorganizedintoeightexogamousma-trilinealclans,whichcutacrosstribalandvillageboundaries.Eachlocalizedclansegmenthadacivilandawarchief.Vil-lageaffairsweregovernedbyindependentwarandcivilcoun-cilsmadeup of theseniorwarriorsandelderlymen of theclansegments.Inthevillagecouncilsthecivilandwarchiefs of theclansegmentsactedasspokesmen,anddecisionsweremadebyconsensus.Abovethelevel of thevillagetheHuronwereorganizedintofourorfivetribesunitedbyacouncil of clansegmentchiefsfromeach of thevillages.Thetribalcouncilmetatleastonceeveryyearandcouldbebroughtto-getherontheinitiative of theclansegmentchiefsonanymat-tersinvolvingtheinterests of morethanonevillage.TheHuronbelievedthatallanimateandinanimatethingshadaspirit,themostpowerful of whichwasthespirit of theskycontrollingthewind,seasons,andothernaturalphenomena.Inaddition,theyweregreatlyconcernedwiththeinterpretation of dreams,whichwereviewedasomensorthedesires of one'ssoulthatwouldresultinillnessifleftun-fulfilled.Shamansservedtointerpretandfulfilldreamsandcureillness.BibliographyDelage,Denys(1982)."Conversionetidentity:LecasdesHuronsetdesIroquois(163 4-1 664)."Culture2:7 5-8 2.140HareHareparticipateddirectlyinthetrade,andmanyannuallyvisitedFortGoodHopetoexchangepeltsandprovisionsforEuropeangoods.In1859,theRomanCatholicOblatesar-rivedandseveralyearslaterbuiltamissionandchurchfortheHare,whointimebecamenominalCatholics,manygather-ingforthreereligiouscelebrationseachyear.Throughoutthenineteenthcentury,theHarewereperiodicallyaffectedbyep-idemicdiseases.In1921,theHaresignedTreaty11withCanada.After World WarII,thegovernmentbecameinvolvedinalmosteveryaspect of Harelifethroughhealth,education,game,andsocialwelfareprogramsandregulations.Thenumbers of WhiteslivingamongtheHareincreased-by1972,to50Whitesinapopulation of about370HareIndiansatFortGoodHope.SettlementsInaboriginaldays,theHaremostprobablylivedinbandscomposedflexiblyandonthebasis of kinshipandaffinity.Theirsiteswerelocatedatadvantageousfishingandhuntingspots,andthebandsrangedinsizefromsmalltolarge-thelatterifataskdemandedcooperationasdidtheannualhuntforcaribouforclothingandfood.AfterEuropeantraderscame,theactivities of theHareandtheircamplocationswereadjustedtoaccommodate.Inthenineteenthcentury,onemajorsettlementgrewatFortGoodHope,itselforiginallypositionedandmovedseveraltimesfortheconvenience of transportationandthetrade;butfewHareIndianslivedthereforanylength of timebefore1900.AtFortGoodHopetodayarethepermanentresidences of over3,509nativepeople,twomissions,theHudson'sBayCompany,andvariousgovernmentalservices-school,po-lice,nursingstation,andadministration.Inthetwentiethcentury,amajoraggregation of HareatColvilleLake(67°2'N,126°5'W)initiallydeclinedbecause of deathsandbe-causethestoreandmissionwerelocatedatFortGoodHope.Butsince1960theestablishment of amissionandtradingposthaveagainmadeColvilleLakeasmallpermanentinde-pendentsettlement.Theconstruction of awinterroadhaseasedtraveltoandfromFortGoodHope.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Traditionally,theHarewerehuntersandfishers.Bothlargeandsmallgameandbirdswereshotwithbowsandarrows,speared,snared,surrounded,ornetted.Formerly,acooperativeAugust-Septemberhuntforcaribouwasveryimportant,aswasasec-ondhuntinApril.Therest of theyear,theHarefishedforlaketrout,whitefish,andotherspeciesandhuntedsmallgamelikebirdsandhares.ForsomeHareIndianswholivedneartheMackenzieRiver,thedependenceonhareswassogreatthatwhenthepopulation of theseruminantscrashed,whichoccurredcyclically,starvationandonoccasioncanni-balismweretheresults.AfterEuropeanfurtradersarrived,theHareadjustedtheirannualcycletoaccommodatetrap-ping:marten,lynx,andminkinwinter,beaverandmuskratsinlatewinterandspring.Dogsincreasedinimportanceandnumbersasfurtrappingdid.Before1900,musk-oxenwereimportanttothediet;inrecentyears,moosehaverepopu-latedHareterritoryandmanyareshot.Forthelastonehun-dredyears,theHarehavesupplementedtheirdietwithtea,flour,sugar,andotherstore-purchasedfoods.Today,fewHareIndiansdependonthebushaloneforfulfillingalltheirneeds,andmostspendsummermonthsintown,hopingforfire-fightingjobs.Theidealistocombinewagelaborwithsubsistenceactivities,includingtrapping,duringthecourse of theyear.Indeed,thoughthereplace-mentvalue of fishandgameconsumedissubstantial,thebulk of anyperson'sorfamily'sincomeisfromwagelabororwelfareandtransferpayments.IndustrialArts.Fromwood,roots,caribouandhareskins,sinew,bone,antler,andstone,theaboriginalHaremadeandusedspruce-framedbirchbarkcanoes,snowshoes,netsandsnares,bowsandarrows,clothing,basketsinwhichliquid,withtheaid of hotstones,wasboiled,scrapers,andotherproducts.Today,store-purchasedgoodshavereplacedmost of theaboriginaltechnology.Formerly,someclothingwasdecoratedwithporcupinequillweaving;today,silkembroi-deryandbeadworkinfloralandgeometricdesignsadornjack-ets,vests,moccasins,gauntlets,andmukluks.Trade.Unliketheirneighbors,theKutchinandtheYellowknife,theHarewerenotknowntobeinterestedtradersormiddlemen.Nevertheless,theyparticipatedinthetradewithEuropeanfurtradersfromthelateeighteenthcenturyonandannuallybroughttheskinsandmeat of caribouandmusk-oxenandfurs of beavers,martens,andmuskratstoex-changeforEuropeangoodsand,after1890,tea,flour,andotherfoods.Inthenineteenthcentury,middlemenHareIn-dianstradedEuropeangoodsoccasionallywithMackenzieDeltaInuit.Division of Labor.Althoughfewtasksweretheexclusiveprovince of eithermenorwomenthroughoutthehistoricpe-riod,womenhavetendedtobeprincipallyresponsiblefortak-ingcare of youngchildren,makingclothing,collectingber-ries,preparingfood,dryingfish,andpullingtoboggans;andmenforhunting,fishing,trapping,andmakingdrums.Eventoday,somewomendonothandleoruseboatsontheirownbecausetodosowouldbringbadluck.LandTenure.Thereisnopermanentownership of landorresources.TheHarehavealwaysbeenabletohunt,fish,andtrapwheretheywish,aslongastheyfeelsecureandaslongasnooneelsehashabituallyused,andplanstocontinuetouse,aspecificarea.In1950,theHarewereassignedagameareanorthwest of GreatBearLakeastheirexclusivehuntingandtrappingarea,whichrepresentedafraction of theirformerrange.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Thereisnoconcreteindicationthatdescenthasbeenotherthanbilateral,despitecertainter-minologicalandmarriagepatternslinkedelsewheretouni-lineality.TheHarehaveusedbothconsanguinealandaffinaltiestojoinaspecificresidentialgroup,whichusuallyhasasacoreseveralpeoplecloselyrelatedbyblood.Nodescentgroupsform.KinshipTerminology.ForthetraditionalHare,terminol-ogyinthefirstascendinggenerationwasamixture of bifur-catecollateral(females)andbifurcatemerging(males).InHaitians137EdenshawDavidson,aHaidaWoman.Seattle:University of WashingtonPress.Boelscher,Marianne(1988).TheCurtainWithin:HaidaSo-cialandMythicalDiscourse.Vancouver:University of BritishColumbiaPress.MacDonald,GeorgeF.(1983).HaidaMonumentalArt:Vil-lages of theQueenCharlotteIslands.Vancouver:University of BritishColumbiaPress.Steams,MaryLee(1981).HaidaCultureinCustody.Seattle:University of WashingtonPress.Swanton,JohnR.(1905).ContributionstotheEthnology of theHaida.AmericanMuseum of NaturalHistory,Memoirno.5, 1-3 00.MARGARETB.BLACKMANHaitiansOrientationIdentification.HaitiansareBlacksfromtheisland of Haiti,whichoccupiesone-third of theisland of HispaniolaintheCaribbeanSea.Theothertwo-thirds of Hispaniolaisoc-cupiedbytheDominicanRepublic.ContemporaryHaitiansaredescendants of AfricanslavesimportedbytheFrenchcol-oniststoworkonthesugarplantationsintheeighteenthcen-tury.Haitihasbeenanindependentnationsince1804whenaslaverevoltoverthrewtheFrenchgovernment.HaitiansinHaitiareahomogeneousgroup,withthemajordistinctionsbasedonsocialclassandurban-ruralresidence.Ninetyper-cent of thepopulationisrural,andtheother10percentismostlymulattoandformstheelite.IntheUnitedStates,theHaitianpopulationiscomposed of naturalizedU.S.citizens,legalimmigrants,legalnonimmigrants(students,govem-mentworkers),childrenbornintheUnitedStates,andun-documentedaliensandrefugees.Thelargenumber of Hai-tianswhohavecometo North America sincethemid-1970shasmadethegrouphighlyvisibleandhasresultedintheirbeingthevictims of economic,political,andresidentialracialdiscrimination.HaitiansseethemselvesasdistinctivelyHai-tian,withtheidentities of WestIndianorBlackbeing of sec-ondaryimportance.Location.IntheUnitedStates,HaitiansliveprimarilyinNewYorkCity,Chicago,Washington,D.C.,Philadelphia,Boston,andMiami.Perhapsasmanyasone-halfliveinNewYorkCity.InCanada,HaitianslivemainlyinMontreal.Demography.EstimatesplacetheHaitianpopulationintheUnitedStatesatabout800,000withperhapsasmanyasone-halfthatnumberclassifiedasundocumentedaliensorrefugees.AboutaquarterarechildrenbornintheUnitedStates.InCanada,Haitiansnumberabout25,000.Inbothcountries,mostHaitianshavearrivedinthelastthirtyyears.LinguisticAffiliation.HaitiansspeakHaitianCreole,whichisadistinctlanguage,notadialect of French.About8percent,most of whomaretheelite,alsospeakFrench.Be-cause of regularcontactwiththeUnitedStates,theuse of English,especiallyincities,isincreasing.In North America, mostrecentimmigrantsspeakHaitianCreole,whilethosewhocameearlierandtheirAmerican-bomchildrenspeakEnglish.HistoryandCulturalRelationsHaitiisuniqueinanumber of ways:itisthesecondoldestin-dependentnationintheNew World; itistheonlynationinhistorytoachieveindependencethroughaslaverevolt;itisthepoorestnationinthehemisphere;anditscultureisthemoststronglyAfricancultureintheNew World. Migrationto North America wentthroughfourstages.Duringtheperiod of Frenchcolonizationinthe1700ssomeFrenchandtheirslavesmigratedtothesoutherncoloniesandsettlements.Theperiod of theHaitianRevolution(179 1-1 803)broughtsome50,000WhitesandBlacksto North America, withmostsettlingincitiesintheEastandtheSouth.From1915to1934HaitiwasoccupiedbytheUnitedStatesandthousands of middle-classHaitiansimmigratedtotheUnitedStates.Mostsettledincities,establishingbusinessesorobtainingprofessionalemployment,andeventuallyassimilatedintomainstreamsociety.From1957to1986HaitiwasruledbytheDuvaliers,firstFrancois"Papa Doc& quot;andthenhisson,Jean-Claude.TheDuvaliers'repressiveruledrovethousands of middle-classHaitians north from1957to1971.Beginningintheearly1970s,Haitian"boatpeople"beganarrivinginFlorida.Unlikemost of theearlierimmi-grants,theyweremainlyrural,poor,uneducated,andmale.After1977thenumber of theseimmigrantsincreaseddra-matically,makingthemhighlyvisibleandleadingtooftenre-pressivegovernmentactionincludingdeportationorintem-mentindetentioncamps.Althoughthecourtsputanendtomost of theseabuses,thepublicstereotypedHaitiansaspoor,illiterate,illegalaliens.Haitianswerethenidentifiedasanat-riskgroupforcontractingtheAIDSvirus,aclassificationthatwaslaterrescindedbythegovernment.Notsurpisingly,Hai-tianswhohavearrivedsincethe1970sandconstitutethema-jority of thosein North America, aresubjecttovariousforms of racialandculturaldiscrimination.Because of linguisticandculturaldifferences,theyusuallydonotaffiliatewiththeAfrican-AmericancommunityorwithBlackWestIndians.ThechildrenbornintheUnitedStates,however,adoptEnglishastheirprimarylanguageandassociatewithAfrican-Americans.SettlementsInthecitieswheretheyhavesettled,Haitianstendtoliveinthesameneighborhoodsandoftenonthesameblocksandinthesamebuildings.InNewYork,themajorHaitiancommu-nitiesareinQueensandBrooklyn,withQueensseenasthehomeforthosewhoaremoreaffluentandowntheirownhomes.'LittleHaiti"inMiamiisprobablythemostdistinc-Hare141one'sowngeneration,Iroquoiscousintermswereused;andteknonymywascommon.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Monogamy,perhapsserial,wasprobablythemostcommontraditionalmarriagepattern;polyandry,whichwassometimesfraternal,occurred,andpolygyny,especiallysororal,mayhavebeenpreferredbutwasuncommon.TheHareobservedanuclearfamilyincesttaboo,andmarriageproscriptionextendedtoparallelcousins.Marriagetocrosscousinswaspreferred.Bride-servicewasperformed,andini-tialuxorilocalitymightbecontinuedorfollowedbyvirilocal-ity;bilocalityseemedtheultimatepattern.Thelevirateand,perhaps,thesororatewerebothobserved.Because of mis-sionaryinfluence,polygyny,polyandry,actualcross-cousinmarriage,andchildbetrothalhavedisappeared.Marriageinadulthood,churchceremony,monogamy,absence of divorce,livingout of wedlockwithapartnerwhomaybedoingthesame,andinitialuxorilocalityandultimateneolocalityaretherule.DomesticUnit.Thenuclearfamilyhasalwaysbeenthebasicunit of economiccooperation.Thehouseholdhasal-waysconsisted of anuclearfamily, of afamilyextendedbybride-serviceorinitialuxorilocalityorawidoworwidowerandadoptedchild, of abilateralextendedfamily(usuallywithasiblingcore),or of individualswhohavejoinedeachotherforsometasklikehunting,trapping,ortrade.Inheritance.Thereisnoset of rulesforinheritance,per-hapsbecauselandandrightsarenotindividuallyowned.Tra-ditionally,individualsdestroyedmuch of theirownpropertyatthedeath of arelative.Today,propertylikeacabinisinher-itedbyaspouse,child,closerelativewhoisinneed,orafriend.Socialization.Youngchildren,malesmorethanfemales,areindulgedandtreatedwithaffection.Sanctionislargelythroughridicule;spankingisveryrareandoccursonlywhenachildputshimselfindanger.Youngchildrenbegintheirat-temptstouseadulttechnologyatanearlyageandlearnmainlybytrialanderrorandimitation.Today,whenchildrenandadolescentsarenotinschool,theyareexpectedtohelpwitharange of increasinglygender-specifichouseholdchores.Childrenenculturateemotionalrestraint,independence,re.sourcefulness,flexibility,andreciprocity.Formerly,girlsun-derwentexclusionandobservedanumber of ... wasthemostimportantreligiousrite.SeealsoTewaBibliographyDozier,EdwardP.(1954).TheHopi-Tewa of Arizona.Uni-versity of CaliforniaPublicationsinAmericanArchaeologyandEthnology,44.Berkeley.Stanislawski,MichaelB.(1979)."Hopi-Tewa."InHandbook of North AmericanIndians.Vol.9,Southwest,editedbyAl-fonsoOrtiz,58 7-6 02.Washington,D.C.:SmithsonianInsti-tution.HumaTheHuma(Houma,Sabine)livedontheeastside of theMississippiRivernearthepresentLouisiana-Mississippibor-der.TheyarenowsettledinseveralcommunitiesaroundHouma,Louisiana,inTerrebonneandLafourchpparishes.TheyspeakaMuskogeanlanguageandnumbered2,221in1966,2,600in1980.ETHNONYM:TanoTheHopi-TewaareaTewa-speakingAmericanIndiangroupwholiveinthepueblo of HanoonFirstMesaontheHopiIndianReservationinnortheasternArizona.Fromthefourteenthtotheseventeenthcenturiestheancestors of theHopi-TewaoccupiedseveralpueblocommunitiesintheGali-steoBasin,south of present-daySantaFe,NewMexico.Inthefourteenthcenturytheirancestorsareestimatedtohavenumberedbetweenfourteenhundredandfourthousandpeople.About1692,followingthereturn of theSpanishafterthePuebloRevolt of 1680,manyTanotookrefugeamongtheirnorthernneighbors,theTewa.About1696someTanomigratedtoHopiterritoryandsettledthere,establishingtheBibliographyCurry,Jan(1979)."AHistory of theHoumaIndiansandTheirStory of FederalNonrecognition."AmericanIndianJournal5(1): 8-2 8.Stanton,MaxE.(1971)."ARemnantIndianCommunity:theHouma of SouthernLouisiana."InThe...
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... hadthepowertorecallor"dehom"achiefwhofailedtorepresenttheinterests of hispeople.Theoretically,eachsachemwasequaltotheothersinpower,butinpracticethosewithbetteroratoricalskillswieldedgreaterinfluence.Aftertheconfederacyhadbeenfunctioningforaperiod of timeanew,nonhereditaryoffice of pinetreechiefwascreatedtoprovidelocalleadershipandtoactasadvisertothecouncilsachems,althoughlatertheyac-tuallysatontheLeaguecouncilandequaledthesachemsinpower.Pinetreechiefsheldtheirpositionforlifeandwerechosenbythewomen of amatrisibonthebasis of skillinwar-fare.IroquoisinvolvementinthefurtradeandwarwiththeFrenchincreasedtheimportanceandsolidarity of theLeaguecouncilandtherebystrengthenedtheconfederacy.Itsstrengthcontinuedtogrowuntilthetime of theAmericanRevolutionwhenIroquoisalliancesweredividedbetweentheBritishandtheAmericancolonists.SocialControl.Part-timereligiousspecialistsknownaskeepers of thefaithservedinparttocensureantisocialbehav-ior.Unconfessedwitchesdetectedthroughcouncilproceed-ingswerepunishedwithdeath,whilethosewhoconfessedmightbeallowedtoreform.Conflict.Witchcraftwasthemostserioustype of antiso-cialbehavior.TheIroquoisbelievedthatwitches,inconcertwiththeEvilSpirit,couldcausedisease,accident,death,orothermisfortune.Becausewitcheswerethoughttobeabletotransformthemselvesintootherobjects,theyweredifficulttocatchandpunish.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Thesupernatural world of theIroquoisincludednumerousdeities,themostimportant of whichwasGreatSpirit,whowasresponsibleforthecreation of humanbeings,theplantsandanimals,andtheforces of goodinna-IglulikInuit155forwomenandfromagestwentytotwenty-sixformenisthemostimportantrite of passageforHutterites.Itsignifiesadultstatus,isaprerequisiteformarriage,andoftencreatescloserbondsbetweenthenow-adultchildrenandtheirparents.Arts.Traditionalcraftssuchaspotterymakinganddeco-rativesewinghavenowlargelydisappeared,thoughclothingstyleisanimportantindicator of Leutidentity.Sportsanddancingarevirtuallyabsent,andindividualhobbiestendto-wardproductiveactivitiessuchaselectricalwiring.Singingisthecentralexpressiveactivity.Hutteritessinginchurch,atschool,athome,andduringgroupactivities.Thereisarichandvariedrepertoire of songsandhymns.Medicine.Medicalcareislargelyfree of religiouscontentandphysiciansareroutinelyused.Hutteritechiropractorsareusedbybothcolonymembersandoutsiders.TheHutteriteshavebeentheobject of intensestudybymentalhealthre-searchersanddisplayanunusuallyhighincidence of affectivepsychosesandlowincidence of schizophreniawhencom-paredtoothergroupsandtheU.S.populationingeneral.TheHutteritesalsodisplayaculture-specificdisordercalledAnfechtung,characterizedbyafeeling of havingsinned.Treatmentisthroughtalkwiththepreacher,prayer,andcon-fession,usuallyproducingacure.DeathandAfterlife.Deathisseenasthestepleadingtoparadiseforthosewhohavelivedafaithfullife.Burialusuallyfollowsthreedaysafterthedeathandisprecededbyawakeandanin-gathering of colonymembersandbaptizedmem-bers of othercolonies.Thecommunallifeprovidesemotionalsupportforthefamily of thedeceased.BibliographyBennett,JohnA.(1967).HutterianBrethren:TheAgricul-turalEconomyandSocialOrganization of aCommunalPeople.Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress.Hostetler,JohnA.(1974).HutteriteSociety.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.Hostetler,JohnA.,andGertrudeHuntington(1970).TheHutteritesin North America. NewYork:Holt,Rinehart&Winston.Martens,Helen(1968)."HutteriteSongs:TheOriginsandAuralTransmission of TheirMelodiesfromtheSixteenthCentury."Ph.D.diss.,ColumbiaUniversity.JOHNA.HOSTETLERIglulikInuitETHNONYMS:Aivilingmiut,Iglulingmiut,TununirmiutTheterm"Iglulik"referstotheIglulingmiut,Aiviling-miut,andTununirmiut,Inuit-Inupiaq-speakingpeopleslo-cated north of HudsonBayintheCanadianNorthwestTerri-tories.Formerly,theIglulikrangedoverawideterritorythatincludedparts of northernBaffinIsland,MelvillePeninsula,andnorthernSouthamptonIsland.Inthe1820stheynum-beredbetweenfourhundredandsixhundred,approximatelythesameasinthe1980s.TheIglulikwereincontactwithWhitesinthe1820s,butitwasnotuntilregularvisitsbywhalingcrewsduringthesec-ondhalf of thenineteenthcenturythatcontacthadasignifi-cantimpactontheirway of life.After1920acculturationwasacceleratedwiththeestablishment of Hudson'sBayCom-panytradingpostsandAnglicanandCatholicmissionsta-tions,andthepresence of theRoyalCanadianMountedPo-lice.Sincethe1960sthenumber of Iglulikwhodependonhuntingandgatheringfortheirlivelihoodhasbeendiminish-ingrapidlyasadultsfindemploymentintheminingandoilindustries.Traditionally,theIglulikengagedinaseasonalpattern of subsistenceactivitiesandmovementinvolvingwhale,seal,andwalrushuntinginthesummer,caribouhuntingandsalmonandtroutfishingintheautumn,sealhuntingontheseaiceinthewinter,andsealandwalrushuntinginthespring.Kayaksandumiakswereemployedinthesummerhunting of marineanimals,andcaribouwerestalkedandkilledwithbowsandarrowsordrivenintothewaterandspearedfromkayaks.Birds,foxes,wolves,andpolarbearswerealsohunted.Thenuclearfamilyinwhichthehusbandwasfoodproviderandtoolmakerandthewifewascookandclothes-makerwasthebasicunit of Igluliksociety.Formerly,whentheIglulikmovedinlandintheautumntohuntcaribouandfish,theyassembledinsmallcamps of severalfamilieseach.Thecamp'sleaderorleaderswererespectedandmaturemenwhoadvisedthecampwithregardtogroupmovementsandsubsistenceactivities.Shamanscuredthesickandpracticeddivinationbycall-ingupontheaid of spiritsintrances.Insomeinstancesasin-glemanfilledtheroles of bothcampleaderandshaman.Thenotion of thesoulwasfundamentaltothebeliefs of theIglu-lik,andtheyheldthatthe world aroundthemwaspopulatedbyahost of supernaturalbeings,ghosts,andspirits.BibliographyKleivan,Inge(1985).Eskimos:GreenlandandCanada.Lei-den:E.J.Brill.Mathiassen,Therkel(1928).MaterialCulture of theIglulikEskimos.Report of theFifthThuleExpedition,192 1-2 4.Vol.6,Pt.1.Copenhagen,Denmark.Rasmussen,Knud(1929).IntellectualCulture of theIglulikEskimos.Report of theFifthThuleExpedition,192 1-2 4.Vol.7,Pt.1.Copenhagen,Denmark.156IllinoisIllinoisTheIllinois,includingtheCahokia,Kaskaskia,Michigamea,Peoria,andTamaroa,withtherelatedMascouten,livedprin-cipallyalongtheIllinoisandMississippiriversinthestates of Illinois,Iowa,andMissouri.Theremnants of theIllinois,to-getherwiththeWeaandPiankashaw,nowliveonorneartheformerPeoriaIndianReservationinnortheasternOklahoma,andarelargelyassimilatedwiththeEuropean-Americanpop-ulation.SeeMiamiBibliographyCallender,Charles(1978)."Illinois."InHandbook of North AmericanIndians.Vol.15,Northeast,editedbyBruceG.Trig-ger,67 3-6 80.Washington,D.C.:SmithsonianInstitution.Goddard,Ives(1978)."Mascouten."InHandbook of North AmericanIndians.Vol.15,Northeast,editedbyBruceG.Trig-ger,66 8-6 72.Washington,D.C.:SmithsonianInstitution.IngalikETHNONYMS:DegHit'an,Inkality,Inkiliki,Ingelete,Inkiliki-iugel'nut,Kaiyuhkhotana,Ten'aOrientationIdentification.TheIngalikareanAmericanIndiangroupinAlaska.Theterm"Inkiliki"inseveralvariationsfirstap-pearsintheRussianliterature of the1830sand1840s.ThenameappearsborrowedfromYup'ikEskimo"Ingqiliq,"ageneraltermforIndians of theinteriorandmeaning"havinglouses'eggs."Ingalikcallthemselves"DegHit'an"(thepeo-plefromhere).Location.Atthetime of Russiancontactinthe1830stheIngaliklivedinseveralvillagesonthelowerYukonandInnokorivers,andonthemiddleKuskokwimRiver,insouth-westernAlaska.TheirterritorywasboundedbyEskimogroupsdownriverandinthecoastalregions,andotherAtha-paskansupstream-KoyukonontheYukon,KolchanontheKuskokwim.Majorsettlementsinhistorictimesincludedthevillages of ShagelukontheInnoko,Anvik,Bonasila,andHolyCrossonthelowerYukon,KvygympaynagmyutandGeorgetownonthemiddleKuskokwim.Theenvironmentwassubarcticborealforest,characterizedbyshortwarmsum-mersandlongcoldwinters.Demography.Inthe1830s,theIngalikhadapopulationestimatedatbetweenfifteenhundredandtwothousand.Fol-lowingtheintroduction of Europeandiseases,numbersfelltosixhundredby1900.Particularlydevastatingwasthesmall-poxepidemic of 183 8-1 839.Thepresentpopulationisoverfivehundred,althoughthisfiguredoesnottakeintoaccountsignificantintermarriagewithEskimoandothergroups.LinguisticAffiliation.TheIngaliklanguageisone of theNorthernAthapaskanlanguages,asubgroup of theAtha-paskanfamily.Therearetwodialects,onespokenontheYukon,thesecondrestrictedtotheKuskokwim.TheKusko-kwimdialecthaslargelybeenreplacedbyotherAthapaskanlanguages,Eskimo,andEnglish.TheYukondialectispres-entlyspokenonlybytheoldergeneration.