Cultures taught in k 16 chinese programs

Chapter Representations of Culture in Chinese Language Textbooks for the K-16 Chinese Language Learners in the United States Ying Li Author Note Ying Li, Department of Bicultural and Bilingual Studies, The University of Texas at San Antonio This research was conducted as part of the dissertation research project I would like to thank Dr Peter Sayer for his expert advice and encouragement, and Dr Juliet Langman, Dr Becky Huang, Dr Armando Trujillo and Dr Min Li for their extraordinary support in this research process Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Ying Li, Department of Bicultural and Bilingual Studies, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249 Contact: Ying.Li@utsa.edu Abstract The importance and inseparability of language learning and cultural study has been widely discussed and agreed upon in the field of Chinese as a Foreign Language Teaching However, the concept of culture that is embedded in Chinese language teaching needs to be further defined, especially as Chinese learning and teaching has expanded rapidly in various cultures By conducting discourse analysis and content analysis of the most popular Chinese foreign language textbooks, the current study identified the representations of culture learned by heritage, non-heritage, and multilingual Chinese learners in K-16 education in the United States There are at present 768 programs that provide Chinese teaching for American students After calculating the frequency of the books used for these programs, 16 Chinese textbooks or book series were selected for data analysis Cultural capital is recognized as a complex set of practices for the learners with diverse identities The cultural representations are categorized as four types: material culture, institutional culture, behavior culture, and social ideology This study provides a foundation to inform policymaking, curriculum and material development, and testing for Chinese language teaching, Keywords: Language and Culture, Chinese Language Acquisition, Heritage and Non-heritage, Identity and Language Learning, K-16 Education Introduction Language teaching is not merely about language itself From the perspective of sociolinguistics, language teaching and learning reflect a rich diversity of linguistic backgrounds Language learners and educators bring to the classroom not only their languages but also different varieties of the target language and culturally learned ways of using this language Chinese teachers also face the challenging task of having to respect linguistic diversity while promoting the “common” standards in other regions Due to historical and political reasons, the learning of standard Chinese can vary in different countries and regions In the United States, there are multiple styles of Chinese language programs established based on their situations, which makes their standards vary widely The programs can be categorized as Chinese as a Foreign Language (CFL) programs in the K-12 public and private schools, after school heritage programs, programs in college and universities, government supported training programs, online programs, and Confucius Institute programs (Liu, 2010; Yao, 2009) As Yao (2009) indicated, "the trend of Chinese language learning programs in the U.S is gradually established more and more in the primary schools and secondary schools The starting age of learning Chinese is getting younger and younger" (p 9) Because primary and secondary schools have continued to initiate Chinese programs extensively, we can assume that in the future, Chinese programs for beginners in the college and university level may decrease, and the connection between the knowledge of Chinese learned in the elementary and secondary school programs and the college and university programs will be emphasized (Hsia, 2014) Therefore, it is necessary to consider this situation in advance and provide relevant suggestions to language teachers, policy makers, and textbook designers working in this field Some questions that we should think about when talking about Chinese teaching and learning: what kind of Chinese knowledge are actually being learned and promoted in these different programs? How language educators connect this knowledge among the different levels? Do we still teach college students the same knowledge that are learned in primary and secondary level? How should language educators assess the language knowledge and what components (besides language itself) should we test? These questions highlight the importance of the current study I will first explore the present Chinese program types, the situation of culture teaching, and the textbooks used in the Unites States by analyzing the data collected through various channels to reveal the cultural practices and pedagogies