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheAthapaskanculturesarelikelyrelatedtomicrobladetoolhorizons,whichappearedinAlaskafromAsiaaround8000B.C.By4800B.C.,thisculturehadexpandedovermuch of AlaskaandnorthwesternCanada,areassubsequentlyoccu-piedbytheNorthernAthapaskans.LinguisticandculturalevidencesuggeststhattheProto-Athapaskanlanguagewasthat of aninteriorhuntingpeople,probablycenteredintheeasternAlaskan,upperYukonRiver,andnorthwesternCana-diancordilleranregion.Between500B.C.andA.D.500,Atha-paskansexpandedintowesternAlaskaandlanguagesbegantodifferentiate.Athapaskancoreculturalelementsincludedanemphasisonupland,big-gamehunting,amatrilinealde-scentsystem,commemorativefeastsforthedead,semisubter-raneandwellings,anduse of snowshoesandtoboggans.Fish-ingwas of secondaryimportance.Astheancestors of theIngalikmovedintoriverineareas of southwesternAlaska,theycameintocontactwithEskimos.Exposuretothecul-tures of theseefficientcoastalsea-mammalhuntingandfish-ingspecialistsledtoconsiderableEskimoization of theAthapaskancoreculture,withtheIngalikadoptingafishingeconomyandabilateralkinshipsystem.By1900,throughin-termarriagewithEskimo,theKuskokwimIngalikhadceasedtoexistasaculturalentity,andby1980,HolyCrossvillageontheYukonwasatleast50percentEskimo.SituatedbetweenAthapaskansandEskimos,theIngaliktradedwithboth.FollowingRussiancontact,theIngalikoc-casionallyvisitedpostssuchasNulatoonthemiddleYukontotrade.Notaswarlikeasothergroups,theIngalik'stradi-tionalenemiesweretheKoyukon,althoughtherewasocca-sionalfrictionwithEskimoandtheKolchan.SettlementsTheIngalikestablishedwintervillagesonmajorstreams,oftenatthemouth of atributary.Atypicalvillagecontainedasinglelargekashimorsemisubterraneanceremonialmen'shouse,fivetotensmallersemisubterraneanwinterdwellings,raisedpolefoodcaches,andracksforcanoesandsleds.Win-terdwellingswereoccupiedbymorethanonefamily,andawintervillagewouldcontainfiftytoahundredormorepeo-ple.Springandsummerfishingcamps,severalmilesfromthewintervillage,consisted of lesssubstantialA-frameorgableddwellingsbuilt of logscoveredbyplanksorbark.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.TheYukonIn-galikwereprimarilysubsistencefishermen,supplementingthisbyhuntingandtrappingcaribou,moose,bear,andavari-ety of otherfur-bearinganimals.ThepredictablesalmonrunsIngalik157permittedamoresedentarylifeandlargerpopulationsthanamongAthapaskangroupswhoreliedonbiggame.TheKus-kokwimIngalikinaboriginaltimesstressedhuntingmorethandidtheYukonIngalik.OccupyingwintervillagesfromSeptemberthroughApril,theIngalikusednetsandtrapssetintheicetotakeavariety of fish.Caribouwerehuntedusingthesurroundandfences,andfurbearersweretrappedandsnaredforfood,clothing,andtrade.InAprilandMay,fami-liesmovedinlandtolakesforfishingand,followingbreak-up of theice,movedtosummerfishingcampsonthemainstreams.Heretheyusedavariety of traps,nets,andweirstotakequantities of salmonandwhitefish,whichtheydriedforwinteruse.Bythelate1800s,possiblybecause of huntingpressureanduse of therepeatingrifle,caribounumbersde-clinedsharply.Thisforcedanincreasedemphasisuponfish-ing,particularlyontheKuskokwim.By1914,theEuropeanfishwheelhadbeenintroducedintotheregionandbythe1930shadlargelyreplacedtheuse of fishtraps.Inrecentyearspaidemployment,includingfire-fightingandworkatfishcanneries,hasprovidedasource of income.IndustrialArts.TraditionalIngalikcraftsincludedexten-sivewoodworkinginthemanufacture of containers,sleds,birchbarkcanoes,snowshoes,dwellings,andweapons.Sim-plepottery,sometwinedbasketry,stoneandbonetools,birchbarkcontainers,tailoredskinclothing,snares,nets,andfishtrapswerecommonproductsforuseandtrade.Trade.AlthoughtheIngaliktradedwithothergroups,mostexchangewaswithEskimo.TheYukonIngaliktradedwiththeEskimo of NortonSound,exchangingwoodenuten-silsandfursforbelugaandsealoil,sealskins,andSiberianreindeerskins.Tobacco,tea,andmetaltoolsreachedtheIngalikviaSiberiantraderoutes.TheKuskokwimIngaliktradedprimarilywiththeKuskowagamiutEskimodown-stream,exchangingfursandbirchbarkcanoesforsealoil,sealskins,fish,anddentaliumshells.DuringtheRussianandearlyAmericanperiod,metaltools,firearms,andcloth ... hadthepowertorecallor"dehom"achiefwhofailedtorepresenttheinterests of hispeople.Theoretically,eachsachemwasequaltotheothersinpower,butinpracticethosewithbetteroratoricalskillswieldedgreaterinfluence.Aftertheconfederacyhadbeenfunctioningforaperiod of timeanew,nonhereditaryoffice of pinetreechiefwascreatedtoprovidelocalleadershipandtoactasadvisertothecouncilsachems,althoughlatertheyac-tuallysatontheLeaguecouncilandequaledthesachemsinpower.Pinetreechiefsheldtheirpositionforlifeandwerechosenbythewomen of amatrisibonthebasis of skillinwar-fare.IroquoisinvolvementinthefurtradeandwarwiththeFrenchincreasedtheimportanceandsolidarity of theLeaguecouncilandtherebystrengthenedtheconfederacy.Itsstrengthcontinuedtogrowuntilthetime of theAmericanRevolutionwhenIroquoisalliancesweredividedbetweentheBritishandtheAmericancolonists.SocialControl.Part-timereligiousspecialistsknownaskeepers of thefaithservedinparttocensureantisocialbehav-ior.Unconfessedwitchesdetectedthroughcouncilproceed-ingswerepunishedwithdeath,whilethosewhoconfessedmightbeallowedtoreform.Conflict.Witchcraftwasthemostserioustype of antiso-cialbehavior.TheIroquoisbelievedthatwitches,inconcertwiththeEvilSpirit,couldcausedisease,accident,death,orothermisfortune.Becausewitcheswerethoughttobeabletotransformthemselvesintootherobjects,theyweredifficulttocatchandpunish.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Thesupernatural world of theIroquoisincludednumerousdeities,themostimportant of whichwasGreatSpirit,whowasresponsibleforthecreation of humanbeings,theplantsandanimals,andtheforces of goodinna-IglulikInuit155forwomenandfromagestwentytotwenty-sixformenisthemostimportantrite of passageforHutterites.Itsignifiesadultstatus,isaprerequisiteformarriage,andoftencreatescloserbondsbetweenthenow-adultchildrenandtheirparents.Arts.Traditionalcraftssuchaspotterymakinganddeco-rativesewinghavenowlargelydisappeared,thoughclothingstyleisanimportantindicator of Leutidentity.Sportsanddancingarevirtuallyabsent,andindividualhobbiestendto-wardproductiveactivitiessuchaselectricalwiring.Singingisthecentralexpressiveactivity.Hutteritessinginchurch,atschool,athome,andduringgroupactivities.Thereisarichandvariedrepertoire of songsandhymns.Medicine.Medicalcareislargelyfree of religiouscontentandphysiciansareroutinelyused.Hutteritechiropractorsareusedbybothcolonymembersandoutsiders.TheHutteriteshavebeentheobject of intensestudybymentalhealthre-searchersanddisplayanunusuallyhighincidence of affectivepsychosesandlowincidence of schizophreniawhencom-paredtoothergroupsandtheU.S.populationingeneral.TheHutteritesalsodisplayaculture-specificdisordercalledAnfechtung,characterizedbyafeeling of havingsinned.Treatmentisthroughtalkwiththepreacher,prayer,andcon-fession,usuallyproducingacure.DeathandAfterlife.Deathisseenasthestepleadingtoparadiseforthosewhohavelivedafaithfullife.Burialusuallyfollowsthreedaysafterthedeathandisprecededbyawakeandanin-gathering of colonymembersandbaptizedmem-bers of othercolonies.Thecommunallifeprovidesemotionalsupportforthefamily of thedeceased.BibliographyBennett,JohnA.(1967).HutterianBrethren:TheAgricul-turalEconomyandSocialOrganization of aCommunalPeople.Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress.Hostetler,JohnA.(1974).HutteriteSociety.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.Hostetler,JohnA.,andGertrudeHuntington(1970).TheHutteritesin North America. NewYork:Holt,Rinehart&Winston.Martens,Helen(1968)."HutteriteSongs:TheOriginsandAuralTransmission of TheirMelodiesfromtheSixteenthCentury."Ph.D.diss.,ColumbiaUniversity.JOHNA.HOSTETLERIglulikInuitETHNONYMS:Aivilingmiut,Iglulingmiut,TununirmiutTheterm"Iglulik"referstotheIglulingmiut,Aiviling-miut,andTununirmiut,Inuit-Inupiaq-speakingpeopleslo-cated north of HudsonBayintheCanadianNorthwestTerri-tories.Formerly,theIglulikrangedoverawideterritorythatincludedparts of northernBaffinIsland,MelvillePeninsula,andnorthernSouthamptonIsland.Inthe1820stheynum-beredbetweenfourhundredandsixhundred,approximatelythesameasinthe1980s.TheIglulikwereincontactwithWhitesinthe1820s,butitwasnotuntilregularvisitsbywhalingcrewsduringthesec-ondhalf of thenineteenthcenturythatcontacthadasignifi-cantimpactontheirway of life.After1920acculturationwasacceleratedwiththeestablishment of Hudson'sBayCom-panytradingpostsandAnglicanandCatholicmissionsta-tions,andthepresence of theRoyalCanadianMountedPo-lice.Sincethe1960sthenumber of Iglulikwhodependonhuntingandgatheringfortheirlivelihoodhasbeendiminish-ingrapidlyasadultsfindemploymentintheminingandoilindustries.Traditionally,theIglulikengagedinaseasonalpattern of subsistenceactivitiesandmovementinvolvingwhale,seal,andwalrushuntinginthesummer,caribouhuntingandsalmonandtroutfishingintheautumn,sealhuntingontheseaiceinthewinter,andsealandwalrushuntinginthespring.Kayaksandumiakswereemployedinthesummerhunting of marineanimals,andcaribouwerestalkedandkilledwithbowsandarrowsordrivenintothewaterandspearedfromkayaks.Birds,foxes,wolves,andpolarbearswerealsohunted.Thenuclearfamilyinwhichthehusbandwasfoodproviderandtoolmakerandthewifewascookandclothes-makerwasthebasicunit of Igluliksociety.Formerly,whentheIglulikmovedinlandintheautumntohuntcaribouandfish,theyassembledinsmallcamps of severalfamilieseach.Thecamp'sleaderorleaderswererespectedandmaturemenwhoadvisedthecampwithregardtogroupmovementsandsubsistenceactivities.Shamanscuredthesickandpracticeddivinationbycall-ingupontheaid of spiritsintrances.Insomeinstancesasin-glemanfilledtheroles of bothcampleaderandshaman.Thenotion of thesoulwasfundamentaltothebeliefs of theIglu-lik,andtheyheldthatthe world aroundthemwaspopulatedbyahost of supernaturalbeings,ghosts,andspirits.BibliographyKleivan,Inge(1985).Eskimos:GreenlandandCanada.Lei-den:E.J.Brill.Mathiassen,Therkel(1928).MaterialCulture of theIglulikEskimos.Report of theFifthThuleExpedition,192 1-2 4.Vol.6,Pt.1.Copenhagen,Denmark.Rasmussen,Knud(1929).IntellectualCulture of theIglulikEskimos.Report of theFifthThuleExpedition,192 1-2 4.Vol.7,Pt.1.Copenhagen,Denmark.156IllinoisIllinoisTheIllinois,includingtheCahokia,Kaskaskia,Michigamea,Peoria,andTamaroa,withtherelatedMascouten,livedprin-cipallyalongtheIllinoisandMississippiriversinthestates of Illinois,Iowa,andMissouri.Theremnants of theIllinois,to-getherwiththeWeaandPiankashaw,nowliveonorneartheformerPeoriaIndianReservationinnortheasternOklahoma,andarelargelyassimilatedwiththeEuropean-Americanpop-ulation.SeeMiamiBibliographyCallender,Charles(1978)."Illinois."InHandbook of North AmericanIndians.Vol.15,Northeast,editedbyBruceG.Trig-ger,67 3-6 80.Washington,D.C.:SmithsonianInstitution.Goddard,Ives(1978)."Mascouten."InHandbook of North AmericanIndians.Vol.15,Northeast,editedbyBruceG.Trig-ger,66 8-6 72.Washington,D.C.:SmithsonianInstitution.IngalikETHNONYMS:DegHit'an,Inkality,Inkiliki,Ingelete,Inkiliki-iugel'nut,Kaiyuhkhotana,Ten'aOrientationIdentification.TheIngalikareanAmericanIndiangroupinAlaska.Theterm"Inkiliki"inseveralvariationsfirstap-pearsintheRussianliterature of the1830sand1840s.ThenameappearsborrowedfromYup'ikEskimo"Ingqiliq,"ageneraltermforIndians of theinteriorandmeaning"havinglouses'eggs."Ingalikcallthemselves"DegHit'an"(thepeo-plefromhere).Location.Atthetime of Russiancontactinthe1830stheIngaliklivedinseveralvillagesonthelowerYukonandInnokorivers,andonthemiddleKuskokwimRiver,insouth-westernAlaska.TheirterritorywasboundedbyEskimogroupsdownriverandinthecoastalregions,andotherAtha-paskansupstream-KoyukonontheYukon,KolchanontheKuskokwim.Majorsettlementsinhistorictimesincludedthevillages of ShagelukontheInnoko,Anvik,Bonasila,andHolyCrossonthelowerYukon,KvygympaynagmyutandGeorgetownonthemiddleKuskokwim.Theenvironmentwassubarcticborealforest,characterizedbyshortwarmsum-mersandlongcoldwinters.Demography.Inthe1830s,theIngalikhadapopulationestimatedatbetweenfifteenhundredandtwothousand.Fol-lowingtheintroduction of Europeandiseases,numbersfelltosixhundredby1900.Particularlydevastatingwasthesmall-poxepidemic of 183 8-1 839.Thepresentpopulationisoverfivehundred,althoughthisfiguredoesnottakeintoaccountsignificantintermarriagewithEskimoandothergroups.LinguisticAffiliation.TheIngaliklanguageisone of theNorthernAthapaskanlanguages,asubgroup of theAtha-paskanfamily.Therearetwodialects,onespokenontheYukon,thesecondrestrictedtotheKuskokwim.TheKusko-kwimdialecthaslargelybeenreplacedbyotherAthapaskanlanguages,Eskimo,andEnglish.TheYukondialectispres-entlyspokenonlybytheoldergeneration.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheAthapaskanculturesarelikelyrelatedtomicrobladetoolhorizons,whichappearedinAlaskafromAsiaaround8000B.C.By4800B.C.,thisculturehadexpandedovermuch of AlaskaandnorthwesternCanada,areassubsequentlyoccu-piedbytheNorthernAthapaskans.LinguisticandculturalevidencesuggeststhattheProto-Athapaskanlanguagewasthat of aninteriorhuntingpeople,probablycenteredintheeasternAlaskan,upperYukonRiver,andnorthwesternCana-diancordilleranregion.Between500B.C.andA.D.500,Atha-paskansexpandedintowesternAlaskaandlanguagesbegantodifferentiate.Athapaskancoreculturalelementsincludedanemphasisonupland,big-gamehunting,amatrilinealde-scentsystem,commemorativefeastsforthedead,semisubter-raneandwellings,anduse of snowshoesandtoboggans.Fish-ingwas of secondaryimportance.Astheancestors of theIngalikmovedintoriverineareas of southwesternAlaska,theycameintocontactwithEskimos.Exposuretothecul-tures of theseefficientcoastalsea-mammalhuntingandfish-ingspecialistsledtoconsiderableEskimoization of theAthapaskancoreculture,withtheIngalikadoptingafishingeconomyandabilateralkinshipsystem.By1900,throughin-termarriagewithEskimo,theKuskokwimIngalikhadceasedtoexistasaculturalentity,andby1980,HolyCrossvillageontheYukonwasatleast50percentEskimo.SituatedbetweenAthapaskansandEskimos,theIngaliktradedwithboth.FollowingRussiancontact,theIngalikoc-casionallyvisitedpostssuchasNulatoonthemiddleYukontotrade.Notaswarlikeasothergroups,theIngalik'stradi-tionalenemiesweretheKoyukon,althoughtherewasocca-sionalfrictionwithEskimoandtheKolchan.SettlementsTheIngalikestablishedwintervillagesonmajorstreams,oftenatthemouth of atributary.Atypicalvillagecontainedasinglelargekashimorsemisubterraneanceremonialmen'shouse,fivetotensmallersemisubterraneanwinterdwellings,raisedpolefoodcaches,andracksforcanoesandsleds.Win-terdwellingswereoccupiedbymorethanonefamily,andawintervillagewouldcontainfiftytoahundredormorepeo-ple.Springandsummerfishingcamps,severalmilesfromthewintervillage,consisted of lesssubstantialA-frameorgableddwellingsbuilt of logscoveredbyplanksorbark.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.TheYukonIn-galikwereprimarilysubsistencefishermen,supplementingthisbyhuntingandtrappingcaribou,moose,bear,andavari-ety of otherfur-bearinganimals.ThepredictablesalmonrunsIngalik157permittedamoresedentarylifeandlargerpopulationsthanamongAthapaskangroupswhoreliedonbiggame.TheKus-kokwimIngalikinaboriginaltimesstressedhuntingmorethandidtheYukonIngalik.OccupyingwintervillagesfromSeptemberthroughApril,theIngalikusednetsandtrapssetintheicetotakeavariety of fish.Caribouwerehuntedusingthesurroundandfences,andfurbearersweretrappedandsnaredforfood,clothing,andtrade.InAprilandMay,fami-liesmovedinlandtolakesforfishingand,followingbreak-up of theice,movedtosummerfishingcampsonthemainstreams.Heretheyusedavariety of traps,nets,andweirstotakequantities of salmonandwhitefish,whichtheydriedforwinteruse.Bythelate1800s,possiblybecause of huntingpressureanduse of therepeatingrifle,caribounumbersde-clinedsharply.Thisforcedanincreasedemphasisuponfish-ing,particularlyontheKuskokwim.By1914,theEuropeanfishwheelhadbeenintroducedintotheregionandbythe1930shadlargelyreplacedtheuse of fishtraps.Inrecentyearspaidemployment,includingfire-fightingandworkatfishcanneries,hasprovidedasource of income.IndustrialArts.TraditionalIngalikcraftsincludedexten-sivewoodworkinginthemanufacture of containers,sleds,birchbarkcanoes,snowshoes,dwellings,andweapons.Sim-plepottery,sometwinedbasketry,stoneandbonetools,birchbarkcontainers,tailoredskinclothing,snares,nets,andfishtrapswerecommonproductsforuseandtrade.Trade.AlthoughtheIngaliktradedwithothergroups,mostexchangewaswithEskimo.TheYukonIngaliktradedwiththeEskimo of NortonSound,exchangingwoodenuten-silsandfursforbelugaandsealoil,sealskins,andSiberianreindeerskins.Tobacco,tea,andmetaltoolsreachedtheIngalikviaSiberiantraderoutes.TheKuskokwimIngaliktradedprimarilywiththeKuskowagamiutEskimodown-stream,exchangingfursandbirchbarkcanoesforsealoil,sealskins,fish,anddentaliumshells.DuringtheRussianandearlyAmericanperiod,metaltools,firearms,andcloth ... ratherthanaffirmtheirfaith.Trav-elerwomen'sreligiousnessisstrong,whereasthemenpartici.pateinthesequence of sacramentsbutdonotregularlyat-tendchurch.AllTravelersarebaptizedasinfants,receivefirstcommunionaroundeightyears of age,andareconfirmedbe-tweenthirteenandeighteen.Thewomencontinuetoattendmass,receivecommunion,andoftengotoconfessionthroughouttheirlives.Mostmenattendmassonlyonholi-daysandforspecialevents.TheolderTravelerwomenattendmassdailyfor"extragraces"orspecialintentions.TherearefourmajorconcernsforwhichTravelers,especiallywomen,pray,inorder of importance:thattheirdaughtersmarry;thattheirdaughters,oncemarried,becomepregnant;thattheirhusbandsorsonsquitdrinking;andthatanyhealthproblemsinthefamilyareovercome.Because of theamount of timeTravelermenareontheroadandthefatalitiesthathaveoc-curredfromautomobileaccidents,Travelerwomenworryaboutthelevel of socialdrinkingpracticedbythemen.Pres-surefromthewomenhasresultedinIrishTravelermen"tak-ingthepledge."Theyaskalocalpriesttowitnessinfront of thechurchaltartheirtakingthepledgeorpromisingtoquitdrinkingforaspecificamount of time.Thisisdoneinsidethechurchwithnootherwitnesses.DeathandAfterlife.IrishTravelersbelieve,astheRomanCatholicchurchteaches,thatthereisanafterlife.TravelersdonotbelieveanythingthatdivergesfromthemainstreamCatholicway of thinking.Inthepast,TravelerfuneralswereheldonceayeartoenableasmanyTravelersaspossibletoat-tend.ThedistanceTravelersmusttravelfromtheirvillagestoobtainworkhasmadeitdifficultforsomefamiliestoattendalltheactivitiesheldbyotherTravelers.Because of thediffi-cultyinincludingallTravelersinthefuneralplansandthein-creaseinfuneralcosts,funeralsarenowbeingheldwithinsixmonths of theperson'sdeath.IrishTravelerscontinuetoburytheirdeadincemeteriesusedbytheirancestors,al-thoughrecently,Travelershavebeguntoburytheirrelativesinlocalcemeteries.BibliographyAndereck,MaryE.(1988)."IrishTravelersinaCatholicEle-mentarySchool."Ph.D.diss.,TexasA&MUniversity,Col-legeStation.Harper,JaredV.(1969)."IrishTravelerCant:AnHistorical,Structural,andSociolinguisticStudy of anArgot."M.A.the-sis,University of Georgia,Athens.Harper,JaredV.(1971)."'Gypsy'ResearchintheSouth."InTheNotSoSolidSouth,editedbyJ.KennethMorland,1 6-2 4.Athens,Ga.:SouthernAnthropologicalSociety.Harper,JaredV.(1977)."TheIrishTravelers of Georgia."Ph.D.diss.,University of Georgia,Athens.MARYE.ANDERECKIroquoisETHNONYMS:FiveNationsNations,League of theIroquois,SixOrientationIdentification.TheLeague of theIroquoiswasoriginallyaconfederacy of five North AmericanIndiantribes:theMohawk,Oneida,Onondaga,Cayuga,andSeneca.Asixthtribe,theTuscarora,joinedtheLeaguein1722aftermigrat-ing north fromtheregion of theRoanokeRiverinresponsetohostilitieswithWhitecolonists.Inthe1980smembers of thesixIroquoiantribeslivedinQuebecandOntario,Canada,andNewYork,Pennsylvania,Wisconsin,andOklahomaintheUnitedStates.Location.Ontheeve of EuropeancontacttheIroquoisterritoryextendedfromLakeChamplainandLakeGeorgewesttotheGeneseeRiverandLakeOntarioandfromtheSt.LawrenceRiversouthtotheSusquehannaRiver.Withintheseboundarieseach of theoriginalfivetribesoccupieda north- southoblongstrip of territory;fromeasttowest,theyweretheMohawk,Oneida,Onondaga,Cayuga,andSeneca.Theregionwasprimarilylakeandhillcountrydissectedbynumerousrivers.Deciduousforests of birch,beech,maple,andelmdominatedtheregion,givingwaytofirandspruceforestsinthe north andinthehigherelevations of theAdi-rondackMountains.Inaboriginaltimesfishandanimalspe-cieswerediverseandabundant.Demography.In1600thepopulation of theFiveNationsisestimatedtohavebeenaboutfifty-fivehundredandthat of theTuscaroraaboutfivethousand.By1904thesixIroquoistribesnumberedatleastsixteenthousand,notincludingsev-Inujihuit161hasnowbeenabandonedwiththeavailability of foodinstores.Inheritance.Intraditionaltimes,thefewpersonalposses-sions of thedeceasedwereplacedonthegrave.Danishlawisnowfollowed.Socialization.Childrenlearnedtherequisiteskillsbyimi-tatingtheirparentsorotherrelatives of thesamesex.Chil-drenweretreatedasadultswithparentseithersuggestingabetterwaytodosomethingorallowingthechildrentolearnfromtheirmistakes.BecauseInughuitarenowDanishciti-zens,schoolismandatoryandistaughtin...
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... degreetowhichmembers of eachareassimilatedinto North Americansociety.Othercategories of Jewsbasedondegree of religiousnessincludeHasidic(ultra-Orthodox)Jews,Reconstructionalists,and"Civil"Jews.Asmentionedabove,Jewsarrivedin North America inwaves,largelyfromEuropeannationsandtheseplaces of an-cestryareusedtodelineateoneJeworgroup of Jewsfroman-other.Thus,forexample,onespeaks of GermanJews,Rus-sianJews,PolishJews,SyrianJews,andsoon,orinamoregeneralsense,eastern,central,orsouthernEuropeanJews.Thesedistinctionsarenolongerespeciallyimportant,al-thoughGermanJewsarestilllookeduponaswealthierand of higherstatusthanotherJews.ThefinalmajordistinctionisbetweenJews of Ashkenazic(Ashkenazim)orSephardic(Sephardim,Sfar-dim)ancestry.AshkenazimJewsarethosedescendedfromtheAshkenazicJews of easternandcentralEuropeandcur-rentlymakeupabout90percent of North AmericanJews.Se-phardimaredescendedfromtheSephardicJewswholivedinsouthernEuropefromabouttheseventhtothefifteenthcen-turywhentheywereexpelledfromSpainbyQueenIsabellaandKingFerdinand.Most of theexilessettledintheMiddleEastand North Africa.Beyondadifferenceinplace of ances-try,AshkenazicandSephardicJewsdifferedandinsomewayscontinuetodifferinlanguage(YiddishorEuropeanlan-guagesversusJudeo-SpanishorMiddleEasternlanguages),thepronunciationandspelling of Hebrew,liturgy,andsur-names.Butmembers of bothgroupsfreelyacknowledgethatmembers of theothergroupareJews,althoughsomeAshkenazimwerelessaccepting of Sephardiminthepast.Al-though North AmericanJudaismisdominatedbyAsh-kenazimbecause of theirlargenumbers,thereareimportantSephardiccommunitiesinNewYork,LosAngeles,Seattle,Atlanta,Chicago,Montreal,Rochester,andIndianapolis.Thesecommunitiesderivefromamigrationoccurringfrom1900to1925whenSephardicJewsleftareasthatarenowTurkey,Greece,Yugoslavia,Rhodes,andotherterritories of theOttomanEmpire.Finally,mentionshouldbemade of otherJewishgroupssuchasKaraites(Qaraites),Israeli,andRussianJewswhohaverecentlyimmigratedto North America fromtheirre-spectivecountries,andBlackJewswhohaveformedtheirownsects(thoughbyJewish-definedcriteriamost of thesesectsarenotconsideredJews).Thesegroups,whosometimesfollowanultra-Orthodoxlife-styleoralife-styledifferentfromthat of assimilatedJews,alsosometimeschoosetoliveinrelativelyisolatedurbancommunitiesandformtheirownsynagogues.TherecentemigrantsfromIsraelarelookeduponbysomewithpuzzlement,astheyseemtoberejectingthealiyyah,orascenttotheland of Israel,amarker of JewishidentityifnotagoalformanyJews.PoliticalOrganization.Although North AmericanJuda-ismhasnooverarchingpoliticalstructuresimilartothat of RomanCatholicismortheChurch of theLatter-DaySaints(Mormons),theOrthodox,Conservative,andReformsyna-goguesarealignedwithcentralorganizations-theUnion of OrthodoxCongregations of America, theUnitedSynagogue of America (Conservative),andtheUnion of AmericanHe-brewCongregations(Reform).Althoughinthepastthesyn-agogueplayedanimportantorganizationalandleadershiprole,itnolongerdoessoformostJews.Similarly,therabbi,thespiritualandmoralleader of thesynagoguecongregation,nowrarelyplaysaleadershiproleinthecommunity,basedsolelyonhisstatusastherabbi.Jewshavebeenseen(oftenbyanti-Semiticcommenta-tors)asalignedwithliberalorradicalpoliticalphilosophiesincludingsocialism,communism,unionization,andtheNewDealandtendedtovoteheavilyinfavor of candidates of theDemocraticpartyintheUnitedStates;inthepastdecadeortwo,amarkedtrendtowardconservatismandidentificationwiththeRepublicanpartyhasbeennotedamongaminority of Jews.Jews,despitebeingonlyabout2percent of thepopu-lation,areanimportantvotingblocbecauselargenumbersvoteandbecausetheymakeupasizablepercentage of thepopulationinsomelargestatessuchasNewYorkandFloridaandtheCanadianprovinces of OntarioandQuebec.Jewsrunforandhavebeenelectedtonumerouslocalandstateoffices.SocialControlandConflict.IntegratedastheyareintoU.S.andCanadiansociety,Jewsgenerallyresolvelegalcon-flictswithJewsornon-Jewsthroughthelegalsystem.LegalremediesavailablethroughJewishagenciesarerarelyused.AmongtheOrthodoxthereisrecoursetosomereligiouslysanctionedsocialcontrolsuchasOrthodoxdivorce.Al-thoughovertdiscriminationagainstJewsiswaningin North America, thereisalongtradition of anti-Semitism,reflectedinlimitedaccesstocertainprofessionsandresidentialisola-tion.WithintheJewishcommunitiesinbothnations,therearelongtraditions of supportingJewishcausesandinstitu-tionsthroughcharitabledonationstoandworkforsyna-gogues,schools,communitycenters,socialwelfareagencies,andthestate of Israel.174JicarillaandAncestralWomanwhoproducedthefirstpeople.Ani-malswerereveredandentreatedbytheJicarillawithspecialceremoniespriortohuntingbecauseitwasbelievedtheyweredescendedfromthefirstanimalswhohadusedtheirpowerstofacilitatetheemergence of thefirstpeoplefromtheunder- world. Inthe1970sapproximately70percent of Jicarillascontinuedtoholdtotheirtraditionalreligiousbeliefs.ReligiousPractitioners.TheJicarillabelievedthatatbirthachildmightreceiveaspecialpowerfromananimal,acelestialbody,orsomenaturalphenomenon.Inlateryearsthispowerwouldappeartotheselectindividualwhothenhadtodecidewhethertoacceptthepowerandbecomeasha-man.Ifthepersonacceptedit,heorsheunderwentatest of courageandthenaperiod of trainingundertheguidance of anexperiencedshamanduringwhichprayers,songs,andritu-alswerelearned.Theshaman'spowercouldbeeithergoodorevilandwasbelievedtobeafiniteresource,theeffectiveness of whichdiminishedwithtoofrequentuse.Ceremonies.Jicarillareligiousceremonieswere of twotypes,personalorshamanisticceremoniesandlong-lifecere-monies.Shamanisticceremoniesincludedcuringanddivin-ingritualsthatrequiredtheshaman'sspecialpower.Long-lifeceremoniesdidnotrequiresuchspecialpersonalpower.One of themostimportantlong-lifeceremonieswastheannualautumnRelayRacethatpittedtheyoungmen of theOlleroandLlanerobandsagainstoneanother.Thepurpose of theracewastoensureanabundantfoodsupplyduringthecom-ingyear.Participantswerepaintedanddecoratedwithfeath-ersandyuccaleavesaccordingtotheirbandaffiliationandracedonaneast-west-orientedcourse.IftheOlleroswontherace,itwasbelievedthatplantfoodswouldbeabundant;iftheLlaneros,animalfoods.Inthe1930slong-lifeceremoniesenjoyedmuchpopularityamongtheJicarilla,andinthe1970stheRelayRacewasstillactiveandsupportedbythetri-balcouncil.Arts.Grounddrawingswereanintegralpart of theRelayRaceceremony.Ontheeveningprecedingtheraceeachbandselectedaleaderwho,withhisassistants,"painted"colorfuldrawingsinthegroundwithpollenandcoloredmaterials.Thedrawingsusuallyincludedtheimages of thesunandmoonandtwofastbirds.Theeveningalsoincludedagooddeal of singing,withthebandscompetingwithoneanotherandsingingsongstotheraceparticipants.Medicine.TheJicarillaattributedavariety of sicknessesandailmentsafflictingchildrentocontactwithbirdsandotheranimals.Forexample,theshadow of aturkeyvultureflyingoverheadcouldmakeachildsickanddie.Contactwitheaglesorthetracks of snakesandbearscouldgiveachildrheumatism.Contactwithmenstrualbloodcouldalsocauserheumatism.Somesicknesseswerebelievedtobecausedbyghosts.Ghostsicknesswasmarkedbynervousness,hysteria,andderangement.Curingceremonieswere of boththeshamanisticandthelong-lifetype.One of themostimpor-tantlong-lifeceremonies,theHolinessRite,wasacuringcer-emony.Heldthreedayspriortotheappearance of afullmoon,thisceremonywasconductedinsideatipiwithinabrushenclosure.Patientswereconfinedtothetipiandweretheobject of extendedperiods of singingbyshamansforthreesuccessivenights.Onthefourthnightsacredclownsenteredthetipiandparticipatedinthecurewithspecialprayers.Onthemorning of thefifthdaythepatientsandparticipantsre-ceivedablessingwithinthetipiandthenexitedthetipiandthebrushenclosuretotheeastwherethey"deposited"theirailmentsonatreeespeciallypreparedbyamedicineman.Attheconclusion of theceremonyallreturnedtothebrushen-closurewithoutlookingbackandhadtheirfacespaintedbyashaman.DeathandAfterlife.TheJicarillabelievedthatintheprocess of dyinganindividual'sghostorspiritwasconductednorthwardtotheedge of theearthwhereitwasofferedfruit.Iftheghostrefusedtheoffer,itreturnedtoitsphysicalbodyandlife,butifitaccepted,itsliddownintotheafterworldanddeathoccurred.Upondeathcloserelatives of thedeceasedwentintomourningand ... degreetowhichmembers of eachareassimilatedinto North Americansociety.Othercategories of Jewsbasedondegree of religiousnessincludeHasidic(ultra-Orthodox)Jews,Reconstructionalists,and"Civil"Jews.Asmentionedabove,Jewsarrivedin North America inwaves,largelyfromEuropeannationsandtheseplaces of an-cestryareusedtodelineateoneJeworgroup of Jewsfroman-other.Thus,forexample,onespeaks of GermanJews,Rus-sianJews,PolishJews,SyrianJews,andsoon,orinamoregeneralsense,eastern,central,orsouthernEuropeanJews.Thesedistinctionsarenolongerespeciallyimportant,al-thoughGermanJewsarestilllookeduponaswealthierand of higherstatusthanotherJews.ThefinalmajordistinctionisbetweenJews of Ashkenazic(Ashkenazim)orSephardic(Sephardim,Sfar-dim)ancestry.AshkenazimJewsarethosedescendedfromtheAshkenazicJews of easternandcentralEuropeandcur-rentlymakeupabout90percent of North AmericanJews.Se-phardimaredescendedfromtheSephardicJewswholivedinsouthernEuropefromabouttheseventhtothefifteenthcen-turywhentheywereexpelledfromSpainbyQueenIsabellaandKingFerdinand.Most of theexilessettledintheMiddleEastand North Africa.Beyondadifferenceinplace of ances-try,AshkenazicandSephardicJewsdifferedandinsomewayscontinuetodifferinlanguage(YiddishorEuropeanlan-guagesversusJudeo-SpanishorMiddleEasternlanguages),thepronunciationandspelling of Hebrew,liturgy,andsur-names.Butmembers of bothgroupsfreelyacknowledgethatmembers of theothergroupareJews,althoughsomeAshkenazimwerelessaccepting of Sephardiminthepast.Al-though North AmericanJudaismisdominatedbyAsh-kenazimbecause of theirlargenumbers,thereareimportantSephardiccommunitiesinNewYork,LosAngeles,Seattle,Atlanta,Chicago,Montreal,Rochester,andIndianapolis.Thesecommunitiesderivefromamigrationoccurringfrom1900to1925whenSephardicJewsleftareasthatarenowTurkey,Greece,Yugoslavia,Rhodes,andotherterritories of theOttomanEmpire.Finally,mentionshouldbemade of otherJewishgroupssuchasKaraites(Qaraites),Israeli,andRussianJewswhohaverecentlyimmigratedto North America fromtheirre-spectivecountries,andBlackJewswhohaveformedtheirownsects(thoughbyJewish-definedcriteriamost of thesesectsarenotconsideredJews).Thesegroups,whosometimesfollowanultra-Orthodoxlife-styleoralife-styledifferentfromthat of assimilatedJews,alsosometimeschoosetoliveinrelativelyisolatedurbancommunitiesandformtheirownsynagogues.TherecentemigrantsfromIsraelarelookeduponbysomewithpuzzlement,astheyseemtoberejectingthealiyyah,orascenttotheland of Israel,amarker of JewishidentityifnotagoalformanyJews.PoliticalOrganization.Although North AmericanJuda-ismhasnooverarchingpoliticalstructuresimilartothat of RomanCatholicismortheChurch of theLatter-DaySaints(Mormons),theOrthodox,Conservative,andReformsyna-goguesarealignedwithcentralorganizations-theUnion of OrthodoxCongregations of America, theUnitedSynagogue of America (Conservative),andtheUnion of AmericanHe-brewCongregations(Reform).Althoughinthepastthesyn-agogueplayedanimportantorganizationalandleadershiprole,itnolongerdoessoformostJews.Similarly,therabbi,thespiritualandmoralleader of thesynagoguecongregation,nowrarelyplaysaleadershiproleinthecommunity,basedsolelyonhisstatusastherabbi.Jewshavebeenseen(oftenbyanti-Semiticcommenta-tors)asalignedwithliberalorradicalpoliticalphilosophiesincludingsocialism,communism,unionization,andtheNewDealandtendedtovoteheavilyinfavor of candidates of theDemocraticpartyintheUnitedStates;inthepastdecadeortwo,amarkedtrendtowardconservatismandidentificationwiththeRepublicanpartyhasbeennotedamongaminority of Jews.Jews,despitebeingonlyabout2percent of thepopu-lation,areanimportantvotingblocbecauselargenumbersvoteandbecausetheymakeupasizablepercentage of thepopulationinsomelargestatessuchasNewYorkandFloridaandtheCanadianprovinces of OntarioandQuebec.Jewsrunforandhavebeenelectedtonumerouslocalandstateoffices.SocialControlandConflict.IntegratedastheyareintoU.S.andCanadiansociety,Jewsgenerallyresolvelegalcon-flictswithJewsornon-Jewsthroughthelegalsystem.LegalremediesavailablethroughJewishagenciesarerarelyused.AmongtheOrthodoxthereisrecoursetosomereligiouslysanctionedsocialcontrolsuchasOrthodoxdivorce.Al-thoughovertdiscriminationagainstJewsiswaningin North America, thereisalongtradition of anti-Semitism,reflectedinlimitedaccesstocertainprofessionsandresidentialisola-tion.WithintheJewishcommunitiesinbothnations,therearelongtraditions of supportingJewishcausesandinstitu-tionsthroughcharitabledonationstoandworkforsyna-gogues,schools,communitycenters,socialwelfareagencies,andthestate of Israel.174JicarillaandAncestralWomanwhoproducedthefirstpeople.Ani-malswerereveredandentreatedbytheJicarillawithspecialceremoniespriortohuntingbecauseitwasbelievedtheyweredescendedfromthefirstanimalswhohadusedtheirpowerstofacilitatetheemergence of thefirstpeoplefromtheunder- world. Inthe1970sapproximately70percent of Jicarillascontinuedtoholdtotheirtraditionalreligiousbeliefs.ReligiousPractitioners.TheJicarillabelievedthatatbirthachildmightreceiveaspecialpowerfromananimal,acelestialbody,orsomenaturalphenomenon.Inlateryearsthispowerwouldappeartotheselectindividualwhothenhadtodecidewhethertoacceptthepowerandbecomeasha-man.Ifthepersonacceptedit,heorsheunderwentatest of courageandthenaperiod of trainingundertheguidance of anexperiencedshamanduringwhichprayers,songs,andritu-alswerelearned.Theshaman'spowercouldbeeithergoodorevilandwasbelievedtobeafiniteresource,theeffectiveness of whichdiminishedwithtoofrequentuse.Ceremonies.Jicarillareligiousceremonieswere of twotypes,personalorshamanisticceremoniesandlong-lifecere-monies.Shamanisticceremoniesincludedcuringanddivin-ingritualsthatrequiredtheshaman'sspecialpower.Long-lifeceremoniesdidnotrequiresuchspecialpersonalpower.One of themostimportantlong-lifeceremonieswastheannualautumnRelayRacethatpittedtheyoungmen of theOlleroandLlanerobandsagainstoneanother.Thepurpose of theracewastoensureanabundantfoodsupplyduringthecom-ingyear.Participantswerepaintedanddecoratedwithfeath-ersandyuccaleavesaccordingtotheirbandaffiliationandracedonaneast-west-orientedcourse.IftheOlleroswontherace,itwasbelievedthatplantfoodswouldbeabundant;iftheLlaneros,animalfoods.Inthe1930slong-lifeceremoniesenjoyedmuchpopularityamongtheJicarilla,andinthe1970stheRelayRacewasstillactiveandsupportedbythetri-balcouncil.Arts.Grounddrawingswereanintegralpart of theRelayRaceceremony.Ontheeveningprecedingtheraceeachbandselectedaleaderwho,withhisassistants,"painted"colorfuldrawingsinthegroundwithpollenandcoloredmaterials.Thedrawingsusuallyincludedtheimages of thesunandmoonandtwofastbirds.Theeveningalsoincludedagooddeal of singing,withthebandscompetingwithoneanotherandsingingsongstotheraceparticipants.Medicine.TheJicarillaattributedavariety of sicknessesandailmentsafflictingchildrentocontactwithbirdsandotheranimals.Forexample,theshadow of aturkeyvultureflyingoverheadcouldmakeachildsickanddie.Contactwitheaglesorthetracks of snakesandbearscouldgiveachildrheumatism.Contactwithmenstrualbloodcouldalsocauserheumatism.Somesicknesseswerebelievedtobecausedbyghosts.Ghostsicknesswasmarkedbynervousness,hysteria,andderangement.Curingceremonieswere of boththeshamanisticandthelong-lifetype.One of themostimpor-tantlong-lifeceremonies,theHolinessRite,wasacuringcer-emony.Heldthreedayspriortotheappearance of afullmoon,thisceremonywasconductedinsideatipiwithinabrushenclosure.Patientswereconfinedtothetipiandweretheobject of extendedperiods of singingbyshamansforthreesuccessivenights.Onthefourthnightsacredclownsenteredthetipiandparticipatedinthecurewithspecialprayers.Onthemorning of thefifthdaythepatientsandparticipantsre-ceivedablessingwithinthetipiandthenexitedthetipiandthebrushenclosuretotheeastwherethey"deposited"theirailmentsonatreeespeciallypreparedbyamedicineman.Attheconclusion of theceremonyallreturnedtothebrushen-closurewithoutlookingbackandhadtheirfacespaintedbyashaman.DeathandAfterlife.TheJicarillabelievedthatintheprocess of dyinganindividual'sghostorspiritwasconductednorthwardtotheedge of theearthwhereitwasofferedfruit.Iftheghostrefusedtheoffer,itreturnedtoitsphysicalbodyandlife,butifitaccepted,itsliddownintotheafterworldanddeathoccurred.Upondeathcloserelatives of thedeceasedwentintomourningand ... Jews169Americansreflect,inpart,JewishconcernsoverAfrican-AmericansupportforthePalestiniansintheMiddleEastandAfrican-AmericanconcernsoverJewishtiestoSouthAfricaandlack of Jewishsupportforaffirmativeactionprograms.Jewsgenerallydistinguishthemselvesfromallnon-Jewswhoareclassifiedandreferredtoasgoyim,commonlyunderstoodtomean"non-Jew."SomescholarssuggestthatJewsintheUnitedStatestodayaremoreapttostressthesecularaspects of Jewishness,suchastheuse of Yiddishwords,asopposedtothereligiousaspectssuchasfollowingJewishlawregardingdietaryrestrictions.Canada.IncontrasttotheimmigrationhistoryintheUnitedStates,themajority of JewishimmigrantstoCanadaarrivedafter1945,withabout40percent of thecurrentCa-nadianJewishpopulationcomposed of recentarrivalsascom-paredtoabout20percentfortheUnitedStates.In1900therewere15,000JewsinCanada,butby1915thepopula-tionhadgrownto100,000throughmassemigrationsfromeasternEurope.FewJewsimmigratedtoCanadaintheyearsbefore World War11,andabout200,000havearrivedsincethen.TheseincludeJewsfleeingwar-tornEurope,HungarianJewsescapingfromHungaryin1956,French-speakingJewscomingfrom North Africa,and,mostrecently,about22,000arrivingfromIsraeland8,000fromtheSovietUnion.LargelybecauseCanadaisabiculturalnationwithdis-tinctFrench-andEnglish-speakingpopulationsandbecause of greateracceptance of culturaldiversity,JewsinCanada,likeotherethnicgroups,arerelativelylessassimilatedthantheircounterpartsintheUnitedStates.Whilethishasledtoamorevisibleemphasisonreligiouselements of Jewishnessandthesurvival of Europeancustoms,ithasalsoplacedJewsoutsidethetwomainstreamCanadianreligioustraditions of CatholicismandProtestantism.Thispositionasathirdreli-gionandotherfactorshavesometimessubjectedJewstolawsinterferingwithtraditionalreligiouspractices.Lawsintro-ducedafter World War11removedmost of theserestrictions.Today,CanadianJewsareslowlybecomingmorelikeU.S.Jews,withtheuse of Europeancustomsandlanguagesdis-appearing.EconomyJewsarenowlargelyintegratedintotheU.S.andCanadianeconomicsystems.Althoughtheyworkinmosttradesandprofessions,theyareoverrepresented(asapercentage of thepopulation)inseveral,includingownership of smallandmiddle-sizedbusinesses,thecommunicationandentertain-mentindustries,publicservice,andprofessionssuchasmedi-cine,dentistry,law,accounting,teaching,andscientificre-search.Pastandpresentdiscriminationhasbeencitedbysomeasthecause of therelativelyfewJewsfoundintheupperechelons of thebankingindustryandlargecorporationsingeneral.Civilrightslegislation of the1960sand1970shasoutlawedoldlawsandprivatecovenantsthatrestrictedJew-ishownership of landormembershipinprivateassociations.ThetraditionalJewishdivision of laborwithmenworkingoutsidethehomeandwomenworkinginthehomehasgivenwaytomanywomenhavingprofessionalemployment.Kinship,MarriageandFamilyMarriageandFamily.Jewishmarriageandkinshipprac-ticesconformtothose of mainstream North Americancul-ture:monogamousmarriage,nuclearfamilies,bilateralde-scent,andEskimo-typekinshipterms.Surnamesarepatri-lineal,althoughthereisatrendtowardwomenkeepingtheirownsurnamesatmarriageorhyphenatingtheirhusbands'surnamesandtheirown.Theimportance of familycontinuityisemphasizedbythecustom of namingchildrenafterde-ceasedrelatives.Althoughmarriagewithnon-Jews(goyim)wasproscribedandsanctionedbyostracisminthepast,theintermarriageratetodayisincreasingasamong North Ameri-cansingeneral.ThoughJewishfamilieshavefewerchildren,theyareoftendescribedaschild-oriented,withfamilyre-sourcesfreelyexpendedoneducationforbothboysandgirls.Jewishidentityistracedmatrilineally.Thatis,ifone'smotherisaJew,thenthatpersonisJewishaccordingtoJewishlawandentitledtoalltherightsandprivilegesthatstatusbrings,includingtherighttoemigratetoandsettleinIsraelascitizens.Socialization.AswithmostAmericansandCanadians,earlysocializationtakesplaceinthehome.Jewishparentsareindulgentandpermissiveandrarelyusephysicalpunishment.SocializationasaJewtakesplaceinthehomethroughstory-tellingandparticipationinJewishrituals,andthroughatten-danceatHebrewschoolintheafternoonoreveningandpar-ticipationinJewishyouthgroupsatthesynagogueorcommunitycenter.OrthodoxJewsoftenruntheirowngram-marandhighschools,whereasmostnon-OrthodoxJewsat-tendpublicorprivatesecularschools.Acquisition of knowl-edgeandtheopendiscussion of ideasareimportantvaluesandactivitiesforJews,andmanyattendcollegeandprofes-sionalschools.TheBarMitzvahceremonyforaboyatagethirteenisanimportantrite of passageasitmarkshimasanadultmember of thecommunityforreligiouspurposes,andtheBatMitzvahceremonyforaReformorConservativegirlatagetwelveorthirteenservesthesamepurpose.InthepasttheBarMitzvahceremonywasmuchmoreelaborateandspiritualinfocus;todaybothceremonieshavebecomeimportantsocialaswellasreligiouseventsformanyJews.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Today,Jewsarehighlyintegratedintothe North Americanclasssystem,withJewsfoundintheupper,middle,andworkingclasses.Upwardsocialmobilityisanimportantvalue,andhasbeenachievedforaboutthreegenerationslargelythrougheducation.AlthoughJewsareoftenthoughttobeconcentratedintheupper-middleandlower-upperclasses,thereisstillasizablenumberinthework-ingclassandsomeelderlyJewslivebelowthepovertyline.Vestiges of discriminationremainandJewsarestillexcludedfromsomesocialorganizationsopentonon-Jews.Incommu-nitieswithlargeJewishpopulations,exclusivelyorlargelyJew-ishsocialorganizationssuchascommunitycenters,theYoungMen'sandYoungWomen'sHebrewAssociations(YMHA,YwHA),B'naiB'rith,andHadassahareimportant.Andinsomecommunitiesthesynagogueshull)playsanimpor-tantsocialandrecreationalrole.ManyJewsarealsoinvolvedinorcontributetonationalorinternationalorganizations172Jicarilladeclineto588in1920.Thisdeclineinpopulationwasduemostdirectlytotuberculosis,butthespread of thediseaseit-selfwastheresult of povertyandpoornutritionassociatedwithlimitedemploymentandinsufficientrationsontheirNewMexicoreservation.Inthe1920sgovernmentprogramstoimprovehealthandeconomicconditionsonthereserva-tionhelpedreversethepopulationdecline.By1955thenum-ber of Jicarillaexceeded1,000andin1981stoodat2,308ontheJicarillaReservationin north- centralNewMexico.LinguisticAffiliation.TheJicarillalanguageisadialect of theApacheangroup of SouthernAthapaskanlanguages.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheJicarillaaredescendants of SouthernAthapaskanhunt-erswhomigratedfromthesubarcticregionwest of HudsonBaytotheSouthwestbetween1300and1500.Theprobableroute of migrationwasthroughtheplainsalongtheeasternedge of theRockyMountains.TheApacheansingeneralcameintocontactwiththeSpanishinthemid-sixteenthcen-tury,anduntilthebeginning of theeighteenthcenturycon-tactswiththeSpanishwerelimitedandgenerallyfriendly.Duringthe1700sHispanicsettlement of Jicarillalandsgrad-uallyincreasedthroughlandgrantsbytheMexicangovern-menttoitscitizens.TheJicarillaneveragreedtotheselandgrants.AftertheJicarillaterritorypassedtothejurisdiction of theUnitedStatesin1848,Americansettlement of Jicarillalandsalsoincreased.Theexpansion of HispanicandAmericansettlementrenderedtheJicarilla'straditionalway of lifeimpossible,andinresponsetheybegantoraidWhitewagontrainsandsettle-ments.In1854thegovernment of NewMexicodeclaredwarontheJicarillaandthefollowingyearforcedthemtosignapeacetreatyprovidingfortheirremovaltoareservation.TheplanfortheJicarillareservationdidnotmaterializeuntil1887.Whenitdid,thesystem of individuallandallotmentsintendedtotransformthepeopleintofarmersfailedowingtotheunfavorableclimateandterrain of thereservationsite,whichledtosocialdislocationanddependenceongovern-mentwelfare.Aftertheturn of thecenturythefederalgovern-mentaddednewlandstothereservationinanunsuccessfulattempttopromotelivestockraising.Atthistimelivingcon-ditionsonthereservationreachedtheirlowpoint,withwide-spreadunemployment,poverty,malnutrition,anddisease.Fi-nally,inthe1920sthefederalgovernmentsucceededinintroducingsheepraising,andconditionsonthereservationimproved.Culturally,theJicarillawereheavilyinfluencedbythePlainsIndianstotheireastandthePuebloIndianstotheirwest,withtheresultthattheirowncultureexhibitedacombi-nation of nomadichuntingandsettledfarmingcharacteris-tics.One of thePlainsIndiantraitsprominentinJicarillacul-turewasanemphasisonraidingandwarfare.AfterSpanishcontactraidingincreasedinfrequencyandintensitywiththeuse of andneedforhorses.Atthebeginning of theeighteenthcenturytheJicarillacommonlyraidedthePlainstribestotheireastandusedthefruits of theirsuccessestotradewiththePuebloIndiansandtheSpanish.Duringtheseconddec-ade of theeighteenthcenturyComancheswhohadobtainedgunsfromtheFrenchdrovetheJicarillaout of Coloradoandintothefoothillsandmountains of northernNewMexico.Subsequently,theJicarillasoughthelpfromtheSpanishbyofferingallegiancetotheking of Spain,butwithlittleresult.In1779acombinedforce of Jicarilla,Ute,Pueblo,andSpan-ishsoldiersdefeatedtheComanche,who,afteranothersevenyearsandseveralmoremilitarycampaigns,finallysuedforpeace.ThereaftertheJicarillawereabletoreestablishthem-selvesinsouthernColorado.SettlementsTheJicarillalivedinlocalgroups of 150to400peoplewhooccupiedsemipermanent,dispersedsettlementsorcampsusuallysituatedalongthebanks of riversandstreamsandfromwhichtheyconductedtheirhuntingandraidingactivi-ties.Dwellingswerelow,dome-shapedstructures,calledwickiups,whichconsisted of apoleframecoveredoverwithleavesandbark.Animalskinswerelaidoverthestructureforadditionalprotectionfromthecold.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.TheJicarillaeconomywasbasedonhuntingandgathering,butagriculturewasalsopracticedandincreasedinimportanceovertime.Animalshuntedincludedlargegamesuchasbison,moun-tainsheep,antelope,deer,elk,andsmallgamesuchasbea-ver,rabbit,squirrel,porcupine,andprairiedog.Antelopewerekilledincommunaldrives,andbison(afterSpanishcontact)werehuntedonhorsebackanddispatchedwithbowsandarrowsandlances.Turkey,grouse,andquailwerealsohunted,andfishweretakeninshallowpools,withtheuse of baitednoosesandbowsandarrows.Gatheredfoodsin-cludedjuniperberries,mesquitebeans,yuccafruit,choke-cherries,pricklypears,acorns,andpifionnuts.CultivationwaspracticedbytheJicarillaafterthelate1600sandresultedfromcontactwiththePuebloIndians.Cropsincludedmaize,beans,squash,pumpkins,peas,andmelons,whichwereplantedinplotsalongriverandstreambanks.Overtimeagri-cultureincreasedinimportanceandbecamemoresophisti-cated.Bythetime of theAmericanoccupation of theJicarillaterritoryinthemid-1800s,irrigationdamsandditcheswereconstructedandusedtosupplementtheregion'sscantyrain-fall.Agriculturaltoolsincludedcrudewoodenplowsandim-plementsforclearingirrigationditches.Sheepraisingbecamepopularinthe1920s,butwaseclipsedinimportanceinthe1950sbyrevenuesfromtribal-ownedoil,gas,andtimberre-sources.Sincethattimenonagriculturalwagelaborhasin-creasedwiththedevelopment of smallbusinessesandindus-triessubsidizedbythetribe'snaturalresourcerevenues.IndustrialArts.AchiefJicarillaindustrywasbasketmak-ing,theproducts of whichwereanimportantitem of barterintradewithothernativegroups.Somebasketsweresealedwithpitchandusedaswatervessels.TheJicarillaalsomadepot-teryandceremonialclaypipes.Trade.Baskets,meat,salt,andtannedbisonhidesweretradedtoPuebloIndiansformaizeandotheragriculturalproducts.TheIndians of SanJuanPueblo,fromwhomtheJicarillaalsoobtainedsongbirdfeathers,werespecialtradingpartners.Division of Labor.Menhuntedandwomengathered.Infarming,menpreparedthefields,workedtheirrigationditches,andhelpedwiththeharvest,andwomenwerere.sponsibleforplanting,hoeing,weeding,andharvesting.170JewsthatsupportJewishcausessuchastheAnti-DefamationLeague of theB'naiB'rith,theUnitedJewishAppeal,andtheUnitedJewishWelfareFund.Internally,Jewshavenoformalsocialorpoliticalorgani-zation,althoughtheycanbeandareoftendividedintosub-groupsonthebasis of threeoverlappingcriteria:degree of re-ligiousness,place of one'sownorone'sancestor'sbirth,andAshkenazicorSephardicancestry.Degree of religiousnessisreflectedinthelabelsOrthodox,Conservative,orReformJu-daism.OrthodoxJewsgenerallyfollowandresistchangesintraditionalreligiousbeliefsandpractices,whichtheybaseonthehalakhah,theJewishliteraturethatcoversethical,reli-gious,civil,andcriminalmatters.ConservativeJudaismcom-prisesacombination of thoughtreflectingdifferentphilo-sophical,ethical,andspiritualschools.Ingeneral,Conserva-tivesstresschangefromwithin,Zionism,andaningathering of allJews.Because of thediversity of opinion,Conservativereligiouspracticesrunawidegamut,althoughmostarelesstraditionalthanthose of Orthodoxy.ReformJudaism,asthenamesuggests,reflectsamodification of Orthodoxyinlight of contemporarylifeandthought.Thus,ReformJewsdonotbelievethatJewishlawisdivinelyrevealedandeschewmanypracticescentraltoOrthodoxysuchaseatingonlykosherfoods,wearingaskull-cap(yarmulke)whenpraying,andusingHebrewinprayer.ThedifferencesamongOrthodox,Conservative,andReformJewsgowellbeyondreligionandaremanifestedinmanyday-to-dayactivitiesandeventsandthe...