used to address the needs of the leaners with different levels and identities Then I will discuss the results after analyzing the cultural components reflected in the textbooks that most commonly used in different levels (K-12 and 13-161) I see textbooks as a significant media in the language learning contexts First, textbooks provide official knowledge of what the Chinese community wants its language learners to acquire Second, textbooks also frame Chinese society through implicitly describing how things happen, what things happen, how native speakers or people with other identities communicate and behave, and what result people expect to see, and so forth Through textbooks, language learners construct their identity by learning the language within the ideal language community – who “we” are or who “we” are not Analysis of textbooks provides a lens through which we can examine what might be called, a community’s deeper or hidden social, political, and cultural curriculum (Williams, 2014) Literature Review Conceptualization of Culture from Western and Chinese Perspectives Four years of post-secondary in college or university To capture and define what culture is has been a complicated task The phenomenon has been defined in accordance with many disciplines, such include anthropology, sociology, psychology and other social sciences, in which each discipline places an emphasis on one specific aspect of culture over another There are in general agreements that human culture is acquired or created by man as a member of society and that is communicated largely by language (Bidney, 1944) Tylor (1958) defined culture, “taken in its wide ethnographic sense, is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, moral, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society” (p 1) Boas (1901) stated, “culture embraces all the manifestations of social habits of a community, the reactions of the individual as affected by the habits of the group in which he lives, and the products of human activity as determined by these habits” (p 11) Benedict (1931) referred to culture as “the complex whole which includes all the habits acquired by man as a member of society” (p 806) These anthropologists maintain that culture consists of acquired capabilities, habits or customs Culture is a quality or attribute of human social behavior and has no independent existence of its own (Bidney, 1944) Other anthropologists such as Marett, Redfield, and Osgood, defined culture in terms of “communicable intelligence” (Marett, 1928), “conventional understandings” (Redfield, 1941), and “communicated ideas” (Osgood, 1940) These definitions reveal the distinguished nature of culture as communicative knowledge Culture is also conceived objectively as the social heritage Social heritage is the sum of the historical achievements or products of human social life which has been transmitted in the forms of a tradition from one generation to another (Bidney, 1944) As Boas (1901), Sapir (1931) and Dixon (1982) mentioned, culture consists of material artifacts and non-material customs and ideals Naylor (1996) further indicated three different forms of culture: ideal culture, real culture, and construct culture “Ideal culture” are learned, both formally and informally taught to aspiring members of culture groupings by those who already know them and are already members of the group Ideal culture is the product of the culture group deciding what needs to be taught and learned by new members (p 29) Real culture: is played out on an individual basis They think as they have been taught and what they know must be done insofar as what they interpret that to mean or many capable of doing Most of people not live with what they have been taught in their daily life They may learn ideal culture, but they must function and live in the real culture (p 32) The construct culture is when people attempt to describe culture for someone else (p 33) Naylor further mentions that real culture “exists as the sum of all the beliefs, behaviors, and productions of all those individuals making up the group”, so “few people will ever know all of their culture(s)” and “the more complex the system, the more likely that members of the group will know just bits and pieces of it”(p 37) On the other hand, people learn ideal culture, but they also learn “how far one can deviate from the ideals and still be accepted as a member of the group” (p 37) Thus, culture is constructed by individuals based on their day-to-day life as well In his model of cultural change, Naylor emphasizes that the process of change is in the interaction between environments and cultures, individuals and groups, and between cultures (p 38) Humans learn and use culture to respond the pressures and limitations of the environment People may accept the new trait