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... asastringentlyselec-tiveacceptance of outsideculturalelementsandarejection of outsideinterferencebynon-Kickapoo.Onacontinuum,theKansasKickapooareattheprogressiveend,theMexicanKickapooattheconservativeend,andtheOklahomaKick-apooinbetween.ItisimportanttonotethattheKickapooidentityissostrongthat,exceptfordisputesbetweenindivid-uals,thereisnorecord of violentdiscordbetweenfactions.Groups of individualswhobecomesufficientlydiscordantintheirculturalgoalssimplybreakawayandformanewcom-munitywithoutseveringtieswiththeold.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Traditionally,theKickapooreligionhasbeenanintrinsicpart of everyfacet of life.Thereligionisani-misticandincludesabeliefinmanitousorspiritmessengers.ThesupremedeityisKisiihiat,whocreatedthe world andlivesinthesky.Kisiihiatisassistedbyapantheon of manitous,ormanitooaki(plural),whoareembodiedintheearth,objects of nature,andnaturalforces,andwhoserveasspiritmessengers.Thereisalsoaculturehero,Wisaaka,theson of Kisiihiat,whocreatedtheIndian world andtaughttheKickapootobuildtheirhouses,whichareavitalelement of theKickapooreligion.Religiouspracticeisorganizedaroundsacredbundles,misaami,forclansandherbalsocieties.ThereligionisprotectedandpracticedalmostfanaticallyamongtheMexicanKickapoo,whereastheKansasKickapoohavebeenstronglyaffectedbyChristianity.MostOklahomaKick-apoopracticethetraditionalreligion,butsomeotherreli-gions,suchastheNativeAmericanchurchandProtestantdenominations,havemadesomeimpact.ReligionsPractitioners.Eachbundlesocietyandclanhasaleadertoperformthevariousritualsassociatedwithitsre-spectivesacredpack.Religiousleadershavelongyears of traininginorderforthemtoattaintheknowledgenecessarytotheperformance of rituals,andtheyexerciseconsiderableinfluencesociallyandpolitically.Ceremonies.Ahighlyritualizedcycle of ceremoniesplaysapartinmaintainingtheculturalintegration of Kickapooso-cietyinMexicoandOklahoma,butlesssoinKansas.Adis-play of lightningandthunder,usuallyinearlyFebruary,signi-fiesthebeginning of theNewYearandhencethecycle of ceremonies.Festivalsincludeclanandbundleritualsaswellasceremoniesanddancesthatencompassallvillagemem-bers.Specialceremonialfoodsplayaroleinthesefeastsandareeatenwithceremonialladles.Arts.DancingandsingingareimportanttoKickapoocere-moniallifeasaretheinstruments of accompanimentsuchasdrums,flutes,andrattles.Somedancesandsongsareownedbyindividualsandmaybeperformedonlyattheirinvitation.Medicine.Religiousritualandherbaltreatmentsarecom-binedintraditionalmedicalpractices.Awidevariety of plantsareusedincuringritualsandmaybeconductedby188KiowaInheritance.Atdeath,personalpossessionswerede-stroyed.Horses(theonlyimportantform of privateproperty)wouldnormallypassfromamantohisbrotherorson.Inheri-tance of aposition-forexample,asbandchieforTaime(priest)-waspreferablypatrilinealbut,inpractice,wasse-lectivewithinthekindred.Custodianship of amedicinebun-dlemightideallygotoason,butinknowncasesthispositionpassedtoavariety of relations,maleandfemale;awillingnesstocomplywiththerigiddemands of thepositioncouldinflu-encethedecision.Socialization.Smallchildrenwere,byallaccounts,treatedwithaffectionandindulgence.Thetiebetweensiblingswasemphasized;thebrother-sisterrelationshiptookprecedenceoverthat of husbandandwife.Afavoredchild,maleorfe-male,wasraisedinstatusbyagive-away of horsesandprop-erty,andreceivedspecialcareandprivileges.Ataroundsixyears,allboysbecamemembers of theRabbitSocietyandwereinstructedasagroupinhorsemanshipandotherskills;inadolescencetheyjoinedtheadultmilitarysocieties.Brav-ery,restraint,wisdom,andgenerositywerequalitiesadmiredinmenand,toadegree,inwomenaswell.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Statusdistinctionsreflectedwealth,warfarehonors,andpoliticalpower.Highestprestigewenttochiefs of thelargestbandsandtoreligiousleaders.ThefactthatmanyhistoricKiowachiefsborenamesthatwereepony-mous of thebear(suchasWhiteBear,ManyBears,SittingBear)andwerepassedfromgenerationtogenerationsuggestsacontinuityinleadershipthatmay,atanearliertime,havebeenvestedinalineageorotherdescentgroup.Womenhadfeweropportunitiestoachieveindividualprestige;however,folkloreandpersonalhistoriesindicatethatahighvaluewasplacedonstrong,resourcefulKiowawomen,whoseimpor-tanceincommunitylifeshouldnotbeunderestimated.Ex-captiveshadamarginalpositionbutwereabletoachievedis-tinctioninwarfareandotherpursuits.PoliticalOrganization.Throughmost of theyear,bandswerelargelyindependent;successfulchiefs,whoattractedandretainedthelargestfollowing,hadthegreatestrenownandinfluence.Duringthesummerseason,theTaimepriestwasincharge of theSunDancecamp;orderwasmaintainedinthecampandduringthehuntbymilitarysocieties,whichcutacrossthebandmembershipbutincludedalladultmen of thetribe.Foratleastfourgenerations,theKiowawerepoliti-callyunifiedunderaheadchief;thelasttoholdthisrankwasDohasan(LittleBluff),whodiedin1866.Afterhisdeath,atthebeginning of thereservationperiod,leadershipbecamefactionalizedbetweenchiefssuchasSatanta(WhiteBear)andLoneWolf,whoresistedsurrender,andothers,includingKickingbird,whofavoredcompromise.Afterabriefperiod of reservationlife,theKiowaweregivenindividualallotments of landin1892,andtheareawasopenedtoWhitesettlement.AKiowaTribalCouncil,formedin1969,representsKiowaconcernsinhealth,education,andeconomicdevelopment.SocialControl.Thesecularpower of chiefsandmilitarysocietieswascomplementedbythespiritualauthority of theTaimeandmedicinebundlepriests.Withinthetribe,aseri-ousaffrontmightprovokerevenge,butinterventionbyapriestpreventedtheescalation of quarrels.Offeringthepipeandappealingtothefetishesservedtoinvokesupernaturalsanctions;violation of vowsorasanctionimposedunderthesecircumstanceswaspotentiallyfatal,resultingintaido,anirreversiblespiritualdecline.Conflict.Inhistorictimes,theimportanceattachedtohorsespromotedintertribalraiding;hostilitiesoftenesca-latedthroughtheavenging of deathorinjury.TheKiowausu-allysoughtanintermediarytomakepeacewithanenemygroup.ChronicenmitytowardtheApacheandmorerecenthatred of TexansmayhaveresultedfromtheirexpansionintoKiowaterritory.LikeotherPlainstribes,theKiowasufferedfromtheinroads of easternIndians,suchastheCherokeeandShawnee,astheseweremovedwestwardinthenine-teenthcentury.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Apervasiveunderlyingsupernaturalpowerwasseenprimarilyinnaturalphenomena,whichwerepersonifiedandattimesdeified.TheKiowareveredtheSun,constellationssuchasthePleiades,andnaturalforcessuchastheCyclone,andgavespecialrespecttothebison,bear,andeagle.Sendeh(orSainday)isthemainprotagonistinKiowatales,asbothcultureheroandtrickster;hehashumanratherthananimalattributes.SpiderWoman,TwinHeroes(SplitBoys),andCoyote,suggestive of Southwesternaffinities,ap-pearinoriginandexplanatorytales.Personifiednaturalforcesandanimalspiritswereencounteredinvisionaryexpe-riences.IndividualssoughtpowerthroughtheSunDanceandpersonalvisionaryexperiences.TheTaime,ananthropo-morphiceffigy;medicinebundles;andseveralotherfetisheswereprominentinhunting,curing,andpurificationrites.In1873,QuakermissioneffortsbeganamongtheKiowa,fol-lowedbyMethodist,Baptist,andotherdenominations.TheNativeAmericanChurchalsoincreasedinimportanceastheSunDanceandotherhuntingandwarceremoniesdeclined.Protestantaffiliationisnowthenorm;however,traditionalpracticescontinueandhaveexperiencedrevival.Asinearlierdays,tribalceremoniesareconcentratedinthesummer,nowcenteredonJuly4.ReligiousPractitioners.TheTaimeandmedicinebundlepriestsweresubjecttonumeroustaboosandrequirements of circumspectbehavior.TheTaimewashousedinaspecialtipiandcarriedinpublicdisplaybyitspriest;aselectgroup of men,whohadreceivedvisions,assistedhim.Owners of thetenmedicinebundleswerecalledupontointerveneindis-putesandcouldgivesanctuary.Buffalodoctorswereespe-ciallyqualifiedtotreatillnessattributedtoviolation of taboosonthebear.Ceremonies.TheSunDancewasheldannuallyuntil1887whenitwasprohibitedbythegovernmentandhaltedbymilitaryforce.Othertraditionaldances,suchasthose of thewarriorsocieties,alsoperformedinthesummerseason,arenowpart of theJuly4celebration.Ascalpdancefollowedthereturn of menfromwar;curingceremonieswereheldatanytime.TheFeatherDance,theKiowaresponsetotheGhostDancemovement,becameinstitutionalizedastheInvisible0OChurchandheldsemiannualdancesuntilprohibitedin1916;beliefsandiconographywereablend of Kiowatradi-tionandChristianinfluences.Somevestiges of thismove-mentcarriedoverintosectarianChristianchurches.Peyo-Klallam189tismnowfollowsthepan-Indianceremonialism of theNativeAmericanChurch.KiowaApacheArts.Tipicoverswereoftendecoratedwithdesignsthatsymbolizedtheaccomplishments of theowner;thesedesigns,handeddownthroughgenerations of thesamefamily,consti-tutedatype of heraldicemblem.Thepainteddesigns of SunDanceshieldsalsohadsymbolicsignificance,relatedtomem-bershipinwarriorormedicinesocieties.Calendarhistories,paintedonbuffalohide,depictedimportantevents of succes-sivesummerandwinterperiods;theseareavaluablesource of informationaboutthenineteenth-centuryKiowa.Morere-cently,individualKiowahaveshownremarkabletalentingraphicarts;agroupknownasthe"KiowaFive"(SpencerAsah,StephenMopope,JackHokeah,JamesAuchiah,andMonroeTsatoke)becameinternationallyrecognizedearlyinthepresentcentury,settingapatternforKiowasuccessesinthearts;literaryartistsincludethepoetN.ScottMomaday.Kiowacraftsmenhavebeenactiveintheproduction of jew-elryandsilverworkbasedontraditionaldesignsandmarketedthroughtheOklahomaIndianArtsandCraftsCooperative.Medicine.Thesweatbathwasusedforcuringandforrit-ualpurification.Illhealthaswellasmisfortunewasoftenseenastheresult of supernaturalharmortheviolation of taboo.Certainolderwomenservedasherbalistsandmid-wives,assistingwithdifficultbirths.Buffalodoctorsandothercurersreceivedpowerthroughvisionaryexperiences;shamanisticmethodswereusedinhealing.DeathandAfterlife.Theelderlyanddisabledwereaban-donediftheycouldnolongertravel.Mourninginvolvedslashing of clothing,gashing ... the1870s,anAnglicanmissionaryassembledhisFortRupertconvertsatAlertBay,wherehelaterestab-lishedasawmilltoemploynativesinthedevelopingtimberindustry.Nativeparticipation,asfishermenandcanneryworkers,intheevenmorerapidlyexpandingfishingindustrygrewthroughthelateryears of thenineteenthcentury.Earlycontactwasmarkedbyfewincidents of conflictbetweenWhitesandnativepartnersinthefurtrade.Later,churchandgovernment,recognizingthepivotalroleplayedbypot-latchinginKwakiutlculture,curbedthisactivitythroughar-restsandconfiscation of regalia.SettlementsEach of thetwenty-nineSouthernKwakiutllocalgroupsoc-cupiedavillageinthewintermonthsandmoved,seasonally,tosettlementssituatedatspecificresourcelocales.AttheKickaboo183andisalsosimilartoothercentralAlgonkianlanguagessuchasShawnee,Potawatomi,Menominee,andOjibwa.VirtuallyallKickapooinMexicoandOklahoma,andasignificantnumberinKansas,retaintheaboriginallanguage,althoughthereareslightdialecticalvariationstobefoundamongthethreegroups.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheKickapoomayhavebeenseenasearlyas1612bySamueldeChamplain,butcontinuouscontactcanbetracedonlyfromthemid-seventeenthcentury.Thepresentexistence of threedecidedlydifferentbandsisrepresentative of thecul-turalpattern of thetribesinceprecontacttimes.ForoverthreecenturiestheKickapoohaveundergoneaseries of mi-grations,fragmentations,andreassociations.Duringthesev-enteenthcentury,constantattacksbytheIroquois,whowereexpandingtheirterritoryfartherwesttomaintaintheirfurtradewiththeFrench,senttheKickapooandothertribesfleeingtothewestandsouth.Intheirattemptstosecuretheirownterritoryandinterestinthefurtrade,theKickapooshiftedloyaltiesandallianceswithothertribalgroupsaswellastheFrench,British,andSpanish.AftertheAmericanRevolution,increasedpressurestosettlecreateddivisionsamongtheKickapoo.Thosewhofa-voredamoreacculturatedlife-stylebecameknownasthe"Progressives,"whereasthosewhowishedtomaintainthetraditionallife-wayswerecalledthe"KickingKickapoo."TheProgressivesbecameassociatedwithanIndianprophet,Kenekuk,andsettledonreservationlandinKansasinabout1834.Thatreservationremainsthehome of theKansasKick-apoowithwhomthePotawatomimergedin1851.ThemoretraditionalKickapoomovedsouthintoTexas,atthattimeapart of Mexico,wheretheysettledamongacombinedgroup of Cherokee,Delaware,andShawnee.Theanti-IndianpolicythatwasestablishedafterTexaswonindependence,andultimatelybecameastate,drovetheKickapoo,alongwithacontingent of SeminolesandescapedAfrican-Americanslaves,intoMexico.In1852theyweregivenlandbytheMexicangovernmentinreturnforprotec-tionagainsttheApacheandComanche.Duringthenexttwodecades,theKickapoowererepeatedlychargedwithraidingTexasranchesfromtheirsettlementsacrosstheRioGrande.In1873theFourthU.S.CavalrycrossedtheMexicanbordertodecimateanundefendedKickapoovillage.CaptivesweretakentoIndianTerritory(nowOklahoma).Eventually,ap-proximatelyhalfthetribeagreedtoremainintheirvillage of ElNacimiento,Coahuila,Mexico.ThislastgroupbecameatriberecognizedbytheU.S.governmentin1983and,inaddi-tiontotheirholdingsinMexico,nowhaveareservationnearEaglePass,Texas.IntheUnitedStatestheyareofficiallyknownastheKickapooTraditionalTribe of Texas,andinMexico,wheretheyspendmost of theirtime,astheMexicanKickapoo(TribuKikapu),thetermbywhichtheystillrefertothemselves.SettlementsInaboriginalandearlyhistorictimestheKickapooweresemi-nomadicandthisremainstruefortheconservativeMexicangrouptoday.Aboriginally,theKickapoosummervillagesweresemipermanent,beingassociatedwithnearbyagricul-turalfields.Aftercropswereplanted,afewresidents,usuallyelderly,remainedtocareforthemwhilemost of thepopula-tionsetoutoncommunalhunts.Inwinter,thevillageresi-dentsbrokeintosmallerbandunitsandestablishedtempo-raryhuntingcamps.Thesemipermanentvillageswereassociatedwithanareafordancingandgamesandaburialplace.Thehouses(wiikiaapi)wereconstructed of elmbarkorrushmatsplacedoveraverticalframework of saplings.Theywereusuallyrectangularinshapewithacovered,butopen-sidedextensiononthefront.Thedomedwinterhouseswereovalinshapeandcoveredwiththesamemats.Thematswerereadilytransportablesothatnewcampscouldbeconstructedwithease.Barkisnolongeravailable,butthesameconstructiontechniquesforbothsummerandwinterhousesareutilizedintheMexicanvillage of Nacimientotoday.Afew of thetradi-tionalhousesarestillconstructedbymembers of theOkla-homaKickapoo,althoughthisisrareandevenrarerinKan-sas.InMexico,compoundsaresmallandarrangedinaclosecommunalpattern.Atypicalcompoundconsists of atleastonewiikiaapi,acookhouse,amenstrualhut(nianotegaani),andperhapssomefacilityforstorage.Womenbuildandownthehouses,andseveralrelatedwomenandtheirnuclearfami-liesoftenshareacompound.TheremayalsobeaMexican-stylehouseinthecompound.InOklahoma,settlementismoredispersedasthereservationlandwasallottedin1894andmany of theKickapoopeoplehavesincelostanyrighttolandownership.InKansas,thepatternisgenerallythatcommontoarurallyfixedreservationthatisagriculturallyoriented.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.TheKickapoopracticedapattern of subsistencethatcombinedapreferredhuntingandgatheringadaptationwithlessfavoredhorticul-turalactivity.Deerandbisonwerethemajorsources of meat,butothergameanimals,suchasbear,elk,andsmallanimals,werealsoutilized.Wildplantsandnutsweresupplementedbythemaize,beans,andpumpkinstheyplantedinthespring.Inthewake of Europeancontact,theKickapoobecamein-volvedinthefurtradeandlaterdealtinothergoodsaswell,ultimatelybecomingknownasshrewdtraders.Alltheseactivitiesremainevidenttosomedegreeintheeconomy of theKickapoowholiveinMexicotoday.Asignifi-cantportion of theirfoodstillcomesfromhunting,gathering,andhome-grownproducts,althoughsomecommoditiesarepurchased.CashincomeisprovidedprimarilythroughtheiremploymentasagriculturallaborersintheUnitedStates,anactivitythatallowsthemtomaintaintheirpattern of seasonalmigration.Many of thosewhomaintainaresidenceintheUnitedStatesalsoreceiveDepartment of AgriculturefoodstampsandAidtoFamilieswithDependentChildren.StillothersareeligibleforSocialSecuritybenefitsasaresult of theirseasonalemployment.Thesegovernmentbenefitsarealsoavailabletomembers of theOklahomaandKansasKick-apoo.Amongthesemoreacculturatedgroups,subsistenceactivitiesaremorevariedandthereisagreaterdependenceonwagelabor.Unemploymentandunderemploymentre-mainaproblem,especiallyinOklahomawheremanyKick-apoolackformaleducationandsomedonotspeakEnglish.ThosewhoownlandgenerallyleaseittoWhitefarmersratherthanworkingitthemselves.OntheKansasreservation,devel-182KeresPuebloIndianstheTewaPueblostothe north of SantaFe,theKeresansper-mitnophotography,sketching,recording,ornote-takingattheirceremoniesevenwhentheydoallowtheceremoniestobewatched.Ceremonialinformationisjealouslyguardedfromthenon-Indian,ornonbeliever;onecandetectsomeerosionandloss of knowledgeovertheyears.Itisclaimedthatifthereisknowledge of ace"remonial,oranypart of it,itcannotbetermedextinct.Butthereareincreasinginstancesinwhichthequalifiedpersonnelornecessaryparaphernaliacannolongerbecalledintoplay,despitethefactthatthecer-emony,atleastinitsbroadoutlines,canberecalled.Arts.Asisthecaseinessentiallyallcultureshavinganon-technologicalbase,theKeresanshavemadetheirmaterialitemsfromwood,bone,leather,clay,stone,feathers,andvar-iousfibers.Foritemsnoteasilyhandcrafted,tradingnetworkswereestablishedamongtheKeresansthemselvesorwithotherPuebloanandnon-Puebloangroups.Attimes,tradein-volvedtraveltotheGulf of California,thePacificcoast,ortheGulf of Mexico;ifnotactuallycoveringsuchdistances,tribeslivingintheinterveningareasoftenservedasmiddle-men,facilitatingtheexchangesbetweentheKeresanvillagesandthemoredistantsources of desiredgoods.Intheyearssince World WarII,KeresanIndianshavebeenamongtheleadersfromthepueblosingeneralintheconversion of theseformerutilitarianproductstoobjectsaimedatthetouristandcollectortrade.Many of thesehavebeentermed"objects of fineartratherthan'artsandcrafts.'"Medicine.Traditionally,illnessesandinjuriesweretreatedbymedicinemenormedicinesocieties,usuallythosepresentintheparticularvillage.Ifcircumstancespermitted,suchpractitionerswouldbesoughtinneighboringpueblos.Incases of childbirth,midwivesusuallytookcare of matters;however,ifthebirthweredifficult,theassistance of amedi-cinemanwassought.Inrecenttimes,sinceabout1950,moreandmoreusehasbeenmade of hospitals,trainednurses,anddoctors.Atpresent,thehealthandhealthcareenjoyedbythepeoplearegreatlyimprovedoverwhatexistedpriortomid-century.Today,veryfewbabiesarebornawayfromthehos-pitalandmodemmedicalcare.Olderpeoplestillhaveatendencytoconsultthenativemedicinemenformorepsy-chologicalproblemsorwhatmightbetermedpsychosomaticailments.DeathandAfterlife.Whendeathoccurswithlittleornowarning,thebodyispreparedbythefamilyormedicinemen,andburial(inablanketratherthanacasket)takesplaceinamatter of hours.Timeusuallydoesnotpermitthesummon-ing of theCatholicpriest,andthesacristanwillofficiate.Thepriestblessesthegravewhenheisnextinthevillage.TheKeresanIndians,ifonemaygeneralize,varyintheirbeliefsbetweentheteachings of theCatholicchurchorotherChris-tianfaithsandthetraditionalideas of thesoulgoingtolivewiththeancestorsand/orbecomingakachina,insomecasesreturningtothepueblointhegenericform of rain-bringingclouds.Much of thishastodowiththedegree of accultura-tionattainedbyindividualIndiansandbythepueblosinwhichtheylive.BibliographyDozier,EdwardP.(1983).ThePuebloIndians of North Amer-ica.ProspectHeights,Ill.:WavelandPress.Originallypub-lished,1970.Dutton,BerthaP.(1983).AmericanIndians of theSouthwest.Albuquerque:University of NewMexicoPress.Ortiz,Alfonso,ed.(1979).Handbook of North AmericanIndi-ans.Vol.9,Southwest.Washington,D.C.:SmithsonianInsti-tution.Parsons,ElsieClews(1939).PuebloIndianReligion.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.CHARLESH.LANGEKickapooETHNONYMS:Igabu,Kikapu,Kiikaapoa,Kiwegapaw,Kiwika-pawa,Ontarahronon,Shakekahquah,ShikapoOrientationIdentification.Thename"Kickapoo"nolongerhasanyevidentmeaningtotheKickapoopeopleotherthanthatishowtheyrefertothemselves.Thevariety of theothernamesbywhichtheyareknown,however,demonstratestheextent of theircontactswithothergroups,rangingfromtheGreatLakesregiontoMexico.Thesefar-reachingmigrationswereprobablyresponsibleforanearliertranslationthatindicatedthatthetermKiwikapawameant'hemovesabout,standinghere,nowthere,"todayknowntobelinguisticallyimpossible.Location.Because of theirnomadicnature,theKickapoocannotbeassignedtoaspecificgeographicarea.Aborigi-nally,theyrangedthroughoutthesouthernGreatLakesre-gion,eventuallybeingpushedwestandsouthinthewake of Europeancontact.TodaytheycomprisethreegroupslivingrespectivelynearHorton,Kansas;McCloud,Oklahoma;andMelchorMuzquiz,Coahuila,Mexico.Manymembers of thelastgrouphavedualresidencynearEaglePass,Texas,andcontinueamigratorylife-stylethattakesthemthroughoutColorado,Utah,Wyoming,Montana,and North Dakotaasagriculturalworkers.Demography.OwingtotheKickapoo'smigratoryadapta-tionandtheirtendencytodisperseandrecombineindiffer-entgroups,accuratepopulationfigureshavealwaysbeendif-ficulttoobtain.Ithasbeenestimatedthattheynumbered2,000in1650.Thispopulationwasprobablysplitintoatleastthreebands.Atpresent,allthreegroupsareroughlyequalinpopulationwithbetween650and750memberseach.UnguisticAffiliation.TheKickapoolanguageis of theAlgonkianfamily.ItismostcloselyrelatedtoSaukandFoxKiowa187tradersinNewMexicoandintheMississippivalley;however,bothhuntingandtradedeclinedbeforethetreatyperiod.In1867,theTreaty of MedicineLodgewasmadebe-tweentheUnitedStatesandtheComanche,Kiowa,andKiowaApache,whoreceivedcombinedreservationlandsinOklahoma.Despiteoutbreaks of violenceduringthefollow-ingdecade,andthearrestandimprisonment of theirleaders,theKiowaremainedsettledonlandswithintheirtraditionalheartland.In1892,undertheJeromeAgreement,theyac-ceptedindividualallotments of 160acresplusatribalbloc of grazingland;theagreementisuniqueinmakingprovisionsfornon-Kiowaattachedtothetribetoreceiveashareintriballands.SettlementsThenineteenth-centuryKiowafollowedapattern of seasonalnomadismwhichwas,atleastinpart,determinedbytheneedforpasturagefortheirhorseherds.Fromfalltoearlysummer,thetribedispersed;extendedfamilygroupsformedthenuclei of bands,ledbyinfluentialmenorattimesbybrothers.Thebandswereflexible;smallfamiliesandisolatedindividuals,whetherrelatedornot,mightjointhecamp of asuccessfulchief.Duringthesummermonths,thebandscampedto-getherforaperiod of severalweeks;duringthistime,theSunDanceceremonywasheld.Thesitewasalwaysonasizablestreamandwaschosenforitsaccesstograss,firewood,andgame-especiallybison.Atanappointedtime,thesubtribesarrivedinaprescribedorderandtookdesignatedplacesinthecampcircle.Inthe1880stherewerefiveKiowasubtribes,withtheKiowaApacheoccupyingasixthplaceinthecircle.Untilbisonbecamescarce,theSunDancewasthepreludetoacommunalhunt. ... asnortherngroupssuchastheHaidaandTsimshianwhoraidedthemforslaves.Theywereregularlyinvolvedintrade,bothwithneighboringgroupsandwithgroupsontheeasternside of theCascadeMountains.Itemstradedincludehorses,driedclams,blankets,skins,oils,driedfish,andveni-son.Most of theKlallamgroupshavebeenconvertedtoChristianity,theLummibeingmainlyRomanCatholicandtheothersProtestant.TheyarelargelyassimilatedintoWhitesociety.TheLummiarenotedfortheiraquaculturalproject,growingamdharvestingfoodfromthenearbywaters,andfortheirfishhatcheryprogram.BibliographyGunther,Ema(1927).KlallamEthnography.University of WashingtonPublicationsinAnthropology1(5).Seattle.Nugent,Ann,ed.(1979).TheHistory of LummiFishingRights.Bellingham,Wash.:LummiCommunications.Nugent,Ann,andEvanKinley,eds.(1982).LummiEldersSpeak.Lynden,Wash.,andFemdale,Wash.:LyndenTribuneandtheLummiEducationCenter,LummiHistoricalPubli-cations.Stem,BernardJ.(1969).TheLummiIndians of WesternWashington.NewYork:AMSPress.Originallypublished,1934.KlamathETHNONYMS:Clamath,Lutuami,MaklaksOrientationIdentification.TheKlamathwereanAmericanIndiangroupwholivedinsouthernOregonandnorthernCalifornia.AlthoughtheKlamathnolongerexistasadistinctculturalentity,descendants of theKlamathwhoareidentifiedaseth-nicallyKlamathstillliveintheiraboriginalterritory.Duringthereservationperiodfrom1864to1954theKlamathwerecloselytiedtotheModocandtheYahuskinPaiute,withthelattertwogroupsbeinglargelyassimilatedintotheKlamathduringthisperiod.TheKlamathnameforthemselvesis"Maklaks,"meaning"people"or"community."Location.Asfarcanbedetermined,theKlamathhadlivedforsometimebeforecontactinwhatistodaysouthernOre-gonandnorthernCalifornia.TheModocweresituatedmostlyinnorthernCalifornia.Priortothereservationperiod,theKlamathandModocclaimedover20millionacres of landinthisregion.TheKlamathReservationwaslocatedinKlamathCounty,Oregon,atabout121°to122°Wand420to43°N.Thisregion,withelevationsoverfourthousandfeet,ischaracterizedbystreamsandmarshes,andlong,snowywinters.Fish,mussels,andwaterfowlwereabundant.Cultur-ally,thisareaisontheboundaries of theGreatBasin,Pla-teau,andCaliforniaregions.TheKlamathdisplayedanum-ber of culturalfeaturestypical of theaboriginalPlateaugroupsand,inlatertimes, of theNorthwestCoastregion.TheModocdisplayedsomeculturalfeatures of northernCal-iforniagroups.Demography.Estimatesinthelate1700splacedthenumber of Klamathatfrom400to1,000.In1848therewereabout1,000.In1930,2,034KlamathandModocswerecounted,andin1958,shortlyaftertheKlamathReservationwasterminated,theKlamathnumbered2,133.SincetheyweremixedwithotherIndiangroupsandWhitesafterbeingplacedonthereservation,accuratepopulationcountsarenotpossible.LinguisticAffiliation.TheKlamathandtheModocspokedialects of theLutuamilanguage,whichisclassifiedintheKlamath-Sahaptinfamily of Penutianlanguages.Thereareprobablynomorethanafewspeakers of Klamathalivetoday.Kumeyaay193KoyukonTheKoyukon(Coyukon),includingtheKolchan-Teneyna,bothAthapaskan-speakinggroups,liveintheYukonRiverbasinsouth of themouth of theTananaRiverincentralAlaska.ThereareaboutfivehundredKoyukonspeakersliv-ingincommunitiesintheirtraditionalarea.BibliographyClark,AnnetteMcFadyen(1981)."Koyukon."InHandbook of North AmericanIndians.Vol.6,Subarctic,editedbyJuneHelm,58 2-6 01.Washington,D.C.:SmithsonianInsti-tution.KumeyaayETHNONYMS:Tipai,YaguinDieguefio,Ipai,Kamia,Nytipai,Quemaya,OrientationIdentification.TheKumeyaayareanAmericanIndiangrouplocatedinsouthernCaliforniaandoftencalledthe"Dieguefio"or'Tipai-lpai."TheSpanishrecordeddialectvariants of "Kumayaay,"thepeople'snameforthemselves."Kamia"isaMohavevariant.TheSanDiegoMissionnamedthenearbyIndians"Dieguefio."Dialectvariants of "Ipai"mean"people."Somesibnames:"Kwash,""Kwamaay,""Kufeil,""Akwa'ala"(southerners)usedbyKumeyaayforsouthernvillages.Location.Atcontact,KumeyaaysheldtheareafrombelowTodosSantosBay,BajaCalifornia,toaboveAguaHediondaLagoon,California,approximately31°to33°15'N.ThenorthernboundaryextendedalongthesoutherndivideaboveSanLuisReyRivertoPalomarMountain,acrossValledeSanJose,tothedesertalongthenortherndivideaboveSanFelipeCreek,thentothesandhillswest of theColoradoRiver,andsouthtotheriverbelowYuma.Fromsouth of TodosSantosBay,thesouthernboundaryanglednortheasttotheColo-radoRiverabovetheCocopa.Today,theKumeyaayhavethirteensmallreservationsinSanDiegoCountyandfourinBajaCalifornia.Demography.In1980,approximately1,700livedonornearKumeyaayreservationsinSanDiegoCountyand350inBajaCalifornia.Thesefiguresexcludethoseonmixed-tribereservationsandthoselivingaway,possiblyanother1,700.In1769,approximately20,000existed,basedonmissionbirthanddeathrecordsandthe1860federalcensus.LnguisticAffiliation.KumeyaaybelongstotheYumanlanguagefamily,Hokanstock.Eachvillagehaditsdialectwithdifferencesincreasedbydistance.HistoryandCulturalRelationsLinguistically,abouttwothousandyearsseemtoseparatetheKumeyaayfromtheQuechanontheColoradoRiver.Somearchaeologistsrecognizeagradualmaterialculturechangefrom5000B.C.tothatrecognizedas"Dieguefio"by100B.C.Mythologyandsouthernbandterritoriessuggestthatthean-cestors of someKumeyaayswerethereby5000to8000B.C.Atcontact,tribalneighborsinBajaCaliforniawerespeakers of Yumanlanguages:Cochimi,Kiliwa,Paipai,andCocopa;totheeastwereQuechanandMohave.Onthe north, Takic-speakingShoshoneanpeoplesenteredabouttwothousandyearsago,Luisefioonthecoast,CupefioatWarnerSprings,andCahuillainthemountainsanddesert.Relationswithneighborsalternatedbetweenwar,trade,intermarriage,andceremonialexchange.In1769,continuouscontactwithEuropeansbeganwhenFranciscansfoundedSanDiegoMissionwithamilitarypost,SanDiegoPresidio.Soonafter,DominicansestablishedmissionsinnorthernBajaCalifornia.Exceptforthe1818foundation of SantaYsabelAssistancia,SpanishandMexi-canscontrolledonlycoastalandnear-coastalareas.Raids,re-volts,andfugitivismcharacterizedKumeyaay-missionrela-tions.Unlikeothermissions,SanDiegoandSanLuisReykeptonlyunmarriedwomen,thesick,andtheelderlyatthemissionsowingtolack of agriculturallandnearby.Theybroughtinagroup,taughtthemCatholicism,Europeanagri-culture,andcrafts,andthenreturnedthemtothevillageex-ceptforlabordraftsandspecialceremonies.Aftermissionsecularization,mostKumeyaayfledandrevolted,holdingMexicanstothecoast. America& apos;sentrancein1846didnotcausemuchlandlossuntiltheCivilWarended.Thefew1875executiveorderres-ervationswereinsecureuntiltrust-patentedin1891,whenadditionallandswerereservedforsomevillages.Bythen,mostwerepushedtodryslopesabovetheiroriginalwell-wateredagriculturalvalleys.Manyreceivednoreservation:sometookrefugeinacemetery,Jamul,receivingfederalrec-ognitionin1976,andothersfledtoBajaCalifornia,wherenon-Indiansettlersdidnotcrowdthemuntilafter1940.SettlementsUntilevictedbysettlers,villageswerenearpermanentwatersources,rivers,orsprings.Dependinguponavalley'srich-ness,bandterritoryextendedtentothirtymilesonbothsides of astreamtodividesabovethevalley.Bandpopulationrangedfromthreehundredtomorethanfivehundredper-sons.TheKwaaypaay(bandchief),priests,andenvironmen-talspecialistslivedinacentralvillage;eachfamilyhadasepa-ratehomesteadnearsubsidiarywatersources.Centralvillagesheldceremonialgroundsandmeetingareas,andweresur-roundedbyacactusfenceornearbypalisaderefuge.Moun-tainvillageswerenearfortifiedrockypeaks.Largevillageshadanareafortradeorceremonialvisitors.Europeandiseaseandstarvationowingtolandlossdrasticallyreducedthenumber of villagesandpopulations.Onreservations,familiesfollow200KwakiutlReligiousPractitioners.Shamans, of whichtherewereseveralcategories,werecalledontoimpelorexpressspirit-inducedsicknessandtoforetelloraffecttheoutcome of events,curebodilyills,orworksorcery.Ceremonies.Winterwasaperiod of intensivereligiousac-tivitywhenthevariousdancingsocietiesinitiatednewmem-bersandreenactedthefirstcontactwiththeirsupernaturalguardians.Performances-dramatizations of myth-timeevents-wereoftenstagedwithcleverlyconstructedprops.Potlatchingaccompaniedtheinitiationsandwasinotherseasonsofferedasaceremonyinitsownright.Itinvolvedhostandguestgroups,lavishfeasting,formalspeeches,anddistribution of giftstoguests.Life-cycleevents(includingbe-stowal of names,marriage,assumption of titles,andcom-memoration of thedead),launching of alargecanoe,orcon-struction of anewhousewerea.lloccasionsforpotlatches.Arts.Themostintenselydevelopedartswerethose of sculpture,painting,dance,theater,andoratory.Prevalentthemesandcontextswerereligious,includingadistinctiveandlargelyreligious-basedheraldry.Sculptureandpaintingconformedtoconventionalizedrepresentations of animalsandsupernaturalbeings.Artwasanappliedform,richlydec-oratinghousefronts,mortuaryandothercommemorativemonuments,boxes,seatbacks,canoes,paddles,feastdishes,householdutensils,tools,andpersonalpossessions.Elabo-ratemasks,robes,andothercostumepartsandcomplicatedmechanicaldeviceswereimportantaccompaniments of danceandtheatricalperformances.Afteralongperiod of lan-guor,theartshavebeenrevivedinmodifiedform,withsculp-tureholdingmostcloselytotradition.Limitededitionprintsarethebasis of alivelyartespeciallypopularwithcollectors.AtleastoneKwakiutldancetroupeofferscostumedperfor-mancesincorporatingtraditionalthemesandmovements.Medicine.Illnesscausedbysoullossormagicwastreatedbyashaman.Manyailmentswereattendedtobyspecializedcurerswhomightuseplant,animal,ormineralcompoundsordecoctionsormightprescribebathing,sweating,orcauter-ization.DeathandAfterlife.Thebody,inadecoratedbentwoodbox,wasplacedinthebranches of atree,inarectangularplankgravehouse,or...
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... inLosAngeles(MexicansandCentralAmericans),NewYork(PuertoRicansandDo-minicans),andMiami(Cubans).SpeakingSpanishhasalsoresultedattimesinnegativepersonalandgroupexperiences,forithasbeenusedbyoutsiderstostigmatizemanypeoplebecausetheyaredifferent.HistoryandCulturalRelationsMexicanscantracetheirrootstosettlementsinwhatisnowthesouthwesternUnitedStatesasearlyas1598;thisareawasoncethenorthernreaches of Mexicoproperandwascolo-nizedbeforethesettlement of NewEnglandbypeoplefromEurope.TheregionwasprosperingwhenAnglo-Americansbeganarrivingintheearlynineteenthcentury,settinginmo-tioneventsthatledtotheMexican-AmericanWar of 184 6- 1848.Intheaftermath of thewar,relationsbetweenAnglo-AmericansandMexicanswereoftencharacterizedbycultureconflictandinterculturalhostility.Withincreasedimmigra-tioninthewake of the1910MexicanRevolution,theMexi-canpopulationburgeonedinallpreviouslyestablishedsettle-ments,aprocessthathascontinuedtothisday.PuertoRicansandCubansbecameassociatedwiththeUnitedStatesasaresult of the1898Spanish-AmericanWar.PuertoRicobecameaterritory of theUnitedStatesandnowhaslimitedsovereigntywithinitscommonwealthstatus.Amigrantstream,increasingconsiderablyafter World WarII,connectedPuertoRicanswiththecity of NewYorkandbroughttheeasternseaboarditsfirstlargeLatinopopulation.LikeMexicans,PuertoRicanshavehadaproblematicrela-tionshipwithAnglo-Americans,intheircasefurtheraggra-vatedbytheissue of nationalindependenceversuscommon-wealthstatus,whichhasstrainedbothintergroupandintragrouprelations.CubansimmigratedtotheUnitedStatesinlargenumbersafterthesocialistrevolution of 1959.Thefirstwaveswereprimarilyfromtheupper-middleandupperclassesandmostimmigrantswerepeople of Europeanracialbackgrounds;thesecondwavebeganin1980andin-volvedmostlypoorer,darker-hued"Marielitos,"includingmanyexpelledfromCubanprisons.AmericanforeignpolicyandactionshavebeenaffectedbyeventsinCuba,especiallytherise of anticommunism.Large-scaleimmigrationfromtheDominicanRepublicoccurredintheearly1960s.CentralAmericans,mostlyfromGuatemala,Nicaragua,andElSalvador,madetheirentranceinthelate1970sandearly1980s.CoupledwiththechangesbroughtbyCubanevents,theradicalupheavalsinCentral America havetendedtogenerateevenmoreanticommunistfears.Politicalandeconomicrefugeesfromthesenationshaveaccountedforasubstantialproportion of recentimmi-grationtotheUnitedStates.AmericanmilitaryconquestsinthenineteenthcenturymadeMexicanresidents of thesouthwestandPuertoRicansontheirislandsubjugatedpeoples.ForsubsequentmigrantsfromMexicoandPuertoRico,thisintensifiedthescornanddiscriminationthathasbeenthetraditionallot of poorimmi-grantpopulationsintheUnitedStates.Cubanimmigrantswereinitiallycomparativelywell-offeconomically,especially208LipanApacheSocialOrganizationLipanwerematrilinealandmaintainedcloseassociationswiththeirmatrilaterallyextendedrelatives.Ahouseholdunitwasusuallycomposed of awomanandherhusbandorcon-sortandherchildren;oftenunmarriedsistersandbrothers of thewomanorhermatrilinealrelativesintheascendinggene-rationwerealsopresent.Unmarriedgrandchildrenmightbeapart of thehousehold,too.Bandmembershipseemstohavefollowedmatrilinealandmatrilateralprinciplesaswell.Butthoughwomenruledinthefamily,menwereincharge of theband.ReligionandExpressiveCultureTheLipanareusuallycreditedwithintroducingpeyotismintoNative North America. Despitethepaucity of Lipanin-formation,Oplermanagedtocollecttheirmythology.BibliographyOpler,MorrisE.(1940).MythsandLegends of theLipanApacheIndians.Memoirs of theAmericanFolkloreSociety,vol.36.NewYork.Tunnell,CurtisD.,andW.W.Newcomb,Jr.(1969).ALipanApacheMission:SanLorenzodelaSantaCruz,176 2-1 771.TexasMemorialMuseum,Bulletinno.14.Austin.CLAIREFARRERLuisen-oreservations.Despitethedepopulation,externalinfluences,andresettlementonreservations,much of thetraditionalcul-tureregardingreligionandexpressiveculturehassurvived.Luisefiosocietywascomposed of localizedvillagegroups,each of whichexploitedfoodresourcesintheirterritory,thoughtheyalsotraveledtofindfoodelsewhere.Asemisub-terraneanearthlodgewasthetypicalvillagedwelling.Thesubsistenceeconomywasbasedongathering of acornsandotherseeds,collectinggreens,huntingsmallgameandmarinemammals,fishing,anddiggingrootsandbulbs.Thesubsistenceterritorywasownedandprotectedbythevil-lagegroup.Today,manyLuisefioworkinsemiskilledandskilledoccupations,withtheirwagessupplementedbyocca-sionalparticipationintraditionalsubsistenceactivities.Traditionalkinshiprulesandpracticesdisappearedrap-idlyunderSpanishinfluencebeforetheycouldbedescribed.Evidently,eachvillagegroupwasapatrilinealclangroup,witharrangedvillage-exogamousmarriagepreferredasameans of affordingvillagesaccesstoothersubsistenceterri-tories.Bothboysandgirlsunderwentelaborateinitiationcer-emonies,suggestingthecentraleconomiccontributionsmadebybothsexes.Eachvillagegroupwasgovernedbyahereditarychiefwhoexercisedreligious,political,andwarfareauthority,anassistantchief,andavillagecouncil.ThepoliticalstructuremayhavebeenmoreelaborateinthelargervillageslocatedonornearthePacificcoast.Warfarewasoftentheresult of boundarydisputesbetweenvillages.Today,reservationdeci-sionsaremadebytheentireadultpopulationonthereserva-tion,althoughmanyLuisefioserveontheboards of variouslocal,reservation,regional,andstateorganizations.Elaborateceremoniesledbypaidritualspecialistsfromothervillagesandinvolvingdramaticrecitations,feasting,anddistribution of goodswereacentralfeature of Luisefiolife.Sixteenceremonieshavebeenreported,includingthoseforinitiation,hunting,fertility,death,marriage,conception,andpeace.Some of theseritesarestillcelebratedinadditiontoCatholicholidays.ETHNONYM:JuanefioTheLuisefioandJuanefio,whoculturallyandlinguisti-callyareonegroup,areanAmericanIndiangrouplocatedinsouthernCalifornia.TheLuisefiowereassociatedwithMis-sionSanLuisReyandtheJuanefiowithMissionSanJuanCapistrano,fromwhichthetwogroupstaketheirrespectivenames.Neithergroupevidentlyhadadistinctnameforthem-selvesinprecontacttimes.Theprecontactpopulation,esti-matedashighastenthousand,decreasedtoaboutsevenhundredin1940and ... intheeasternandmidwesterncities. World War 1I wasawatershedperiodasitcreatedademandformoreworkersandsoldiers,andPuertoRicancommunitiesex-pandedasaresult.AuniquearrangementfacilitatingtravelbetweenthemainlandandislandhastendedtostrengthenPuertoRicancultureandcommunity.ArrivingmuchlaterthantheotherLatinogroups,CubansandCentralAmeri-canshavesettledmainlyincities.Cubans,infact,haveachievedmajoreconomicandpoliticalinfluenceinMiami,Florida.TheU.S.governmentattemptedtowidelydispersetherecentMarielitoswave,butintimeeventheseimmigrantsgravitatedtoestablishedCubanenclaves.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Smallpockets of MexicanAmericanswhotracetheirheritagetotheearlycenturieshavemaintainedtheirself-sufficientranchesandfarmlands,butthemajorityearnwagesasmine,farm,rail-road,construction,andlightindustrylaborers.PuertoRicanshavefilledthegarmentdistrictandlightindustryjobs of thecities.Cubansarrivedwithsomemoneybut,moreimportant,withskillsandtrainingandhavehadmuchsuccessinvariousbusinessenterprisesandprofessions.Inrecentdecadestherehasbeenaslightincreaseinemploymentinwhite-collarserv-iceandprofessionaloccupations,butLatinosgenerallylagbehindtheAnglopopulationinemploymentinthesesectors.Alargeagriculturalmigrant-workerpopulationexistsinstatessuchasCalifornia,Texas,andFlorida.MexicanAmer-icanswereamajorforceintheunionizationeffortbyfarmworkersinCalifornia.LatinofoodsvaryandreflectthesyncreticSpanish/Indian/Africanmixturenotedabove,butbeans,rice,andvar-iousstewspreparedwithpork,beef,andseafoodarefoundinallgroups.ChiliesarealsowidelyusedinLatinocuisines.Cornproductsare of particularimportanceinMexicanandMexicanAmericanculture(althoughbreadandwheatflourtortillashavereplacedcorntortillasonmanyMexicanAmeri-cantables).CubansandPuertoRicans,asislanders,gener-allyfavorvariousseafooddishescharacterizedbyLatinomethods of preparationandspices.IndustrialArts.TheoriginalsettlementsinNewMexicoproducedexcellentwoodcarving,weaving,jewelry,andotherartistictraditions.Today,thisLatinobentisfoundamongautopaint-and-body,upholstery,andseamstresscrafts-people.Trade.Barrioshaveshoppingcentersandstoresthatcatertothetastes of thelocalpopulation,andsome of thesedis-trictshavebecomeethniccentersforsocial,cultural,andpo-liticalactivities.Latinosalsousemany of themallsthatdoturbanandsuburbanregions.Smallfamily-operatedstoresarecommonamongLatinoentrepreneurs,andsomehavegrownintomultimillion-dollarenterprises.TheCubanAmericancommunityhasbecomeamajoreconomicforceintheMiamiarea.Division of Labor.Ashiftfromlow-skilledtoskilledblue-collarjobshasemergedasanimportanttrend,ashasthein-crease of two-wage-earnerhouseholdswithmanywomennowhavingthedualroles of breadwinnerandbreadmaker.Al-thoughthemiddleclasshasgrown,withmanyprofessionalsandeducatedpeople,especiallyamongCubanAmericans,therearestillrelativelyfewLatinos of middle-orupper-classstatus.Because of traditionalbeliefsandtheSpanishcolonialinfluence,therehasbeenparticularstraininvolvingchanginggenderrelationsandtraditionallydefinedstatusinLatinocommunities.Manywomenhavemovedout of traditionalfe-maleroles,andsomemenhavefounditverydifficulttoad-justtothischange.Similarly,statusdistinctionsbasedonthetraditional"patron-peon"arrangementsareslowlydisappear-inginanopen,class-structuredsociety.LandTenure.Sincethelatenineteenthcentury,most of theextensivelandholdingsownedbyMexicanAmericanshasbeenlosttoAnglo-Americans.Thefewpocketsthatre-mainareinruralareassuchasNewMexico.Asrecentlyas1966,attemptstoraisepublicattentiontothecorruptwayinwhichtheselandswereacquiredhavefailed.Nevertheless,Chicano(anethnicnameforMexicansintheUnitedStates)activistsstillofferreminders of theabrogation of theTreaty of GuadalupeHidalgo of 1848,whichendedtheMexican-AmericanWarwithassurancesthatlandrightswouldbere-spected.PuertoRicanshavelargelyretainedownership of bothlargeandsmallfarmsinPuertoRico,butarepredomi-nantlyrentersintheirurbanU.S.communities.CubanAmericans,incontrast,arerapidlypurchasinglargeblocs of realestateinMiami.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.FamilylifeisimportanttoLatinos,especiallyextendedkinnetworks,eventhoughAn-glo-Americaninfluenceshavealteredtraditionalpatterns.Familyinterestsarevaluedoverindividualwell-being.Asyn-206LatinosLocal,regional,andsometimesnationaleffortstoresistandchangediscriminatorypracticesarecommonoccur-rences.TheLatinosocialmovements of the1960s,however,haveresultedincontinuedimprovementsinsuchareasasbi-lingualeducation,increasedhiringinpublicjobs,andarise of publicinterestinLatinoissues.Thewars of thepastcon-tinuetoaffectLatino-AnglorelationsintheUnitedStates:MexicanAmericansdeploreviolations of theTreaty of Gua-dalupeHidalgo;manyPuertoRicansaspiretostatehoodorindependence;Cubans,because of itsrecency,talk of recap-turingthe'revolution";andCentralAmericanslamentthecontemporarywarsfromwhichmanyarerefugees.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.AswiththeSpanishlanguage,RomanCatholicismdominatesthroughoutLatin America, butvariesinformandpracticefromcountrytocountryandregiontore-gion,owinglargelytosyncreticmixingwithotherreligioustraditions.LatinosintheUnitedStatesalsodisplaythisvari-ation,withpatronsaints,specialdays of observance,andritu-als of baptism,marriage,anddeathvaryingamongdifferentCatholicLatinogroups.Forexample,theVirgin of Guadalupe,abrown-appearingiconassociatedwiththeIndian-Mestizosegment of thepopulationinMexico,is of lit-tleinterestamongCubanAmericansandPuertoRicans,andsanteria(worship of AfricangodsclothedinCatholicdogma)beliefsandpracticesinthosegroupsarefarlesscommonamongMexicanAmericans.AlthoughmostLatinosadheretotheCatholicchurch,evangelicalProtestantismhasgainedmanyfollowersinrecentdecades.Arts.Folkarttraditionsinmurals,woodwork,music,orallore,andpottery,aswellasmodemstylizedformsreinter-pretingthesetraditions,characterizearichartisticculturalel-ement.Afro-CubanandPuertoRicanpercussioninstru-mentsandrhythmshaveeffectedanewAmericansalsastyle of music.RecentlyanincreaseinLatinoAmericanplays,the-ater,andcinemahasbroughtanewawarenesstothepopula-tion;particularlyimportantarethesociopoliticalcontent of theseworks,suchasdemonstratedbytheearlyTeatroCam-pesino(PeasantTheater)"actos"(politicallychargedskits)duringtheUnitedFarmWorkermovementinCalifornia.Medicine.TraditionalfolkpracticescontinuetoviewithWesternmedicineinmanyLatinocommunities,althoughmostLatinosseekmedicalhelpforseriousinjuriesoracuteillness.Still,onecanreadilyfindcuranderos(folkhealers)whoofferoldindigenousandsyncretizedherbalandphysicalremediesforvirtuallyanyailment.DeathandAfterlife.LatinosgenerallysubscribetoChris-tianbeliefs of anafterlifeinwhichoneisrewardedorpun-ishedforhavingledagoodorevillife.Thesignificance of deathandafterlifeissymbolizedmostclearlyinMexicanAmericancelebrations of ElDiadeLosMuertos(literally'Day of theDead,"butknownasAllSaints'DayinEnglish),whichfeaturemasks,dolls,andcakesadornedwithfigures of skullsandskeletons.Funeralritesvaryasothersyncretizedre-ligiousceremoniesdoamongLatinos,buttypicallyincludelargegatherings of realandfictivekin.BibliographyBordas,G.,andM.Tienda,eds.(1985).HispanicsintheU.S.Economy.NewYork:AcademicPress.Boswell,ThomasD.,andJamesR.Curtis(1984).TheCuban-AmericanExperience.Totowa,N.J.:Rowan&Allanheld.Hendricks,Glenn L. (1974).TheDominicanDiaspora:FromtheDominicanRepublictoNewYork-VillagersinTransition.NewYork:TeachersCollegePress.Moore,JoanW.,andHarryPachon(1985).HispanicsintheUnitedStates.EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.:Prentice-Hall.Padilla,Felix(1987).PuertoRicanChicago.SouthBend,Ind.:University of NotreDamePress.Rodriquez,Clara(1989).PuertoRicans:BornintheU.S.A.Boston:UnwinHyman.Vigil,JamesDiego(1984).FromIndianstoChicanos:TheDy-namics of MexicanAmericanCulture.ProspectHeights,Ill.:WavelandPress.JAMESDIEGOVIGILLillooetETHNONYMS:ChinNation,Lilowat,Lil'watTheLillooetwereone of thefourprincipaltribesintheinteriorplateau of BritishColumbia.Theyaresometimesre-ferredtoastheLowerLillooet,includingtheDouglasandPembrokeMeadowsbands,andtheUpperLillooet,includingallotherbands.Theyoccupiedthesouthwesternpart of ... theprovinceinthebasin of theLillooetRiver,theupperpart of HarrisonLake,andenvirons.Intheearly1900stherewerethirteenbands,withthenumberreducedtotentoday.Thereweremanyvillages,eachgovernedbyahereditarybandchief.Todaythereareabouttwenty-fivehundredLillooetlivingonreservesintheirtraditionalterritoryandinnearbycities.TheLillooetspeakanIn-teriorSalishanlanguagerelatedtothelanguages of theOkanagon,Shuswap,andThompsonIndians.Lillooetculturedisplayedmanyfeaturestypical of NorthwestCoastgroups:thepotlatch,clannames,mythol-ogy,prestigeaffordedthewealthyandgenerous,andtotempolesinsomeareas.Theyhadseveraltypes of dwellings-longplankhouses,winterearthlodges,andsummerbark-ormat-coveredlodges.Salmonandotherfishwerethebasis of theeconomy,andnumerousanimals(bear,sheep,caribou,deer,andsmallmammals)werehuntedandtrapped,andber-riesandfruitweregathered.Warfarewithothergroupswasunusual,withintensiveintertribaltradethemoretypicalstateLatinos203Location.Placehasbeencrucialtotheformation of themanyLatinoidentities.Foronething,geographydeterminesproximitytoculturalrootsinLatin America. Justasimpor-tant,theU.S.government'sacquisitionandintegration of Latinoswasepisodic,andthepoliticalandsocialconflictsthatresultedfromthatprocessvariedbyregionandbytimeperiod.MexicanAmericansliveprincipallyinthesouthwest-ernstates of California,Texas,Arizona,Colorado,andNewMexico,all of whichwere,before1848,part of northernMex-ico.PuertoRicansoutside of theislandterritoryhavesettledmostlyinNewYorkCityandlargeMidwesterncities.Domin-icansarelocatedprincipallyinNewYork,CubanAmericans,inFlorida,andCentralAmericans,inCaliforniaandHous-ton.Beyondtheseconcentrations,members of eachgroupalsoliveinmostmajorAmericancities.Demography.Estimates of the1989populationbasedon1985figuresindicatethattherewere21millionLatinoscon-stitutingjustunder10percent of theU.S.population.Theestimated1989populations of thelargestLatinogroupswere13millionMexicanAmericans,3millionPuertoRicans,1millionCubanAmericans,and4millionotherLatinAmeri-canimmigrantsandtheirdescendants.Inrecentdecades,theinflux of immigrantshassharplyincreasedthetotalLatinopopulation,sothat12percent of Mexicans,forexample,arefirst-generationimmigrants.Theimmigrationandsettlementexperiences of Latinoshavevariedfromonegrouptoanotherandalsoovertimewithingroups.Atthebeginning of thiscentury,Mexicanimmigrantswerelargelyarural,migrantworkerpopulationwhojoinedasettledpopulationthatpre-datedthe184 6-1 848Mexican-AmericanWarby250years.Sincethe1950s,however,MexicanAmericanshavebecomeabout90percenturban,concentratedinCaliforniaandTexas.AmongPuertoRicansandCubans,incontrast,initialmigrationwasprimarilytotheurbanareas,withthemajorPuertoRicanimmigrationbeginningbetweenthetwo world warsandCubansmostlyarrivingafterthe1959CubanRevo-lution.CentralAmericans,primarilysettlinginCaliforniaandHouston,havearrivedafterthesocialupheavals of the1970sand1980sintheircountries.LinguisticAffiliation.Spanishisthenationallanguage of each of thenationsfromwhichLatinosemigratedandinwhichtheirculturesdeveloped.TheSpanishspokenbyAmericanLatinos,however,hasbeentransformedbythecul-turalchanges,mixturesandattitudes,andotherlocalandhistoricalaccidentsandsyncretismsthatmarkedconditionsintheNew World. Mexican,PuertoRican,Cuban,andothernationallanguagehabitsandcustomsdiffer;features of AmericanIndianandAfricanlanguages,forjustoneexam-ple,havevariouslyinfluencedeach of them.Manyregionalandurban/rurallinguisticcontrastsexistwithineach of thegroups.WithexposureandintegrationintoAmericansoci-ety,however,manyLatinos'Spanish-speakingabilitiesandstyleshavebeen"Anglicized"(beenaffectedbytheEnglishlanguage),andmanyevenforsworetheuse of SpanishtospeakEnglish,especiallyLatinosraisedprimarilyintheUnitedStates.Languageusageisanimportantcomponent of Latinoethnicidentity.CertainLatinopopulations,especiallyrecentimmigrantsandthose of highsocialstatus,derivemuchpridefromtheirabilitytospeakfluentSpanish.WhereSpanishusageisexpected,someenjoytheopportunitytodemonstratetheirbilingualflair.Forbothsocialandpolitical(aswellasaestheticandpractical)reasons,proficiencyinSpanishhasbecomeakeycomponentinanemergingethnic"manage-ment"style,particularlyintheborderareasorwhereLatinosareheavilyconcentratedsuchas...