or idea “when they are motivated to so by virtue of a felt need”, or “provide status or prestige or political or economic advantages”, but “the fit of the change to existing patterns is a significant element” (p.57) This is to say people also have the right to choose whether they accept the change or not In other word, people have the flexibility to use the pieces of the new culture to apply to their own life and to fit the target culture patterns The term culture first appeared in Chinese literature more than 2,000 years ago In the book, I Ching, culture was identified in the sentence, “observing the culture and teaching the folks.” The traditional concept of “culture” is an opposite term for “the military power” It referred to the non-material customs and ideals Liang (1949) defined culture as “all things that people live with” He further mentioned that “historical concepts about culture which conclude characters, literature, ideology, education, publication, and so forth, are from a narrow view Other aspects, such as economic and politics, also need to be included” (p 6) Chinese culture is “the indigenous culture which is not inherited from other culture” (p 7) He generalized fourteen characteristics of traditional Chinese culture, such as “integration and assimilation of multiple ethnic groups”, “pragmatic religious beliefs”, “patriarchal clan culture and society”, “filial piety culture”, “hermit culture”, and so forth His summary of the traditional culture is more from a political and socio-cultural view Contemporary studies on Chinese culture have developed its components Cheng (2003) identified four levels of Chinese culture: material culture, institutional culture, behavior culture, and spirit culture (p 3) Material culture refers to the material production activities and their products, specifically the tangible things such as food, clothing, house, language, etc Institutional culture refers to the established norms regulating human behavior and social relations Behavior culture refers to the social and collective behavior and customs which human have during long-term social interactions Spirit culture refers to the social psychological and social ideology, including values, aesthetics, ways of thinking, and literary and artistic works In further explaining, Chinese components are categorized as geography, history, name culture, character, philosophy, religion, education, classics and literature, technology, architecture, arts, customs His book is widely selected as a core textbook in the CFL teacher training programs, so his culture concept has been widely accepted by the pre-service Chinese teachers Another popular textbook used in training CFL teachers is Introduction to Chinese Culture (Zhang, 2006) In this book, Zhang indicated the identification of culture could be viewed from micro and macro perspectives From a macro perspective, culture includes both material artifacts and non-material customs and ideals From a micro perspective, culture only refers to the non-material customs and ideals, the spiritual activities His main focus in the book is on the latter In addition, Gu (2005) divided Chinese culture into three aspects: institutional culture (economic, politics, official system, patriarchal system, examination system, education system, and marriage system), material culture (cloth custom, food culture, architecture, transportation, and technology), and spirit culture (classics and literature, religion, literature, and art) To sum up, cotemporary studies on Chinese cultural components primarily focus on the traditional Chinese culture The categories developed by each scholar are inter-related from the contents However, while these textbooks are widely accepted and used in teacher training programs in China, more contemporary culture and the components of popular culture have been under-developed and rarely debated Culture and Language Acquisition The relationship between language teaching/learning and culture has been subject to different interpretations Kramsch (1996) argued that the efforts to link the teaching of language with the teaching of culture have been obstructed by the absence of a serious theoretical base As she defined, the term “culture” and “social” referred to the synchronic and the diachronic context in which language is used in organized discourse communities Teaching culture, she further indicated, means teaching not only how things are and have been, but how they could have been or how else they could be Moreover, teaching members of one community how to talk and how to behave in the context of another discourse community also potentially changes the social and cultural equation of both communities, by subtly diversifying mainstream cultures Norton (2000) argued that this concept of culture and language learning did