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... ascommunityhealthrepresentativeswhoofferin-homeservicesandtraining.Additionally,peopleusetraditionalmedicineandblessingdancersandsingers.DeathandAfterlife.The world of humansisthe world of illusionandshadow;realityresidesintheother world of PowerandCreator.Upondeathasoulremainsclosetohomeforfourdays;ifaproperfuneralandburialisheld,thesoulisfreedtomakeitswaytotheLand of EverSummer,assomecallit.Thereisdisagreementaboutwhetherreincarnationispossible,althoughmosttraditionalpeoplebelieveitis.BibliographyForbes,JackD.(1960).Apache,Navajo,andSpaniard.Nor-man:University of OklahomaPress.Opler,MorrisE.(1983).'MescaleroApache."InHandbook of North AmericanIndians.Vol.10,Southwest,editedbyAl-phonsoOrtiz,41 9-4 39.Washington,D.C.:SmithsonianIn-stitution.Opler,MorrisE.,andCatherineH.Opler(1950).'Mesca-leroApacheHistoryintheSouthwest."NewMexicoHistori-calReview25: 1-3 6.Sonnichsen,CharlesL.(1972).TheMescaleroApaches.2nded.Norman:University of OklahomaPress.CLAIRERFARRER220Mennonites.DeathandAfterlife.Accesstoheavenwasnotpredeter-mined.Oneisassuredanafterlifeonlyafterhavingbeenadisciplinedmember of thecommunity.Historically,somehavegivenemphasistotheGemeindeintheirmortuarytradi-tionbyburyingtheirmembersintheorder of theirdying-deemphasizingfamilymembership.BibliographyDyck,CorneliusJ.(1981)AnIntroductiontoMennoniteHis-tory.Scottdale,Pa.:HeraldPress.Kraybill,PaulN.,ed.(1984)Mennonite World Handbook.Lombard,Ill.:Mennonite World Conference.TheMennonite Encyclopedia: AComprehensiveReferenceWorkontheAnabaptist-MennoniteMovement(195 5-5 9).4vols.Hillsboro,Kans.:MennoniteBrethrenPublishingHouse.Redekop,Calvin(1989).MennoniteSociety.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.Smith,HenryC.(1981)Story of theMennonites.Newton,Kans.:FaithandLifePress.Urry,James(1989).NonebutSaints:TheTransformation of MennoniteLifeinRussia,178 9-1 889.Winnipeg:HyperionPress.JEFFREYL.LONGHOFERMenomineeETHNONYM:MenominiOrientationIdentification.Thename of thisAmericanIndiangroup,"Menominee,"derivesfromtheChippewamanomini,mean-ing"wildricepeople."Location.IntheseventeenthcenturytheMenomineein-habitedtheregionboundedbyGreenBay,LakeMichigan,andLakeSuperior.Sincethemid-nineteenthcenturytheyhaveoccupiedareservationontheWolfRiverinnortheast-emWisconsin.Theregionisdominatedbynorthernhard-woodforests,mixedwithspruceforests north of theMeno-mineeRiver.Annualprecipitationaveragesaboutthirtyinchesperyear.Temperaturesmayreachashighas900Finthesummeranddipaslowas -3 0°Finthewinter.Demography.Thefirstestimates of theMenomineepop-ulationarelateandpostdatealongdeclinefollowingexpo-suretoEuropeandisease.In1820theMenomineenumbered3,900.In1834,followingasmallpoxepidemic,thepopula-tiondroppedto2,500.By1915thepopulationwasincreasingbecause of adecliningdeathrateandtheadditiontothetribalrolls of mixed-bloodsandpersonsmarriedtoMenomi-nee.TheMenomineenumbered2,917in1956andabout2,700inthelate1970s.LinguisticAffiliation.MenomineeisanAlgonkianlan-guage.Ithasbeenclassifiedasamember of theCentralAl-gonkiansubgroup,butisnotcloselyrelatedtoanyotherdis-tinctlanguageinthesubgroup.HistoryandCulturalRelationsInthemid-seventeenthcenturythenativegroupsneighbor.ingtheMenomineeincludedtheChippewatothe north, theWinnebagotothesouth,andtheSauk,Fox,andKickapootothewest.ThetribesthatmaintainedtheclosestrelationswiththeMenomineeuntilimmediatelypriortothereservationpe-riodweretheWinnebagoandChippewa.Intermarriagewiththesegroupswassoextensivethatcloselinkshavecontinuedthroughthemodernperiod.ContactwithFrenchfurtradersoccurredabout1667andwithJesuitmissionariesin1671.Ascloseallies of theFrench,theMenomineeprosperedinthefurtradeandby1736hadbecomeone of thedominanttribesintheregion.In1815theMenomineecameunderthecon-trol of theUnitedStates.Ataboutthistime,gameintheMenomineeterritorywasbeingrapidlydepleted,andconse-quentlytheMenomineebegancedingtheirlandstotheUnitedStates.By1854theMenomineehadcededall of theirlandsandwereremovedtoafour-hundred-square-milereser-vationalongtheupperWolfRiverintheheart of theirformerterritory.In1961federaljurisdictionovertheMenomineereservation,guaranteedbytreatyin1854,wasterminatedandthenrestoredin1973.SettlementsInaboriginaltimestheMenomineefollowedasemisedentaryseasonalvillagepatternorganizedaroundhunting,fishing,gathering,andhorticulture.Asaresult of Menomineein-volvementinthefurtrade,thevillagepatterndisintegratedandwasreplacedbyamorenomadicway of lifeorientedto-wardhunting,trapping,andtrading.WhentheMenomineewereremovedtotheirreservationin1854amoresedentarysettlementpatternwasrequired.ForahalfcenturytheMeno-mineedispersedwidelyacrossthereservation,butsince1900theyhavetendedtoconcentrateinthevillagecenters of NeopitandKeshena,thelatterbeingthelocationforthebuildingsandoperations of theU.S.IndianService.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.TheprecontactMenomineehadsmallgardensinwhichtheygrewsquash,beans,andmaize,buttheywerebasicallyhuntersandgatherers.Theyalsoharvestedwildriceandmadeextensiveuse of theresources of streams,particularlysturgeon.Hunt-ingwasdonebyindividualsandsmallgroups,withoccasionallargerhuntsfordeerandbison.AftercontactwiththeFrenchtheMenomineebecameheavilyinvolvedintrappingandtradingactivitiesandremainedsountiltheearlypart of thenineteenthcentury.Sincegameandfishwerenotavailableinsufficientquantitiesontheirreservation,after1854someMenomineeturnedtofarming,althoughthisneverprovedtobeasuccessfulactivity.Beginninginthelatenineteenthcen-Miwok239arts,buttherearefrequentinformalpresentations of Micro-nesiansinginganddancingatcommunitygatheringsandfamilysocialevents.Medicine.MedicalknowledgetraditionallywassharedfairlywidelyinMicronesiancommunities.Althoughsomein-dividualscouldgainareputationforbeingespeciallyknowl-edgeableinadministeringtherapeuticmassage,settingbones,practicingmidwifery,orpreparingherbalremedies,therewerenospecialisthealerswhowererecognizedandsupportedassuch.Bothmagicalandefficaciousaspects of medicaltreat-mentwereoftenusedtogetherandwereinseparableinactualpractice.AmongMicronesiansintheUnitedStates,thereisstillfrequentresorttonon-Westernexplanations of illnesscausationandtoalternativetreatments.DeathandAfterlife.ContemporaryMicronesianbeliefsabouttheafterlifeareasyncreticmix of Christianandindige-nousideas.Christiandogmaregardingrewardsandpunish-mentsintheafterlifeismoreexplicitlyformulatedthanindig-enousMicronesiannotions,butcorrespondswithandreinforcessomeindigenousbeliefsinspiritworldsbeneaththeseaandbeyondthehorizon.Experiences of spiritposses-sionandcommunicationfromthedeadareratherwidelybe-lievedandsometimesaregivenasanexplanationforunnat-uraldeathssuchassuicide.Funeralsareveryimportantnotonlyasoccasionsforcommunityandfamilyreintegrationin-volvingseveraldays of ceremonialfeastsandspeechesbutalsoasritualstomarkthedeparture of thedeadproperlyandtoputtheperson'sspirittorest.AmongmanyMicronesiansintheUnitedStates,greatexpenseisincurredtoreturnthebody of thedeceasedtohisorherhomeislandandtoprovideaproperburialonfamilyland.BibliographyHezel,FrancisX.,andMichaelJ.Levin(1987)."MicronesianEmigration:TheBrainDraininPalau,Marshalls,andtheFederatedStates."Journal of thePacificSociety10:1 6-3 4.Hezel,FrancisX.,andMichaelJ.Levin(1990)."MicronesianEmigration:BeyondtheBrainDrain."InMigrationandDe-velopmentintheSouthPacific,editedbyJohnConnell,4 2-6 0.PacificResearchMonographno.24.Canberra:NationalCentreforDevelopmentStudies,ResearchSchool of PacificStudies,AustralianNationalUniversity.LeonGuerrero,Ramon(1972)."AnExploratoryStudy of Life-StyleAdjustments of Guamanians."Master'sthesis,SanDiegoStateUniversity.Levin,MichaelJ.(1984).'PacificIslandersintheUnitedStates."PaperpresentedattheconferenceonAsia-PacificImmigrationtotheUnitedStatesHonolulu:East-WestPop-ulationInstitute.Munoz,FayeUntalan(1979)."AnExploratoryStudy of Is-landMigration:Chamorros of Guam."Ph.D.diss.,Univer-sity of California,LosAngeles.Shimizu,D.(1982)."MentalHealthNeedsAssessment:TheGuamaniansinCalifornia."Ed.D.diss.,University of Massa-chusetts,Amherst.Underwood,RobertA.(1985)."ExcursionsintoInauthenti-city:TheChamorros of Guam."InMobilityandIdentityintheIslandPacific,editedbyMurrayChapmanandPhilipS.Morrison.Specialissue of PacificViewpoint26:16 0-1 84.DONALDH.RUBINSTEINMissouriTheMissouri(Niutachi)livedin north centralMissourialongtheMissouriRiver,includingoneprobablevillageinSalineCounty.TheirdescendantsnowhavebeenassimilatedintoandlivewiththeOtoinafederaltrustareain north cen-tralOklahoma.TheyspokeaChiwereSiouanlanguage.BibliographyChapman,CarlHaley,andEleanorF.Chapman(1983).In-diansandArchaeology of Missouri.Rev.ed.Columbia:Uni-versity of MissouriPress.Edmunds,R.David(1976).TheOtoe-MissouriaPeople.Phoenix,Ariz.:IndianTribalSeries.MiwokTheMiwokareaPenutian-speakinggroup of AmericanIndi-answhoformerlyoccupiedthecoastalregion of present-dayCaliforniabetweenSanFranciscoandMonterey.In1800theMiwoknumberedabouttwenty-twothousand,buttheirnum-berswerereducedtofivethousandbythemid-nineteenthcenturyasaresult of diseaseandhardshipencounteredatthehands of theSpanish.Intheearlyeighteenthcenturythou-sands of MiwokwereforcedtosettleonSpanishmissionpostswheremany of themsuccumbedtodiseasesorwereworkedtodeath.Duringthemiddle of thenineteenthcen-turytheywereoverwhelmedbygoldseekers,furtrappers,ranchers,andsettlers.Bytheearly1900sthepopulationhaddeclinedtoaboutsevenhundredwhowerelocatedonseveralsmallrancheriaspurchasedforthembytheU.S.government.Inthelate1970stherewereaboutonehundredMiwoklo-catedonseveralCaliforniareservationsandprobablyseveraltimesthatnumbermixedwiththegeneralpopulation of Cali-fornia.TheMiwokwereprimarilysettledgatherersandhunterswhotraveledseasonallytoharvestwildplantfoods.Theirsta-plefoodwasacorns,butvariousothernutsandavariety of 240greens,berries,seeds,wildgrains,androotsweregatheredandaccountedformajorcontributionstothediet.AmongtheCoastMiwokkelpwasastaplefoodalongwithacorns.Gameanimalsincludeddeer,antelope,elk,bear,rabbits,bea-ver,squirrels,andquail.Fishingforsalmon,trout,sturgeon,andlampreyeelswasalsoimportantamongsomegroups,par-ticularlytheCoastMiwok.Miwoksocietywascharacterizedbyamoietyorganiza-tion,eachhalf of whichwasidentifiedwiththelandorwaterandarepresentativeanimal.Locallineagesegmentscooper-atedintheexploitation of economicresourcesandthecon-duct of certainceremonies.Politically,theMiwokwereor-ganizedintotribelets of villagesorhamlets.Eachtribeletoccupiedadefiniteterritoryandwasheadedbyachiefwhoinheritedhisofficepatrilineallyandwasresponsibleforcoor-dinatingacornharvests,settlingdisputes,andsponsoringcer-emonies.AmongtheCoastMiwokoverarchingtribalorgani-zationwaslacking.Instead,eachvillagewasheadedbyachiefwhosepositionwasnotinherited.Severaltypes of shamanswererecognizedinMiwoksoci-etyforthepurposes of curingsicknessanddiseaseanddivin-ingthelocation of gameanimalsandlostobjects.Shamansinheritedtheirpositionpatrilineally,andtheirskillsderivedfrominstructionbyanoldershamanandsupernaturalpowerobtainedthroughdreaming.BibliographyBates,C.(1984)'MakingMiwokBaskets."AmericanIndianBasketry4:1 5-1 8.Corrotto,EugeneL.(1973)MiwokMeansPeople.Fresno,Calif.:ValleyPublishers.Kroeber,AlfredL.(1925).Handbook of theIndians of Califor-nia.U.S.Bureau of AmericanEthnologyBulletinno.78,27 2-2 78,44 2-4 61.Washington,D.C.Levy,Richard(1978)."EasternMiwok."InHandbook of North AmericanIndians.Vol.8,California,editedbyRobertF.Heizer,39 8-4 13.Washington,D.C.:SmithsonianInstitu-tion.MohaveETHNONYMS:Amojave,Jamajabs,SoyopasOrientationIdentification.TheMohavewereafarmingpeoplewhosenameforthemselves,"Hamakhav,"hasbeentranslatedtomean"peoplewholivealongthewater."Inthe1970s,twothousandMohavelivedontheColoradoIndianReservationandtheFortMohaveReservation,bothlocatedalongtheColoradoRiverattheArizona-Californiaborder.Location.Aboriginally,theMohaveoccupiedbothsides of thelowerColoradoRiver,roughlytheregionalongtheborderbetweenthepresent-daystates of ArizonaandCalifor-nia.Thecenter of theirhomelandwastheMohaveValley.Mildwinters,hotsummers,andlowannualprecipitationcharacterizetheclimate of thisregion.Thecentralgeographi-calfeatureistheColoradoRiver,whichflowssouthwestthroughcanyonsandfloodplainstotheGulf of California.Beforetheriverwasdammedinthetwentiethcenturyitover-floweditsbankseachspring,depositingrichsiltontheflood-plainscultivatedbytheMohave.Caneandarrowweedandcottonwoodandwillowgrovesgrewalongtheriverbottoms.RabbitswerecommonatthelowerelevationsinhabitedbytheMohave,whilelargegamesuchasdeerwerescarce.Demography.TheMohavenumberedabout3,000in1770,4,000in1872,andonly1,050in1910.Thedramaticpopulationlossattheend of thenineteenthandbeginning of thetwentiethcenturieswasduetodiseaseandpovertystem-mingfromtheirsubjugationbytheU.S.governmentin1859.Thepopulationhadincreasedto1,500by1965andto2,000inthe1980s.linguisticAffiliation.TheMohavespeakadialect of theYumanlanguage,whichisclassifiedintheHokan-Siouanlanguagefamily.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheancestors of theMohavearebelievedtohavemigratedtotheMohaveValleyfromtheMohaveDesertwellbeforeEuro-peancontact,perhapsasearlyasA.D.1150.FirstWhitecon-tactwaswithSpanishexplorersin1604,butfromthattimeuntilthe1820stheMohaveremainedrelativelyfreefromandunchangedbyEuropeaninfluences.Inthe1820sEuropean-AmericantrappersandtradersenteredtheMohavecountry,andtheirencounterswiththeMohaveweresometimesvio-lent.In1858theMohaveattackedawagontrain of Whitesettlersinresponsepartlytointrusionsintotheirterritory.Ayearlatertheyweredealtadisastrousdefeatbyfederaltroops.TheysubsequentlywererelocatedtotheColoradoIndianReservation,establishedin1867,andtheFortMohaveIn-dianReservation,establishedin1880.TheMohavewereallies of theQuechanandYavapai,butenemies of theotherRiverYumanpeoples,theHalchidhoma,Maricopa,andCocopa.ThePimaandPapagowerealsocountedastraditionalenemies.Duringthenineteenthcen-turytheMohaveengagedinalongperiod of warfarewiththeirenemies,whichcametoanendwhentheyweredefeatedbythePimaandMaricopain1857.SettlementsMohavedwellingsconsisted of open,pole-framedramadasforuseinwarmweatherandlow,log-framed,thatch-roofedhousescoveredwithalayer of sandforuseinthewinter.Set-tlementswereneighborhoods of dispersedhomesteadssitu-atedabovethefloodplainswherecropswereplanted.Gener-ally,settlementswereseveralmilesapartfromeachother.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.TheMohaveplantedmaize,beans,pumpkins,andmelons.Therichsiltdepositedontheirfarmlandsbyspringfloodsmadecroprota-Maliseetunmarriedordivorcedmothers,andlack of employmentop ... Mennonites217toorganizeagriculturalsettlements.Againinthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies,MennonitesleftPrussia,Poland,andRussiatosettlein North andSouth America. After World War I, manyfromRussia,Canada,andGermanyemi-gratedtoLatin America. Presently,Mennonitecongregationsandcommunitiesarefoundthroughoutthe world: theSovietUnion,China,WesternandEasternEurope,Asia,Africa,and North, Central,andSouth America. Demography.The world Mennonitepopulationin1984wasapproximately700,000: North America, 310,000;Africa,107,300;Asia,113,600;Australia,100;Caribbean,CentralandSouth America, 76,300;Europe,38,700;andSovietUnion,55,000.LinguisticAffiliation.Owingtothedispersion of Men-nonitecommunitiesandtheirmissionaryactivities,linguisticaffiliationisdiverse.SomeAmericancommunities(includingLatin America) usePlattdeutsch(LowGerman)indailycon-versation,andHighGermanforreligiousfunctions.Often,Englishistheonlylanguagespoken,especiallyin North America, andothersspeakFrench,Swiss,orpredominantlyHighGerman(Switzerland,France,andWestGermany).InLatin America, MennonitesoftenspeakGerman,Spanish,andEnglish.Elsewhere,variousAfricanandAsianlanguagesarespoken.HistoryandCulturalRelationsAnabaptisthistorianshaveinthepasttendedtoviewZurich,Switzerland,astheepicenterfromwhichthemovementex-tendedtotheSwissConfederation,theNetherlands,Austria,Bavaria,Wurttemberg,andthePalatinate.Today,itisarguedthatthisviewoversimplifiesanotherwisesocially,politically,andideologicallydiversemovement.MennoniteAnabaptismwasaproduct of boththesixteenth-centuryProtestantre-formsandthefundamentalchangestakingplaceinpoliticsandeconomicsacrossEurope.Thus,likeotherReformationreligions,theywerecontendingnotonlywiththeRomanchurchbutalsowithchanginganddiscontinuousfeudalforces.Unlikemainstreamreformers,however,theyrejectedinfantbaptismandcalledforacommunity of believersorre-baptizers"(thus,anabaptists)-thosewhosubscribedtothepractice of adultbaptismupontheconfession of faith.Therejection of infantbaptismwasmorethansymbolic;itwasachallengetobothchurchandcivilauthority-aviolation of ecclesiasticalandcivillaw.Baptismsignifiedthevoluntarycommitment of theadultbelievernotonlytothechurchbutalsototheclosedcommunity of believers,orGemeinde.AdultbaptismsymbolizedacontractorcovenantwithGodandcommunity-anagreementtorespecttheGemeindeanditsbindingauthority.Unlikethemoreradicalcontingents of theAnabaptistmovement(especiallytheHutterianBreth-ren),theMennonitesembracedtheemergingideology of pri-vateproperty.Theideologicalroots of contemporaryMen-nonitescanbetracedtotheSwissBrethren(inSwitzerlandandSouthGermany)andthe North GermanandNether-landsMennonites.Interactionwithnon-Mennonitesvarieswiththegroupinquestion.Forexample,theHoldemanstrictlylimitinterac-tionnotonlywithnon-Mennonitesbutwithmembers of otherMennonitegroups.TheGeneralConferenceMenno-niteChurchortheMennoniteBrethrenarelessconcerned,ifatall,withlimitinginteractionwithoutsiders.Relationswithgovernmentsandnon-Mennoniteshavefrequentlybeenstrainedduringwartimeasmostareconscientiousobjectors.During World War I, theywereseverelytreatedbytheUnitedStatesgovernmentandtheirneighborswhooftenperceivedthemasGermansympathizers.Insomecases,theywerefor-biddentheuse of theGermanlanguage,theirparochialschoolswereclosed,andtheirbarnsorhomespaintedyellow.Stilltoday,mostrefusemilitaryserviceandothersrefusetotakeoaths,vote,orserveinpublicoffice.SettlementsHistorically,theMennonitesweresettledaspeasantsonfeu-dalestates,asyeomanryonindependentfarms,andasarti-sansandmerchantsinthetowns of feudalEurope.Earlyinthemovement,manyweredrivenfromthetownsandforcedintoagriculturalareasandpursuits.Thecity of Danzig,forex-ample,refusedsomehabitation.AsMennonitesmigratedfromtheNetherlandsandotherplacesaroundEuropeandsettledinPrussia,Poland,andRussia,theyendeavoredtoes-tablishvillagesettlements.InPoland,theybecamedistin-guishedandwereknownasHollanderdorfer.Butasprivatepropertyinlandincreasinglyreplaced(feudal)usufructrights,thesetraditionalsettlementpatternsweredisrupted.Yet,witheachmove,theysoughtagaintoreestablishvillages,especiallyinRussia.In North America, afewvillagesettle-mentswereestablishedbutweresoonthreatened,astheyhadbeenelsewhere,byprivatepropertyinlandandprivatehouse-holdaccumulation.Onlyinthelessdevelopedareas of the world (inparticular,Belize)havethesevillagesettlementpat-ternssurvivedintothepresentday.Inrural North America today,Mennonitesaresettledinamannernotunlikeotherfarms-asdispersedprivatefamilyfarms.SwissMennonitesestablishedasettlementpatternknownastheHof.IntheJuraMountains of Switzerlandandinsouthernparts of Germanytheywereindependentyeo-manrywhosometimessettledcompactorclustervillages(Haufendorfer).TheSwissandGermanMennonitessettlinginPennsylvania,Ohio,Indiana,andKansaslivedonisolatedprivatefarms-Germantown,Pennsylvania,wasoneexcep-tion.AmongthelargestpopulationconcentrationstodayareLancasterCounty,Pennsylvania,andsouth-centralKansas.Throughoutthetwentiethcentury,increasingnumbers of Mennonitesin North America havesettledinurbanareas.Today,lessthanone-third of Mennonitesliveonfarms,one-thirdinruralcommunities(butnonfarm),andone-thirdinlargeurbanareas.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Fromtheirbe-ginnings,theMennoniteshavebeenknownfortheiragricul-turalskills.IntheNetherlandsandPrussiatheydrainedswampsandbuiltandmaintainedsophisticatedcanalsys-tems.TheSwissMennonitesbredexceptionallyproductivedairycattle.Intheeighteenthcentury,theRussianstatere-cruitedPrussianMennonitestoassistindevelopingagricul-tureintheUkraine.Somebecameknownfortheirdairyherds,merinosheepraising,andorchards,andtheRussianMennoniteswerepioneersintheproductionandmarketing of thefamoushardwinter(turkeyred)wheat,whichlaterbroughtthemtotheattention of landagentsintheUnitedMescaleroApache223paskanword.Thetermseemstohavebeenappliedbyoutsid-erstogroups of non-Puebloanhuntersandgatherers/foragerswhoenteredtheSouthwestatleastacouple of centuries,ifnotseveralcenturies,priortothemid-sixteenth-centuryar-rival of theSpanishconquistadores-explorers.Somefewcon-temporaryMescaleroaverthatthewordApachecouldhavecomefrom'abesh'zhi,atermreferringtothosewhocamefromabove(tothe north of) theBlackRockplace,whichisthoughttodaytobearoundYellowstone.TheMescalerorefertothemselvesas"N&"(ThePeople).Oftentheywillalsoin-cludeabandnameoralocationnametofurtherqualifytheiridentity,asin'Dzithinahndi"(MountainRidgeBandPeo-ple)or"Ch'laandi"(AntelopeBandPeople).Location.SinceMay27,1873,andtheestablishment of theirreservationbyexecutiveorder of PresidentU.S.Grant,theMescaleroApachehavelivedinsouth-centralNewMex-icobetween33°00'and33°23'Nand105°18'and105°56'W.Atthetime of Spanishcontact,theyrangedbetweensouthernColoradoandcentralChihuahua,MexicoandfromcentralTexastotheGilaRiverinNewMexico.Todaytheirreservationencompassesapproximately720squaremilesandvariesinelevationfrom3,400feettoslightlymorethan12,000feet.Terrainismountainouswithsomehighdesertplateaus.Thereisasummerrainyseasonandheavysnowfallmostwintersinthehigherelevations.Temperaturesrarelyex-ceed850Finsummer,andwintertemperaturesbelowfreez-ingarecommon.Demography.TheMescaleroApacheTribeincludesChiricahuasandLipans.Tribalfiguresciteslightlymorethan2,500(officialdesignation)enrolledmembersin1988.Thereisnobreakdownavailableonrelativenumbers of MescalerotoChiricahua,butpopularbeliefmaintainsthereareapprox-imatelyequalnumbers of thosetwogroups,withperhapstwodozenor ... ascommunityhealthrepresentativeswhoofferin-homeservicesandtraining.Additionally,peopleusetraditionalmedicineandblessingdancersandsingers.DeathandAfterlife.The world of humansisthe world of illusionandshadow;realityresidesintheother world of PowerandCreator.Upondeathasoulremainsclosetohomeforfourdays;ifaproperfuneralandburialisheld,thesoulisfreedtomakeitswaytotheLand of EverSummer,assomecallit.Thereisdisagreementaboutwhetherreincarnationispossible,althoughmosttraditionalpeoplebelieveitis.BibliographyForbes,JackD.(1960).Apache,Navajo,andSpaniard.Nor-man:University of OklahomaPress.Opler,MorrisE.(1983).'MescaleroApache."InHandbook of North AmericanIndians.Vol.10,Southwest,editedbyAl-phonsoOrtiz,41 9-4 39.Washington,D.C.:SmithsonianIn-stitution.Opler,MorrisE.,andCatherineH.Opler(1950).'Mesca-leroApacheHistoryintheSouthwest."NewMexicoHistori-calReview25: 1-3 6.Sonnichsen,CharlesL.(1972).TheMescaleroApaches.2nded.Norman:University of OklahomaPress.CLAIRERFARRER220Mennonites.DeathandAfterlife.Accesstoheavenwasnotpredeter-mined.Oneisassuredanafterlifeonlyafterhavingbeenadisciplinedmember of thecommunity.Historically,somehavegivenemphasistotheGemeindeintheirmortuarytradi-tionbyburyingtheirmembersintheorder of theirdying-deemphasizingfamilymembership.BibliographyDyck,CorneliusJ.(1981)AnIntroductiontoMennoniteHis-tory.Scottdale,Pa.:HeraldPress.Kraybill,PaulN.,ed.(1984)Mennonite World Handbook.Lombard,Ill.:Mennonite World Conference.TheMennonite Encyclopedia: AComprehensiveReferenceWorkontheAnabaptist-MennoniteMovement(195 5-5 9).4vols.Hillsboro,Kans.:MennoniteBrethrenPublishingHouse.Redekop,Calvin(1989).MennoniteSociety.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.Smith,HenryC.(1981)Story of theMennonites.Newton,Kans.:FaithandLifePress.Urry,James(1989).NonebutSaints:TheTransformation of MennoniteLifeinRussia,178 9-1 889.Winnipeg:HyperionPress.JEFFREYL.LONGHOFERMenomineeETHNONYM:MenominiOrientationIdentification.Thename of thisAmericanIndiangroup,"Menominee,"derivesfromtheChippewamanomini,mean-ing"wildricepeople."Location.IntheseventeenthcenturytheMenomineein-habitedtheregionboundedbyGreenBay,LakeMichigan,andLakeSuperior.Sincethemid-nineteenthcenturytheyhaveoccupiedareservationontheWolfRiverinnortheast-emWisconsin.Theregionisdominatedbynorthernhard-woodforests,mixedwithspruceforests north of theMeno-mineeRiver.Annualprecipitationaveragesaboutthirtyinchesperyear.Temperaturesmayreachashighas900Finthesummeranddipaslowas -3 0°Finthewinter.Demography.Thefirstestimates of theMenomineepop-ulationarelateandpostdatealongdeclinefollowingexpo-suretoEuropeandisease.In1820theMenomineenumbered3,900.In1834,followingasmallpoxepidemic,thepopula-tiondroppedto2,500.By1915thepopulationwasincreasingbecause of adecliningdeathrateandtheadditiontothetribalrolls of mixed-bloodsandpersonsmarriedtoMenomi-nee.TheMenomineenumbered2,917in1956andabout2,700inthelate1970s.LinguisticAffiliation.MenomineeisanAlgonkianlan-guage.Ithasbeenclassifiedasamember of theCentralAl-gonkiansubgroup,butisnotcloselyrelatedtoanyotherdis-tinctlanguageinthesubgroup.HistoryandCulturalRelationsInthemid-seventeenthcenturythenativegroupsneighbor.ingtheMenomineeincludedtheChippewatothe north, theWinnebagotothesouth,andtheSauk,Fox,andKickapootothewest.ThetribesthatmaintainedtheclosestrelationswiththeMenomineeuntilimmediatelypriortothereservationpe-riodweretheWinnebagoandChippewa.Intermarriagewiththesegroupswassoextensivethatcloselinkshavecontinuedthroughthemodernperiod.ContactwithFrenchfurtradersoccurredabout1667andwithJesuitmissionariesin1671.Ascloseallies of theFrench,theMenomineeprosperedinthefurtradeandby1736hadbecomeone of thedominanttribesintheregion.In1815theMenomineecameunderthecon-trol of theUnitedStates.Ataboutthistime,gameintheMenomineeterritorywasbeingrapidlydepleted,andconse-quentlytheMenomineebegancedingtheirlandstotheUnitedStates.By1854theMenomineehadcededall of theirlandsandwereremovedtoafour-hundred-square-milereser-vationalongtheupperWolfRiverintheheart of theirformerterritory.In1961federaljurisdictionovertheMenomineereservation,guaranteedbytreatyin1854,wasterminatedandthenrestoredin1973.SettlementsInaboriginaltimestheMenomineefollowedasemisedentaryseasonalvillagepatternorganizedaroundhunting,fishing,gathering,andhorticulture.Asaresult of Menomineein-volvementinthefurtrade,thevillagepatterndisintegratedandwasreplacedbyamorenomadicway of lifeorientedto-wardhunting,trapping,andtrading.WhentheMenomineewereremovedtotheirreservationin1854amoresedentarysettlementpatternwasrequired.ForahalfcenturytheMeno-mineedispersedwidelyacrossthereservation,butsince1900theyhavetendedtoconcentrateinthevillagecenters of NeopitandKeshena,thelatterbeingthelocationforthebuildingsandoperations of theU.S.IndianService.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.TheprecontactMenomineehadsmallgardensinwhichtheygrewsquash,beans,andmaize,buttheywerebasicallyhuntersandgatherers.Theyalsoharvestedwildriceandmadeextensiveuse of theresources of streams,particularlysturgeon.Hunt-ingwasdonebyindividualsandsmallgroups,withoccasionallargerhuntsfordeerandbison.AftercontactwiththeFrenchtheMenomineebecameheavilyinvolvedintrappingandtradingactivitiesandremainedsountiltheearlypart of thenineteenthcentury.Sincegameandfishwerenotavailableinsufficientquantitiesontheirreservation,after1854someMenomineeturnedtofarming,althoughthisneverprovedtobeasuccessfulactivity.Beginninginthelatenineteenthcen-Miwok239arts,buttherearefrequentinformalpresentations of Micro-nesiansinginganddancingatcommunitygatheringsandfamilysocialevents.Medicine.MedicalknowledgetraditionallywassharedfairlywidelyinMicronesiancommunities.Althoughsomein-dividualscouldgainareputationforbeingespeciallyknowl-edgeableinadministeringtherapeuticmassage,settingbones,practicingmidwifery,orpreparingherbalremedies,therewerenospecialisthealerswhowererecognizedandsupportedassuch.Bothmagicalandefficaciousaspects of medicaltreat-mentwereoftenusedtogetherandwereinseparableinactualpractice.AmongMicronesiansintheUnitedStates,thereisstillfrequentresorttonon-Westernexplanations of illnesscausationandtoalternativetreatments.DeathandAfterlife.ContemporaryMicronesianbeliefsabouttheafterlifeareasyncreticmix of Christianandindige-nousideas.Christiandogmaregardingrewardsandpunish-mentsintheafterlifeismoreexplicitlyformulatedthanindig-enousMicronesiannotions,butcorrespondswithandreinforcessomeindigenousbeliefsinspiritworldsbeneaththeseaandbeyondthehorizon.Experiences of spiritposses-sionandcommunicationfromthedeadareratherwidelybe-lievedandsometimesaregivenasanexplanationforunnat-uraldeathssuchassuicide.Funeralsareveryimportantnotonlyasoccasionsforcommunityandfamilyreintegrationin-volvingseveraldays of ceremonialfeastsandspeechesbutalsoasritualstomarkthedeparture of thedeadproperlyandtoputtheperson'sspirittorest.AmongmanyMicronesiansintheUnitedStates,greatexpenseisincurredtoreturnthebody of thedeceasedtohisorherhomeislandandtoprovideaproperburialonfamilyland.BibliographyHezel,FrancisX.,andMichaelJ.Levin(1987)."MicronesianEmigration:TheBrainDraininPalau,Marshalls,andtheFederatedStates."Journal of thePacificSociety10:1 6-3 4.Hezel,FrancisX.,andMichaelJ.Levin(1990)."MicronesianEmigration:BeyondtheBrainDrain."InMigrationandDe-velopmentintheSouthPacific,editedbyJohnConnell,4 2-6 0.PacificResearchMonographno.24.Canberra:NationalCentreforDevelopmentStudies,ResearchSchool of PacificStudies,AustralianNationalUniversity.LeonGuerrero,Ramon(1972)."AnExploratoryStudy of Life-StyleAdjustments of Guamanians."Master'sthesis,SanDiegoStateUniversity.Levin,MichaelJ.(1984).'PacificIslandersintheUnitedStates."PaperpresentedattheconferenceonAsia-PacificImmigrationtotheUnitedStatesHonolulu:East-WestPop-ulationInstitute.Munoz,FayeUntalan(1979)."AnExploratoryStudy of Is-landMigration:Chamorros of Guam."Ph.D.diss.,Univer-sity of California,LosAngeles.Shimizu,D.(1982)."MentalHealthNeedsAssessment:TheGuamaniansinCalifornia."Ed.D.diss.,University of Massa-chusetts,Amherst.Underwood,RobertA.(1985)."ExcursionsintoInauthenti-city:TheChamorros of Guam."InMobilityandIdentityintheIslandPacific,editedbyMurrayChapmanandPhilipS.Morrison.Specialissue of PacificViewpoint26:16 0-1 84.DONALDH.RUBINSTEINMissouriTheMissouri(Niutachi)livedin north centralMissourialongtheMissouriRiver,includingoneprobablevillageinSalineCounty.TheirdescendantsnowhavebeenassimilatedintoandlivewiththeOtoinafederaltrustareain north cen-tralOklahoma.TheyspokeaChiwereSiouanlanguage.BibliographyChapman,CarlHaley,andEleanorF.Chapman(1983).In-diansandArchaeology of Missouri.Rev.ed.Columbia:Uni-versity of MissouriPress.Edmunds,R.David(1976).TheOtoe-MissouriaPeople.Phoenix,Ariz.:IndianTribalSeries.MiwokTheMiwokareaPenutian-speakinggroup of AmericanIndi-answhoformerlyoccupiedthecoastalregion of present-dayCaliforniabetweenSanFranciscoandMonterey.In1800theMiwoknumberedabouttwenty-twothousand,buttheirnum-berswerereducedtofivethousandbythemid-nineteenthcenturyasaresult of diseaseandhardshipencounteredatthehands of theSpanish.Intheearlyeighteenthcenturythou-sands of MiwokwereforcedtosettleonSpanishmissionpostswheremany of themsuccumbedtodiseasesorwereworkedtodeath.Duringthemiddle of thenineteenthcen-turytheywereoverwhelmedbygoldseekers,furtrappers,ranchers,andsettlers.Bytheearly1900sthepopulationhaddeclinedtoaboutsevenhundredwhowerelocatedonseveralsmallrancheriaspurchasedforthembytheU.S.government.Inthelate1970stherewereaboutonehundredMiwoklo-catedonseveralCaliforniareservationsandprobablyseveraltimesthatnumbermixedwiththegeneralpopulation of Cali-fornia.TheMiwokwereprimarilysettledgatherersandhunterswhotraveledseasonallytoharvestwildplantfoods.Theirsta-plefoodwasacorns,butvariousothernutsandavariety of 240greens,berries,seeds,wildgrains,androotsweregatheredandaccountedformajorcontributionstothediet.AmongtheCoastMiwokkelpwasastaplefoodalongwithacorns.Gameanimalsincludeddeer,antelope,elk,bear,rabbits,bea-ver,squirrels,andquail.Fishingforsalmon,trout,sturgeon,andlampreyeelswasalsoimportantamongsomegroups,par-ticularlytheCoastMiwok.Miwoksocietywascharacterizedbyamoietyorganiza-tion,eachhalf of whichwasidentifiedwiththelandorwaterandarepresentativeanimal.Locallineagesegmentscooper-atedintheexploitation of economicresourcesandthecon-duct of certainceremonies.Politically,theMiwokwereor-ganizedintotribelets of villagesorhamlets.Eachtribeletoccupiedadefiniteterritoryandwasheadedbyachiefwhoinheritedhisofficepatrilineallyandwasresponsibleforcoor-dinatingacornharvests,settlingdisputes,andsponsoringcer-emonies.AmongtheCoastMiwokoverarchingtribalorgani-zationwaslacking.Instead,eachvillagewasheadedbyachiefwhosepositionwasnotinherited.Severaltypes of shamanswererecognizedinMiwoksoci-etyforthepurposes of curingsicknessanddiseaseanddivin-ingthelocation of gameanimalsandlostobjects.Shamansinheritedtheirpositionpatrilineally,andtheirskillsderivedfrominstructionbyanoldershamanandsupernaturalpowerobtainedthroughdreaming.BibliographyBates,C.(1984)'MakingMiwokBaskets."AmericanIndianBasketry4:1 5-1 8.Corrotto,EugeneL.(1973)MiwokMeansPeople.Fresno,Calif.:ValleyPublishers.Kroeber,AlfredL.(1925).Handbook of theIndians of Califor-nia.U.S.Bureau of AmericanEthnologyBulletinno.78,27 2-2 78,44 2-4 61.Washington,D.C.Levy,Richard(1978)."EasternMiwok."InHandbook of North AmericanIndians.Vol.8,California,editedbyRobertF.Heizer,39 8-4 13.Washington,D.C.:SmithsonianInstitu-tion.MohaveETHNONYMS:Amojave,Jamajabs,SoyopasOrientationIdentification.TheMohavewereafarmingpeoplewhosenameforthemselves,"Hamakhav,"hasbeentranslatedtomean"peoplewholivealongthewater."Inthe1970s,twothousandMohavelivedontheColoradoIndianReservationandtheFortMohaveReservation,bothlocatedalongtheColoradoRiverattheArizona-Californiaborder.Location.Aboriginally,theMohaveoccupiedbothsides of thelowerColoradoRiver,roughlytheregionalongtheborderbetweenthepresent-daystates of ArizonaandCalifor-nia.Thecenter of theirhomelandwastheMohaveValley.Mildwinters,hotsummers,andlowannualprecipitationcharacterizetheclimate of thisregion.Thecentralgeographi-calfeatureistheColoradoRiver,whichflowssouthwestthroughcanyonsandfloodplainstotheGulf of California.Beforetheriverwasdammedinthetwentiethcenturyitover-floweditsbankseachspring,depositingrichsiltontheflood-plainscultivatedbytheMohave.Caneandarrowweedandcottonwoodandwillowgrovesgrewalongtheriverbottoms.RabbitswerecommonatthelowerelevationsinhabitedbytheMohave,whilelargegamesuchasdeerwerescarce.Demography.TheMohavenumberedabout3,000in1770,4,000in1872,andonly1,050in1910.Thedramaticpopulationlossattheend of thenineteenthandbeginning of thetwentiethcenturieswasduetodiseaseandpovertystem-mingfromtheirsubjugationbytheU.S.governmentin1859.Thepopulationhadincreasedto1,500by1965andto2,000inthe1980s.linguisticAffiliation.TheMohavespeakadialect of theYumanlanguage,whichisclassifiedintheHokan-Siouanlanguagefamily.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheancestors of theMohavearebelievedtohavemigratedtotheMohaveValleyfromtheMohaveDesertwellbeforeEuro-peancontact,perhapsasearlyasA.D.1150.FirstWhitecon-tactwaswithSpanishexplorersin1604,butfromthattimeuntilthe1820stheMohaveremainedrelativelyfreefromandunchangedbyEuropeaninfluences.Inthe1820sEuropean-AmericantrappersandtradersenteredtheMohavecountry,andtheirencounterswiththeMohaveweresometimesvio-lent.In1858theMohaveattackedawagontrain of Whitesettlersinresponsepartlytointrusionsintotheirterritory.Ayearlatertheyweredealtadisastrousdefeatbyfederaltroops.TheysubsequentlywererelocatedtotheColoradoIndianReservation,establishedin1867,andtheFortMohaveIn-dianReservation,establishedin1880.TheMohavewereallies of theQuechanandYavapai,butenemies of theotherRiverYumanpeoples,theHalchidhoma,Maricopa,andCocopa.ThePimaandPapagowerealsocountedastraditionalenemies.Duringthenineteenthcen-turytheMohaveengagedinalongperiod of warfarewiththeirenemies,whichcametoanendwhentheyweredefeatedbythePimaandMaricopain1857.SettlementsMohavedwellingsconsisted of open,pole-framedramadasforuseinwarmweatherandlow,log-framed,thatch-roofedhousescoveredwithalayer of sandforuseinthewinter.Set-tlementswereneighborhoods of dispersedhomesteadssitu-atedabovethefloodplainswherecropswereplanted.Gener-ally,settlementswereseveralmilesapartfromeachother.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.TheMohaveplantedmaize,beans,pumpkins,andmelons.Therichsiltdepositedontheirfarmlandsbyspringfloodsmadecroprota-Maliseetunmarriedordivorcedmothers,andlack of employmentop...
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... 250NabesnaNabesnaTheNabesna(Nebesnatana,UpperTanana),anAthapaskan-speakinggroup,liveinthebasins of theNabesnaandChitanariversinsoutheasternAlaska.SeeTananaBibliographyGuidon,Marie-Francoise(1981).'UpperTananaRiverPot-latch."InHandbook of North AmericanIndians.Vol.6,Sub-arctic,editedbyJuneHelm,57 7-5 81.Washington,D.C.:SmithsonianInstitution.McKennan,RobertA.(1981).'Tanana."InHandbook of North AmericanIndians,Vol.6,Subarctic,editedbyJuneHelm,56 2-5 76.Washington,D.C.:SmithsonianInsti-tution.NanticokeTheNanticoke(Nentego),withtheConoy(Piscataway),livedontheeasternandwesternshores of ChesapeakeBayinMarylandandinsouthernDelaware.TheyspokeAlgonkianlanguages.TheirdescendantsnowliveintheNanticokeCommunityinSussexCounty,Delaware,inCanada,andwiththeDelawareinOklahoma.BibliographyFeest,ChristianF.(1978).'NanticokeandNeighboringTribes."InHandbook of North AmericanIndians.Vol.15,Northeast,editedbyBruce0.Trigger,24 0-2 52.Washington,D.C.:SmithsonianInstitution.NavajoETHNONYMS:ApachesdeNabaju,Dine,Navaho,Nabajo,NabajuDineh,Dinneh,OrientationIdentification.TheNavajoarealargeAmericanIndiangroupcurrentlylocatedinArizonaandNewMexico.Insixteenth-centurySpanishdocumentstheNavajoarereferredtosimplyas"Apaches,"alongwithalltheotherAthapaskan-speakingpeoples of theNewMexicoprovince.Themorespe-cificdesignation'ApachesdeNabaju"appearsforthefirsttimein1626andsporadicallythereafteruntiltheend of theseventeenthcentury.Fromabout1700on,thepeopleareal-wayscalled"Navajo"(or'Nabajo")inSpanishdocuments,andthenamehasbeenretainedthroughouttheAnglo-Americanperiod.Thesource of thenameisuncertain,butisbelievedtoderivefromaTewaPuebloIndianwordfor'culti-vatedfields,"inrecognition of thefactthattheNavajoweremoredependentonagriculturethanwereotherAthapaskanpeoples.Thespelling'Navaho"iscommoninEnglish-languageliterature,but'Navajo"isofficiallypreferredbytheNavajoTribeitself.Intheirownlanguage,however,theNavajorefertothemselvesas ... 1975ithadreacheditstraditionallevel,andithascontinuedtogrowsince.linguisticAffiliation.Thelanguage of the North AlaskanEskimosbelongstotheEskimobranch of theEskaleutlan-guagefamily.Morespecifically,itisanIMuitEskimolan-guage,whichisspokenfromBeringStraitacrossnorthern North America toGreenland.Within North Alaska,theMalemiutdialectisspokeninelevenvillages of theKotzebueSounddrainageandthreeontheshore of NortonSound,andthe North Slopedialectisspokenintheeightvillages north of KotzebueSound.HistoryandCulturalRelationsWhentheywerefirstencounteredbyEuropeansinthesec-onddecade of thenineteenthcentury,thepeoplewereorgan-izedinnineteenautonomoussocieties,ortribes.Theywel-comedthefewexplorersandshipbometraderswhoventuredintotheirareaaslongastheywereinterestedintrade.Other-wise,theytendedtobehostile,althoughbloodshedwasrare.RelationswithEuropeansimprovedwithmorefamiliarity.AgreaterthreattonativelifewasposedbyAmericanwhalersafter1848;overthenexttwodecadestheydecimatedthebowheadwhaleandwalruspopulations,whichpreviouslyhadbeenmajorsources of foodandotherrawmaterials.Inthe1870sthenativesthemselvesdecimatedthecariboupopula-tionwithnewlyintroducedfirearms.Widespreadfaminefol-lowed.Europeanepidemicdiseasesalsoarrivedaboutthistime,withcatastrophiceffect.Thedemographicdeclineandensuingchaosresulted inthedestruction of thetraditionalsocialboundariesandinextensiveinterregionalmovement of familiestryingtofindproductivehuntingandfishinggrounds.Inthelatenineteenthcentury,missionariesandminersmadetheirwaytotheregion.Betweenabout1900and1910,schoolswereestablishedatseverallocations.Thenewmission-schoolvillagessubsequentlybecamefocalpointsforthenatives,resultingeventuallyintheformation of twenty-twopermanentvillagesdistributedacrosstheirexpandedlate-nineteenth-centuryterritory.Domesticatedreindeerwereintroducedtofillthevoidleftbythenearlyextinctcari-bou,andreindeerherdingandfurtrappingbecamethebasis of aneweconomicorderlastinguntilthe1930s.ThefurtradecollapsedduringtheGreatDepression,andreindeerherdingdeclinedasthecariboupopulationbegantorecover.Welfarepaymentsandseasonalwageemploymentformen,usuallyfarfromhome,subsequentlybecamethemajorsources of cashincome,whilehuntingandfishingcontinuedtoprovidetherawmaterialsforfoodandsomeclothing.Increasingeco-nomicandpoliticalstability,combinedwithimprovedmedi-calcare,hasresultedinasteadypopulationincreasesince1910.Theperiod196 0-1 990hasseenmajoreconomicandso-cialchanges.TheAlaskaNativeClaimsSettlementAct(ANCSA)led ... as'colonies."Bothreservationsandcoloniespersisttothepresent,al-thoughfewareeconomicallywelldevelopedorself-sus-taining.SettlementsInaboriginalandearlyhistorictimes,theNorthernPaiutelivedbyhunting,gathering,andfishinginrecognizedsub-areaswithintheirbroaderterritory.Giventhatnaturalre-sourceswerenotequallydistributedacrossthelandscape,thereweresomevariationsinsettlementsystemsandsizes of localgroups.Thelargelakebasins(PyramidLake,WalkerLake)hadextensivefisheriesandsupportedpeopleinmostseasons of theyear.Majormarshes(Stillwater,Humboldt,SurpriseValley,WarnerValley,Malheur)alsoservedasset-tlementfoci.Withintheseareas,peopleusuallyresidedinmoreorlessfixedlocations,atleastduringthewinter.Theyestablishedtemporarycampsawayfromtheselocationsdur-ingspringandfallinordertoharvestseeds,roots,andifpres-ent,pifionnuts.Campsizesinsettledseasonsvaried,butprobablyfiftypersonsconstitutedthenorm.Duringperiods of greatermobilitytwoorthreefamiliesoftencampedto-gether(tentofifteenpersons).Inareasotherthanthosewithlakesormarshes,settlementswerelessfixed,withtheexcep-tion of wintercamps.IntheOwensValley,auniqueareafortheproximityofanumber of resources,settledvillages of onehundredtotwohundredpersonswerereported,alllocatedinthevalleybottom.Withtheestablishment of reservationsandcolonies,thesepatternsweregreatlyaltered.Clusteredhousingprevailsoncolonieswithasmalllandbase,andallot-ment of landsonreservationsallowsforamoredispersedpattern.Inaboriginaltimes,houses of differenttypeswerebuiltaccordingtotheseasonanddegree of mobility of thegroup.Thecommonwinterdwelling,especiallynearwetlandareas,wasadome-shapedorconicalhousemade of cattailortulematsoveraframework of willowpoles.Cookingwasdoneoutsidethehouseinanadjacentsemicircularwindbreak of brush,whichalsoservedasasleepingareaduringthesum-mer.Thewindbreakwastheprimaryshelterattemporarycamps,unlesspeoplechosetooverwinterinthemountainsnearcachedpffionreserves.Inthatcase,theybuiltamoresubstantialconicallogstructurecoveredwithbrushandearth.Inthe1870sthesetraditionalhousetypesgavewaytogabledone-totwo-roomsingle-familydwellings of boardsonreservationsandcolonies.TodaynearlyalltheseearlyhousesaregonefromIndianlands,replacedbymodemmuldroomedstructureswithallconveniences.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Inthepre-andimmediatelypostcontactperiods,theNorthernPaiutelivedbyhuntingavariety of largeandsmallgame,gatheringnu-merousvegetableproducts,andfishingwherepossible.Localseasonalroundswereconditionedbytheparticularmix of re-sourcespresent.Names of subgroups(suchas'trouteaters")oftenreflectedacommonsubsistenceitem,butnowherewasthenamedresourceusedtotheexclusion of amix of others.Somepeopletodayhuntandcollectafew of theirformerre-sources,butforthemostpart,theyareengagedinranchingandwagelaborandthuspurchasefood.Althoughthelargereservationssupportsomeagriculture,most of itisorientedtowardhayandgrainproductiontofeedcattle.Exceptfordogs,therewerenodomesticatedanimalsinaboriginaltimes.Today,horsesarecommoninareaswherecattleranchingispossible,andanumber of peoplekeepthemaspleasureani-mals.IndustrialArts.Aboriginalartsincludedextensiveworkinbasketry,andlessextensivelyincraftssuchasbeadmak-ing,featherwork,andstonesculpture.Basketswereprimarilyutilitarian,beingusedinharvestingandprocessingplantfoods,storage of foodandwater,trappingfishandbirds,andsoon.Beadsweremade of duckbones,localshells,andshellstradedintotheregionfromthewest.Featherworkingwasre-latedtothatcomplexinCaliforniaandincludedthemanu-facture of mosaicheadbandsandbeltsanddanceoutfits.Stonesculpturewasconfinedtosmokingpipesandsmalleffi-gies.PotterywaspresentonlyinOwensValley.Inthehistoricperiod,workinbuckskinandglassbeadsbecameprominent,astheinfluence of thePlainsCulturefilteredintotheregionfromthe north. Presentlybasketry,hideworking,andbeadingarethemostcommon,althoughallexceptbeadinghavede-clinedwithinthepasttwentyyears.Trade.Anactivetradeinshellswasmaintainedinaborigi-naltimeswithgroupsinCalifornia.Obsidiantraffickingwasalsoimportantinternally,asmajorsourceswerenotequallydistributed.SometradeinpinenutsforacornsoccurredacrosstheSierraNevada.Inhistorictimes,peoplesoldortradedbuckskinglovesandwashandsewingbasketstoranchersandtownspeople.AnactivemarketinfinebasketrydevelopedfortheMonoLakeandOwensValleypeoplefromtheturn of thecenturytothe1930s.Division of Labor.Intheprecontactperiod,menwerehuntersandfishermen,andwomen,plantfoodgatherers.Womenpreparedfoodsandrearedthechildren,althoughthelatterwasalsotheprovince of grandparents.Bothsexeshar-vestedpinenutsandcooperatedinhousebuilding.Inhistorictimes,menhavetakenprimaryresponsibilityforranchingdu-ties.Wagelaborwasdoneaboutequallybythesexesinearlyhistorictimesaswell...