conclude “the complex relationship between power, identity, and language learning” She introduced Bourdieu’s term of “culture capital” to the foreign or second language students' motivation study and proposed the notion of “investment” The theory of cultural capital holds that some forms of capital have a higher exchange value than others in relation to a set of social forms, which can potentially be worth more than one form of capital over another In this way, Norton pointed out that, “if learners invest in a second language, they so with the understanding that they will in turn increase the value of their cultural capital Learners expect or hope to have a good return on that investment” (p 10) This process of investment is constantly changing across time and space Norton (2001) used the concept of “imagined community” to see how the foreign or second language learners understood their identity and the language learning She mentioned, “a learner’s imagined community invited an imagined identity, and a learner’s investment in the target language must be understood within this context” (p 166) Likewise she explained that “foreign or second language learners’ investment in the target language may be complex, contradictory, and in a state of flux” (p 11) This concept could also apply to the designers’ perspectives of the textbooks The contents in the books are the capital that the learners need to master to apply to the “imagined Chinese community” Therefore, the study on what culture is embedded in the books is, in another word, to investigate and reveal the “target” Chinese community the learners are expected to communicate with Teaching culture to foreign or second language students in the language teaching field is not a new topic Brown (2007) defined culture as a way of life, as the context within which people exist, feel, and relate to others and as the glue that binds the group of people together He indicated culture can also be defined as the ideas, customs, skills, arts, and tools that differentiate a certain group of people in a period of time Language and culture are interrelated Brown also mentioned a language is a part of culture while a culture is a part of the language The two are interwoven so that no one can separate language and culture without losing the significance of each of them Different languages have different norms Some norms may be entirely distinguished or even in conflict with other cultural norms Therefore, the communication problems may be caused by the speakers who not know or share the norms In this way, the language learners’ cultural or cross-cultural awareness in second language acquisition are examined and emphasized In China, Xu (1980) first pointed out the culturally loaded words in English language teaching Since then, the cultural loaded words in the language teaching began to pique the attention of the Chinese scholars Gao (2007) mentioned because Chinese words represent both Chinese language and culture, Chinese learners would encounter the period of fossilization after acquiring pronunciation, semantic, grammar, basic vocabulary, and characters On one hand, they need to expand their vocabulary to use the language more accurately in different contexts On the other hand, they need to deepen the understanding of words They need to not only acquire the words, but also comprehend the hidden cultural and communicative meaning of the words Liu (2003) indicated clearly that language learners should know both target language culture and mother tongue culture and know how to express these cultures through the target language ，，， ，， ，， ，， ，， ，， ，，， ，，，， ，，， ，，， ，，，，，，， ，，，， ，，，，，，， ，，， ，，，， ，， ，， ，， ，， ，， ，，，， ，，， ，， ，，，，， ，，， ，，，， ，， ，， ，， ，，，， ，，， ，， ，，，， ，， ，，， ，，， ，，，，，， ，，， ，， ，，，， Oracle bone script Vocation Be strong in heart and mind To lose weight Paper cutting Resume Simplified Chinese character Healthy eating Gym ZheJian cuisine "Be 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To exchange cards To make boyfriend/girlfriend To make friend Traffic rules Suburb Jiaozi, a kind of Chinese dumpling Sedan car Teaching aids Teacher Teacher Welfare Teachers' Day Professor Help grandpa to learn computer Ministry of Education Censorship Marriage To borrow a car To borrow books Book-borrowing management system Golden monkey Golden fish JingJiu (Beijing-Kowloon) railway Beijing Opera Economics Geracomium Nine-year Compulsory Education San Francisco To obtain employment Career center Social Ideology Institutional Culture Social Ideology Behavior Culture Social Ideology Behavior Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Material Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Institutional Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Institutional Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Institutional