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... percentfromViet-namarefromruralbackgrounds,thoughthisishigherforCambodiansandLaotians.Asmanyasone-halfhaveback-groundsinshopkeepingandsmall-scalemanufacturing;thesewereChineseeconomicspecializationsthroughoutSouth-eastAsia.Evenso,SoutheastAsiansoftenhavefeweroccu-pational,class,andlanguageresourcesthantypicalCanadi-ans,andthemajorityworkatrelativelyunskilled,poorlyremuneratedjobsinmanufacturingandintheprovision of foodandjanitorialservices.Still,withintwoyears of theirar-rival90percent of adultswereinthelaborforce.Womendoalmostallhouseholdwork,asinSoutheastAsia.Kinship,MarriageandFamilySouthAsiansourceculturesarecharacterizedbypatrilineal-ity,patrilocality,classandcasteendogamy,consanguineal(andwhererelevant,village)exogamy(someMuslimsex-cepted),arrangedmarriage,polygyny,familialgendersegrega-tion,patriarchy,maleinheritance,jointorextendedfamilyorganization,extensivefamilialeconomicpooling,andthesubordination of individualandcommunityconcernstothose of thefamily.Kinshiptermsvarybylanguage,ethnicgroup,andreligion,buttypicallyfolloweitheraHawaiianoranIroquoispattern.Lineagesareoftenacknowledgedbutarenotcorporate.Kinrelationsreflectstrongageandgendersta-tusdifferences.InCanada,keyfamilialrelationshavebe-comedeeplysymbolic of SouthAsians'continuitywithtradi-tion.Somearealso of greatpracticalandpsychologicalimportance.Themaintenance of extantfamilyrolesreducesthepsychologicalmarginality of immigrantadultsbroughtonbygreatshiftsinpublicsphereroles;chainmigrantsinevita-blystaywithrelativeswhileestablishingthemselves;house-Seminole313likecoffeeandsugar,sometimespayingwithcurrency,some-timesbartering.Today,almostalltransactionstakeplaceinstoreswithinthemoneyeconomy.Withtheadvent of wovenclothandthehand-crankedsewingmachineinthelatenine-teenthcentury,Seminolewomendevelopedadistinctiveclothingstylethatisthehallmark of theFloridaSeminoleeventoday.Thesale of Seminoleclothingrepresentsalargepart of theirtouristtrade.Womenalsomakedolls of pal-mettofiber,clothethemintheircolorfulfashions,andsellthemtotourists.Division of Labor.Thedivision of labortraditionallywasclear.menhunted,fished,engagedinwarfare,andmadetheirequipment.Womenraisedchildren,caredforthecamp,didthecultivating,andmadepotteryandbaskets.Todaythedi-visionisblurred.Somewomenhavebecomecattleownersandafewdriveheavymachinery;manymenengageinagri-culturalworkorraisecattle.Bothsexesfreelyparticipateinchildrearingandhouseholdchores.Withhighereducation,eithersexmayenterthelabormarketinavariety of occu-pations.LandTenure.Aboriginally,landwasheldinclanunitsorincommonaslandcultivatedunderthechieffortribaluse.ThesepracticescontinuedwherepossiblewhentheancestralIndiansweredrivenintoFlorida.Onthereservations,how-ever,wherestandardFloridahousingwasbuilt,theresidents of thehousespayforthemandareconsideredownersal-thoughthelandisintrust.Seminolelivingoffthereserva-tionsrentorownpropertiesasanyothercitizendoes.Privatepersonalpropertyispassedonastheownerseesfit.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheSeminolearosefromtribes of theSoutheasternmatrilinealcomplexandmaintainedma-triclansduringtheirflightintoFlorida.Theclanswererigidlyexogamousuntilafter World War11,andevennow,allknowtheirclanmembership.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Traditionalmarriagewasmatrilocal,andpoly-gyny-usuallysororal-occurreduntilwellwithinthetwenti-ethcenturywhenstatelawsbanningpolygynytookprece-dence.Mosttodayavoidmarriagewithintheirclan,withonlyafewbreakingtheexogamyban.Marriagewithmembers of outsidecommunitiesoccursnow,althoughmostSeminolestillmarrywithintheIndiangroup.Duringthelatenine-teenthcentury,outsidemarriagewaslookeduponwithgreatdisfavor,butmuchmixedmarriageoccurredearlieraswellasmarriagewithmembers of otherIndiantribesasthevariousSoutheasterngroupsjoinedtocreatetheSeminoleintheeighteenthcentury.Todayintermarriageiscommon.Divorcewassimpleandatthewish of eitherpartner.Unionsundermodemlawrequireformallegaldivorcefordissolution,buttherearemanyinformalliaisons of someduration.DomesticUnit.Thelocalgrouptodayusuallycomprisesnuclearfamilieswitholderrelativeswelcomefromeitherside,althoughrelatives of thewomanaremostcommon,resultinginamatrilocalextendedfamily.Alsocommonarevisitingrel-ativeswhomaystayforextendedperiods.Adoptionandfos-teringoccurbothtogiveacoupleachanceatparenthoodandtorelieveeconomicpressuresinlargefamilies.Incamps of chickees,anextrapersonorsocanbehousedbyconstructinganotherchickee,butinmodemhousingadditionalresidentsmakeforcrowdedconditions,andthedomesticgrouptendstobesmaller.Inheritance.Aboriginally,landwascontrolledthroughtheclansystem.Personalpropertycouldbepassedonaccord-ingtoindividualwishes.Todaytheclanscontrolnoproperty,andinheritanceisaccordingtolegalwillsorbystatelawunderintestacy.Exceptforhousesandautomobiles,thereislittleforanyonetoinherit.Socialization.Themother&apos ;s brotherwastheauthorityfig-ureduringtheearlyperiod.Hepunishedchildrenoccasion-allybywhippingbutmoreoftenbyscratchingthemwithgar-fishteeth.Lessseverepunishmentcameintheform of gossipandridiculebyfamilyandneighborsorostracism of themis-creant.One&apos ;s mother&apos ;s brotherisstillrespected,buttodayparentsareresponsibleforraisingchildren.Childrearingisgenerallypermissive.Increasinglytheschoolandchurchhavebecomeimportantagenciesinsocializingchildrentofitintooutsidesociety.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialandPoliticalOrganization.TheformalpoliticalstructuresfoundamongthetribesancestraltotheSeminolebrokeapartundertheduress of warfare,disease,andpopula-tionlossduringthemigrationintoFlorida.Populationmove-mentsmeantnewcombinationsinnewcommunities,andtheleaderseventuallybecamemenwhohadnoinheritedclaimtotheirpositions.Therole of chiefhadbeenpassedoninclans,butthatpracticeceasedastheresult of theextinction of someclansandthelack of suitableindividualsinothers.Leadersbecamemenwhowerewilling,competent,andac-ceptable.Osceolaisanexample of suchaleader.UndertheIndianReorganizationAct of 1934,theSemi-nolecreatedapoliticalunitin1957-theSeminoleTribe of Florida.In1962asmallergroup of SeminoleorganizedtheMiccosukeeTribe.AlthoughnotallSeminolebelongtooneortheother,mosthavejoined.TheSeminoleTribe of Floridahasthreereservations-Hollywood,Brighton,andBigCy-press;theMiccosukeeTribehasasmallreservationontheedge of theEverglades.SocialControl.Socialcontrolintheclanstraditionallylayinthehands of maternaluncles.Gossip,ridicule,andisola-tionareusedtocorrectantisocialbehavior.Supernaturalsanctionswereimportantpriorto World War I, butarenolongerso.Conflict.Followingtheformation of theSeminoleasaunit,themajorconflictwaswithoutsidersandresultedinthethreeSeminolewars.Duringthisperiod,theSeminolere-maininginFloridagreatlydisapproved of thosemovingtoOklahoma.Inrecenttimes,intragroupconflicthasbeenin-significantexceptinsofarasthemoretraditionallyorientedpeopledidnotjointheSeminoleTribe of Floridabutcreatedtheirowngroup,theMiccosukeeTribe.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Ancestralreligionwasanimisticwithnaturalforcesconsideredfarmorepotentthanhumanones.Seminoletodayhavescantmemory of traditionalbeliefs,al-320SlaveyInheritance.Traditionally,upondeath,individuallyownedpersonalpropertywasplacedwiththecorpse of thede-ceasedpersonorwasdestroyedorwaskeptbyrelativesasme-mentos.Ifpropertywasinherited,itwasusuallybyaspouseorchildontheinformalbasis of needandappropriateness.TheCanadiangovernmenthasadministeredthetransmission of registeredtrappinglinesfromfathertoson.Socialization.Like-sexedparentsandtherest of theimme-diatefamilywerefundamentaltosocialization,whichwasac-complishedwithgreatleniency.Thevalues of industrious-ness,individualautonomy,generosity,emotionalrestraint,andcontrolwereencouraged.Becausenoninterference,or"mindingone&apos ;s ownbusiness,"wasvalued,interveningwithanother&apos ;s childrenwasrare.Disapproval of self-glorification,stinginess,bossiness,gossiping,anger,laziness,fighting,andillicitsexualcongresswasexpressed.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Bilateralkinship,marriage,andfriendshipprincipleswerecentraltoSlaveysocialorganiza-tion.Kinshipandsocialdistancewereinformallycomputed,andrights,duties,andobligationsattenuatedasdistancein.creasedinthisfundamentallyegalitariansociety.PoliticalOrganization.TheSlaveywereorganizedintomoreorlessformalbands.Localbandswerenormallykin-basedandleadershipwasprovidedbymenpossessingspecialabilitiesashuntersandprovidersalongwithunusualgeneros-ity.Thesuccessfulhunter&apos ;s obligationtodistributehiskillamongthelocalgroupwasabasicfact of Slaveysocialand,ultimately,politicallife.Theleadership of successfulpro-viderswasinformalandsituational,andceasedwhentheirskilldiminishedortheyfailedintheirdistributiveobligations.Regionalbandswerefocusedontheterritoriestheyinhabitedandexistedasgroupsonlywhenrelativelylargegroupscametogetheratconcentratedresourcesites.Theylackedleadersandwerenotnecessarilycomposed of localbands.TheSlavey"tribe"wasanonfunctioningcategory of culturalandlinguis-ticidentity.SocialControl.Socialsanctionswerediffuseandinfor-mal.Gossip,thereduction of aidandsupport,"talkingto,"andavoidanceorwithdrawalfromunpleasantpersonswerethenorm.Perhapsthemostextremesanctionwasbanish-ment.Sorceryorthethreat of sorcerymayhaveplayedaroleinsocialcontrol.Conflict.Raidingandwarfareweremattersforfamiliesandlocalgroups,notregionalgroupsortribes.Revengeforthedeath of akinspersonorforthetheft of awomanwastheprimarymotive.Disputesoverwomenweremorefrequentthandisputesoverresourcesitesorextractiveresources.ThefurtradeledtohostilitieswiththeCreeandChipewyan. world. Animalor"medicine"spiritsoccupiedthetraditionalSlaveyuniverse.Today,theChristianGodandotherWest-ernsupernaturalsarealsorecognized.Individualscouldob-tainpowerfromanimalspirits.ReligiousPractitioners.Shamans(usually,butnotalwaysmen)dreamedandcameto"know"aboutthings.Throughdreamingtheyacquiredpower,whichwasusedforcuringandforsuccessatvarioussubsistenceactivitiessuchashunting.Acquiredpowermightalsobeusednegatively.Shamanistictechniques ... parentcountriesareusuallystrong.Relationsbe-tweenthevariousethnicandnationalgroupsarenotstronglydeveloped,however,exceptwherereligiousandotherneedsrequirethem.Thesharing of commonorcloselyrelatedlan-guagesalsotendstostrengthenrelationsamonggroups,par-ticularlywhenthegroupsaresmall.IncontrasttotheSouthAsians,mostSoutheastAsianshavecometotheUnitedStatessince1965,particularlysincetheend of thewarinVietnamin1975.Theearlierimmi-grantsinthisperiodwereusuallywell-educatedskilledwork-ers.Alargeproportion of theimmigrantssince1975,how-ever,havebeenpoorlyeducatedandunskilledfarmworkersandlaborersescapingfromtheirparentareas.Aftertheirini-tialspreadacrosstheUnitedStates,mosthaverelocatedtomajorcitiesandothercoreareas,particularlyontheWestCoast,inordertobenearrelativesandtohavebetteraccesstojobsandpublicwelfareassistance.AdjustmenttolifeintheUnitedStateshasbeendifficultformost of theselaterim-migrantssincetheyhadneitherdesirednorplannedtoemi-grate.Ingeneral,thereisagreaterlikelihood of quickerandeasieradjustmentamongvoluntarySoutheastAsian-Ameri-324SouthandSoutheastAsians of CanadaReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Thesegroupsallparticipateintheirtra-ditionalreligionsdescribed.Onlybeliefsandpracticesspe-cifictoCanadaarenotedhere.AmongSouthAsians,theone-thirdwhoareSikhhavebeenhighlycommittedtotheirfaith.Since1908theyhavefoundedgurdwaras(temples)allacrossCanada.Eachisorga-nizationallyindependentanddependentonlocalfinancialsupport.Whereseveralexist,membershipoftenreflectsclass,caste,sourcelocale,politicalorientation,ordegree of accul-turation.SikhreligiouspracticeandbeliefarenotmarkedlydifferentthaninurbanIndia,saveforminoraccommoda-tionsmadetoCanadiandress,workroutines,andthelike.AsinIndia,thereisnoconsensusastowhatmarksoneasa"trueSikh,"andthiscanbeverycontentious.Symbolic"retradi-tionalization"amongSikhshasoccurredsince1984inre-sponsetoperceivedstateoppressioninPunjab,andmoreadultmennowwearthefivekakkasthatmarktheirKhalsacommitment.Instruction of childreninreligionandinGur-mukhiscriptisincreasingandintergenerationaltransmission of thereligionishigh.About25percentareHindus.HinduisminIndiaandthenon-Westerndiasporaishighlyvariableandembeddedineverydayfamilyandcommunitylife.Assuch,ithasfacedchallengesbecomingestablishedinCanada.Adultscontinuewiththeirprivatedevotions,andmostmaintainsomedietaryrestrictionsandparticipateinimportantcalendricalcelebra-tions.Commensalandassociationalruleslimitingcontactwithothershavelargelydisappeared.MultiuseHindutem-pleshavebeenestablishedinmajorcitiesandofferlife-cycleandweeklyservices.ItisuncleartowhatdegreeHinduismisbeingtransmittedtotheCanadian-born. Of the2 5-3 0percentwhoareMuslims,Ismailishavethemostwell-developedreligiousinstitutions.ComposingaShiasectfollowingthespiritualleadership of theAgaKhan,theyhaveorganizedjamatkhanaforworshipeverywheretherearepractitioners.Otherwisehighlyacculturated,Ismailiseffec-tivelyhavetransmittedtheirreligioustraditiontothesecondgeneration.AlmostallotherSouthAsianMuslimsareSunnis.Saveforwhereparticularethnicornationalgroupsarenumerous,theyuseandsupportmultiethnic/nationalmosqueswithArabsandothers.Theyalsoseemtobeeffec-tiveinteachingtheirreligiontotheirchildren.Roughly1 0-1 5percentareChristianfromKeralaandGoainIndia,SriLanka,Guyana,Trinidad,Fiji,Mauritius,andPakistan.Christianstendtobecomemembers of estab-lishedCanadiancongregations,andtoadjusttheirreligiouspracticeaccordingly.About2percentareSinhaleseThera-vadaBuddhists.AmongtheSoutheastAsians,mostVietnameseandal-mostallChineseareatleastnominallycommittedtoamix of Confucianism,Taoism,andMahayanaBuddhism.MostVi-etnameseparticipateinreligiouslylinkedcelebrationssuchastheNewYearandVeneration of theDead,andVietnameseBuddhisttempleshavebeenestablishedinseveralplacesinCanada.Chinesetypicallyusethereligiousinstitutions of ex-tantChinesecommunities.ManyVietnameseandChinesecontinuetopracticeancestorvenerationintheirhomes.Asignificantminority of VietnameseareCatholics,wholargelyhavejoinedmainstreamcongregations.LaoandKhmer,andsomeLaotianandCambodianChineseareTheravadaBud-dhists.Fewinnumber,theyhavenotestablishedmanyper-manenttemplesoutside of Quebec.LaoandKhmermonks,however,circulateamongcommunities.Arts.SouthAsianshavemadeaconsiderablecommit-menttotheartsinCanada.InstructioninIndianclassicalandfolkdanceiswidespread,andSouthAsianfolk,religious,classical,andpopularmusicgroupshavebeenestablishedinmanyplaces.SouthAsianCanadianliteratureinEnglishandinvernaculariswelldeveloped.AmongSoutheastAsiansaremanywithliteraryandartisticskills,especiallyinpoetryandsinging.Instructionintheartsis,however,notyetextensive.SeealsoEastAsians of CanadaBibliographyBuchignani,Norman,andDoreenIndra(1985).ContinuousJourney:ASocialHistory of SouthAsiansinCanada.Toronto:McClelland&Stewart.Chan,KwokB.,andDoreenIndra,eds.(1987)Uprooting,LossandAdaptation:TheResettlement of IndochineseRefugeesinCanada.Ottawa:CanadianPublicHealthAssociation.Dorais,Louis-Jacques,KwokB.Chan,andDoreenIndra,eds.(1988).TenYearsLater:IndochineseCommunitiesinCanada.Montreal:CanadianAsianStudiesAssociation.Dorais,Louis-Jacques,LisePilon-Le,andNguyenHuy(1987).ExileinaColdLand:AVietnameseCommunityinCanada.NewHaven:YaleSoutheastAsianStudies.Israel,Milton,ed.(1987).TheSouthAsianDiasporainCan-ada:SixEssays.Toronto:MulticulturalHistorySociety of Ontario.Kanungo,RabindraN.,ed.(1984).SouthAsiansintheCana-dianMosaic.Montreal:KalaBharatiFoundation.NORMANBUCHIGNANISouthandSoutheastAsians of theUnitedStatesETHNONYMS:SouthAsians:AsianIndians,Bangladeshis,Bhutanese,EastIndians,Nepalese,Pakistanis,SriLankans;specificculturalgroups-Gujaratis,Sikhs,Tamils.SoutheastAsians:Burmese,Cambodians,Indonesians,Laotians,Ma-laysians,Thais,Vietnamese;specificculturalgroups-Chinese of SoutheastAsia,Hmong,Indos,Khmer,MalaysOrientationIdentification.ThetermsSouthAsianandSoutheastAsianrefertobroadethnicandculturalcategories,eachcomprised of anumber of ethnicandnationalgroups.AlmostallSouthSeaIslanders309LinguisticAffiliation.ThedistinctiveCreolelanguagespokenbySeaIslandershaslongattractedresearchers.ThetermsGullahorGeecheeareconventionallyusedtorefertothislanguage(althoughnottoSeaIslandersthemselves,bywhomtheyaretakenasterms of abuse).LinguistsbelievethatGullahistheonlysurvivingform of ageneralizedPlanta-tionCreolewhichatonetimewaswidespreadinthesouthernUnitedStates.Creoleundoubtedlyoriginatedasapidgin,ortradelanguage,fromthepracticalnecessityforcommunica-tionbetweenAfricansandEuropeansengagedintheWestAfricancoastaleconomy.GullahisatrueCreoleinthatitdiffersfromotherAfricanAmericandialects of English,whichdonotvaryfromthestandardinphonology,vocabu-lary,orsyntaxandarethusintelligibletospeakers of thestan-darddialect.Creolelanguages,ontheotherhand,maybesimilartothe'primary"languageinvocabularybutdiffersig-nificantlyingrammarandsyntax;whiletheGullahlexiconiscomposed of mostlyEnglishwords,itsgrammaticalrulesaredemonstrablyclosertoWestAfricanlanguagessuchasEwe,Mandinka,Igbo,Twi,andYoruba.Itisonthebasis of thesegrammaticalfeaturesandonthelack of intelligibilitytoEng-lishspeakersthatGullahisconsideredalanguageinitsownrightandnotaregionaldialect of English.SeaIslanders,however,speakavariety of EnglishdialectsaswellasusingGullahasthefirstlanguageathome.Choice of languageusedvarieswithsocialcontext,with"true"or"deep"Gullahreservedfortheprimarycommunity.SeaIslandersusevariousdialects of BlackAmericanEnglishintheireconomicorbu-reaucraticdealingswithnon-Islanders.Itisimportanttonotethatthereisconsiderableambivalenceattachedtotheuse of Gullahinpubliccontextsatwhichoutsidersarepresent.Theuse of thelanguageisnegativelysanctionedbymainlanders,bothAfricanAmericanandWhite,asdenotingbackward-ness,poverty,andrurallack of sophistication.Tobecalleda"Gullah"or"Geech"istobeinsulted,inferringthatonecanneither"talkright"norunderstandwhatotherssay.WiththerecentincreaseinWhitetourismhascomeincreasingcurios-ityaboutthelanguage,andtouristsoftenexpresssurprisethatSeaIslanderscan"speakEnglish."Islandersfrequentlyfindthatvisitorsspeakslowly,loudly,anddeliberatelytothem,asiftheyweredeaformentallyincompetent,andtheyquiterightlyresentsuchtreatment.YetGullahremainstheprimarylanguageassociatedwithhome,family,andaninde-pendentlife-style,inspite of theobviousimpact of massmedia,schools,andout-migration.ChildrenarestilltaughtGullahasafirstlanguage,andJones-Jacksonspeculatesthat,forthenearfutureatleast,"someversion of Gullahwillprob-ablycontinuetoexist."HistoryandCulturalRelationsThestrategiclocation of theSeaIslandsisreflectedinthehistory of conflictintheregion.PortRoyalSoundisthedeepestandmostaccessibleharborontheeastcoastsouth of ChesapeakeBay;consequently,Spanish,French,andEng-lishcolonizersallcompetedforcontrol of thearea.Fiercere-sistancebytheindigenousYemasseepeoplesmadestableEu-ropeansettlementonthesouthernmostislandsimpossibleuntiltheearlyeighteenthcentury.EarlyBritishplanterscamefromBarbados,bringingwiththemaplantationsystembasedonmonocropagricultureandAfricanslavery.Theoriginalcashcrop,indigo,wasreplacedbylong-staplecottonaftertheAmericanRevolution.ThisSeaIslandcottonproducedhugefortunesfortheWhiteplantersandtheregiondevelopedareputationforwealthandluxury.AllthiscametoanendonNovember6,1861,whenthefederalfleet,moving north toblockadeCharleston,attackedthetwosmallConfederatefortsonHiltonHead.Theplant-ersevacuatedinland,leavingbehindtheirslavesandtheyear&apos ;s cottoncropstillinthefield.Thisconstellation of eventssetthestageforthefamous"SeaIslandExperiment"(orPortRoyalExperiment),afederalprogramtodeterminewhetherornotex-slavescouldfunctionasfree,small-holdingcitizens.Theexperiment,sponsoredbythesecretary of thetreasuryandadministeredbyayoungabolitionistlawyerfromBoston,envisionedfreedslavesworkingforwagesongovern-ment-ownedcottonplantationswhilebeingpreparedforeventualcitizenship.Missionaries,teachers,andagriculturalspecialistswereprovidedbynorthernbenevolentsocieties,bringinganinflux of young,well-educated,fiercelyabolition-istmenandwomenfromthe North behindthebattlelines of theCivilWar.AstheReconstructionpromise of "40acresandamule"wasrevealedasamyththroughouttherest of theSouth,SeaIslanders,workingwithnorthernadvisers,man-agedtogainlegaltitletomost of thelandtheyhadformerlyworkedasslaves.Inthewords of WillieLeeRose,theSeaIs-landExperimentwasindeeda"rehearsalforreconstruction"andone of thefewplacesintheSouthwhereAfricanAmeri-cansemergedfromthewarwithasecurelandbase.Althoughmanyresearchershavestressedthephysicalisolation of theSeaIslandsandimplythattheirpeoplehavebeen"cutoff'sincethenineteenthcenturyfrommainlandU .S. history,thisisclearlynotthecase.Inactuality,theis-landshaveneverbeenfullyself-sufficient,andperiodicmalelabormigrationhasbeenanimportantsource of incomesincebollweevilinfestationsattheturn of thecenturyde-stroyedsmall-holdercottonproduction.SeaIslandershavehistoricallyproducedandsoldagriculturalproductsinthemarkets of citieslikeSavannahandCharleston,andthemenhaveworkedascommercialfishermenandlongshoremenupanddowntheeasternseaboardforgenerations.Whatisuniquetotheislandcommunitiesisnottheirgeographiciso-lationbuttheireconomicandculturalautonomy.Theowner-ship of landappearstobethecrucialvariableinSeaIsland-ers'abilitytochoosewhatoff-islandworktheywillacceptandforhowlong.Many of theislandsinstitutedtheirownlegalandcriminalcodes,administeredthroughthe ... peoplewereacceptedaspoliticalrefugeesduring197 9-1 980,andthroughgovernmentandprivatesettlementschemesinitiallywerespreadacrossthecountry.Manysoonmigratedtomajorcitiesinsearch of relatives,communitysupport,andjobs.Subsequentimmigrantshaveprimarilybeentherelatives of thosealreadyhereandhavejoinedex-tantbig-citycommunities.Bothintra-andintergrouprela-tionswereinitiallychaoticandunderrapidflux.Eachmajorethnoculturalgroup-Vietnamese,VietnameseChinese,Cambodians,andLaotians-essentiallywenttheirownway,sharingneitherlanguagenoridentity.VietnameseChinesesoonestablishedcontactswithotherChinese.MostSouth-eastAsiansatfirstfoundthemselvesonthereceivingend of well-intentionedbutpaternalistic,highlyasymmetricalrela-tionswithCanadiansinvolvedinfacilitatingtheirsettlement.Theserelationsdidnotpersist,andmanySoutheastAsiansaresociallyandlinguisticallyisolatedfromthose of otherbackgrounds.School-agechildren,though,havedevelopedwide-rangingsocialrelationswiththeirpeers.Activepreju-diceagainstSoutheastAsiansisminimal,althoughtheirster-eotypicalportrayalasrefugeesisoccasionallyproblematic.EconomyUntilthe196 0s mostSouthAsiansinthelaborforcewereSikhmen,whoworkedatblue-collarjobsinBritishColumbia&apos ;s lumbermillsandloggingcamps.Immigrantse-lectionpreferencesforprofessionalsinthe196 0s and197 0s andforskilledblue-andwhite-collarworkersthereafterwid-enedSouthAsians'range of occupations.Extensiveimmi-grantsponsorshipalsobroughtmanyunskilledpeopletoCanada.SouthAsiansspantheeducationalspectrum;30percentclaimaB.A.degreeormore,and20percenthavelessthananinth-gradeeducation.Thereisagreateducationaldisparitybetweenwomenandmen.Todayaveryhighpropor-tion of women(70percent)andmen(9 0-9 5percent)areeconomicallyactiveoutsidethehome-aremarkableshiftfrompatriarchalsourcecultures,wherefewwomenareinthepaidworkforce.One-third of menareinhighlyskilledoccu-pations,andanotherthirdareinprimaryandsecondaryin-dustries.Womenareinvolvedinclerical,servicedelivery,fab-rication,andhealth-relatedwork.Womenperformvirtuallyallhouseholdtasks,asinsourcecultures.SouthAsianshaveachievedatleastanormativeCanadianmaterialstandard of living,compensatingforimmigrantdisabilitieswithclassre-sources,extensivefamilialeconomicpooling,andcommunitysupport.SouthAsianshavestrongentrepreneurialtraditions,andsmall-scaleSouthAsiancommercialactivitiesarewelldeveloped.Thesearechieflycommunity-basedstorefrontbusinessessuchasretailstores,travelandinsuranceagencies,servicestations,andrestaurants.SomeSouthAsiansarealsoinvolvedinlargerscalemainstreambusinesses,especiallyIsmailis,otherGujaratis,andSikhs.ForcedmigrationhaslimitedSoutheastAsianeconomicoptions.BySoutheastAsianstandardsmostpeoplearemid-dleclassandcomparativelywelleducated(claimingonaver-agetenyears of education).Fewerthan15...
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