Culture Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Institutional Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Material Culture Material Culture Institutional Culture Material Culture Institutional Culture Material Culture K 《《《《 Kouji Social Ideology 《《《《《《 12 《《 ，，， ，， 《《 OK ，，，， ，，， ，，， ，，， ，，，，，，，， ，，， ，，， ，， ，，， ，，，，，，，，， ，，，， ，， ，， ，，，， ，，，，，，， ，，，，， ，， ，， ，，，， ，，， ，， ，， A Madman's Diary 12th Grade Accountant Coffee Karaoke To sleep with the windows open Pistachio Opening an account To read newspaper Look down on manual labor To watch a movie To watch a play To read a book To see a doctor To watch the latest American TV episodes and movies Second Sino-Japanese War Post-graduate entrance examination Peking duck Imperial examination Grand Canyon Sustainable Development Cola Hardworking Human population control Fast food restaurant Chopstick Kunming Social Ideology Institutional Culture Material Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Social Ideology Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Wolf and Sheep The Travels of Lao Can Butterfly Lovers Analects of Confucius Play basketball Laba Festival The twelfth month of the lunar year Spicy Old Boss Spinster Population ageing Senior citizen university Senior Remarriage Social Ideology Social Ideology Social Ideology Social Ideology Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Institutional Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Material Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Institutional Culture Material Culture Institutional Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Institutional Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture L ，，，，， ，，，，，， ，，，， ，，，， ，，， ，，， ，， ， ， ，， ，，， ，，， ，，，， ，，，，， ，， ，，，，， ，，，， ，， ，， ，， ，，， ，， ，，， ，， ，，， ，，， ，，，， ，， ，， ，， ，， ，， ，，， ，，，， ，，， ， ，， ，， ， ，，， ，， ，， ，， ，，， ，，， ，，， ，， ，，，， ，， ，，， Teacher Hawk-and-chicken Leshan Giant Buddha Lei Feng Divorce Ang Lee Bruce Lee Hair cut Barbershop History Litchi honey Social get-together party Chinese Cucumber Salad Cool-natured Chat Neighbor Higher official Adoption International students Foreign students building Liulichang Six Tiananmen Square protests Walk with caged birds Dragon Lung Ying-tai Apartment building Stove Lu Xun Los Angeles Fried chop rice cake Travel agency Travel Travel to get married Lawyer Green Bean Soup Material Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Institutional Culture Social Ideology Social Ideology Behavior Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Behavior Culture Material Culture Material Culture Institutional Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Social Ideology Social Ideology Material Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Material Culture Remote Love A Man that Bought Straw Hats The Little Match Girl A country of origin label affixed to products manufactured in China (excluding Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan) Social Ideology Social Ideology Social Ideology Social Ideology M 《《《《《《《 《《《《《《《 《《《《《《《《《 Made in China ，， ，，，，， ，，，， ，， ，，，， ，， ，，， ，，，， ，，， ，，， ，， ，， ， ，，， ，， ，， ，， ，， ，，，， ，，，， ，，，， ，，， ，， ，， ，， ，， ，， ，， ，， ，，，， ，，，，， ，，，， ，，，， ，， ，， ，， Mother Mother washes cloth Mother cooks Numb and spicy Gansu Flying Horse Buying house Buying vintage Purchase of private cars Buying stamps McDonald's Blood selling Manchu people Busy Rose Plum blossom Media Coal mine Beauty Beauty economy American football Major in Fine Art Mongolian nationality Rice Rice-flour noodles Bread Cooked wheaten food Interview One's own sense of dignity or prestige in social contexts Hmong nationality Civil society organization "People regard food as their heave." Democratic reform movement Famous school tie Ming Pao Weekly Mozi Peony Material Culture Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Social Ideology Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Social Ideology Social Ideology Material Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Social Ideology Unforgettable Tonight The Farmer and the Viper Grandma Patient Southern China Social Ideology Social Ideology Material Culture Social Ideology Material Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Institutional Culture Social Ideology Material Culture Social Ideology Material Culture N ，，，，，， ，，，，，， ，， ，， ，， ，，，， ，，，，，， ，， ，， ，， ，， ，，，， ，， ，，， ，，， ，，， ，， ，， ，，，，， ，， ，， ，，， ，，， ，， Southern Weekly Niagara Falls Adversity New Year Rice Cake Tree ring Beijing National Stadium The Weaver Girl and the Cowherd Milk Beef skewer Beef noodle soup Rice Sprout Song New York Rural china Rural Urbanization Farmer Hardworking Glutinous rice wine Iron Lady Nüwa, a goddess in ancient Chinese mythology best known for creating mankind and repairing the pillar of heaven Material Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Social Ideology Material Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Material Culture Institutional Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Material Culture Social Ideology Social Ideology O ，，，， Travel to Europe Behavior Culture Henpecked Brown-noser Bouncing a ball Line up Sparerib soup Police Station Pangu, the first living being and the creator of all in some versions of Chinese mythology Hot spring Beer Pittsburgh Canoe for ten Morality Table tennis Ping Pong Diplomacy Equal employment opportunity Apple Social Ideology Social Ideology Behavior Culture Social Ideology Material Culture Material Culture Social Ideology P ，，， ，，， ，，， ，， ，，， ，，， ，， ，，， ，， ，，， ，，， ，， ，，， ，，，， ，，，， ，， Behavior Culture Material Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Social Ideology Behavior Culture Social Ideology Institutional Culture Material Culture ，，， ，，， ，， ，， ，，， ，，，，，，， ，，， Apple pie Water-Sprinkling Festival Money bank Grape Raisins Story of Prometheus Putonghua Material Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Material Culture The Story of Qiu Ju Qi Baishi, an influential Chinese painter Qigong, a holistic system of coordinated body postures and movement, breathing, and meditation used for health, spirituality, and martial arts training Chocolate Parental testing Hardworking Qinghai–Tibet Plateau Qinghai–Tibet Railway Qingdao Tomb-Sweeping Day Valentine's Day Emotion Management Ask friends for help Autumn Social Ideology Social Ideology Behavior Culture Hot dog Hot water People's Daily Human Rights Ministry of Personnel, Conscientious Sun Moon Lake "Do in Rome as Rome does." Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Institutional Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Material Culture Social Ideology Q ，，，，，，， ，，， ，， ，，， ，，，， ，， ，，，， ，，，， ，， ，，， ，，， ，，，， ，，，，， ，， Material Culture Behavior Culture Social Ideology Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Social Ideology Behavior Culture Material Culture R ，， ，， ，，，， ，， ，，， ，， ，，， ，，，， S 《《《《《《 《《《《《《 《《《《《 《《《《《《 Three Monks Romance of the Three Kingdoms The Shaolin Temple The Magical Brush Social Ideology Social Ideology Social Ideology Social Ideology 《《《《《《 《《《《《 《《《《《 SAT ，，，， ，，， ，，， ，， ，，，， ，， ，，， ，， ，，，，，， ，， ，，， ，， ，，，， ，，，，， ，， ，， 《《《《《《《《《《 ，，， ，，， ，，，，，， ，， ，，，， ，， ，，，，， ，， ，， ，，， ，， ，，，， ，，，， ，， ，，，， ，，，， ，， ，，，， ， ，，， ，， ，， ，， House of Flying Daggers Water Margin The Thinker SAT College Admission Exam Three generational families Tricycle Sandwich Take a walk Business of adult entertainment Salad Mountain bike Shandong province Flat bread soaked in lamb soup Kind-hearted Commercial houses Shanghai Shanghai rice cake Shanghai snack bar Listed company Surfing the Internet "The higher authorities have policies, the localities have their countermeasures." Shaolin Monastery Children's Palace Apply for graduate school Shenzhen Shenzhou Becoming ill Drinking more water when you are ill Birthday Chinese zodiac Christmas Day Sifu Chinese top ten famous flowers Shihmen Reservoir Internship The North Tower of the World Trade Centre Market Economy Roommate Pay toilet Hand Shop assistant Book Bookstore Calligraphy Social Ideology Social Ideology Social Ideology Institutional Culture Social Ideology Material Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Institutional Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Institutional Culture Behavior Culture Social Ideology Material Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Institutional Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Institutional Culture Material Culture Institutional Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Social Ideology ，， ，，， ，，，， ，， ，， ，，， ，，， ，， ，，， ，，， ，，， ，，， ，，， ，， ，，，， 《《《《《《《《《 ， ，， ，，，，， ，，， ，，， ，，， ，，，， ，， ，，，，，， ， ，，， ， ，，， ，， ，，，， ，，，，，，，，， ，，，， ，， ，，， ，，，，，， ，， Younger (paternal) uncle, one's father's older brother A term of respect for someone who is slightly younger than one's father Summer School Summer School Chinese zodiac French fries Doggerel, Jingle and Clever Tongue Two-day Saturday–Sunday weekend Same as "Jiaozi" Beijing National Aquatics Center Public aquarium Taking a nap after lunch Jingling rhymes Talk behind one's back Driver Silk Road Comprehensive and open-minded Four Sichuan province Sichuan Dandan noodles Four Big Things, a term originally applied to the four symbols of material success in China from the 1950s until the 1970s, and is now used to refer to any visible marker of newfound affluence Siheyuan, a historical type of residence throughout China Four Gentlemen Give vitamins bottles as a gift Chinese embroidery Chinese Model Competition in Suzhou Vegetarian diet Vegetable dumplings Sour Hot and sour soup Abacus Spit everywhere Taking tissue paper and cash along with you Three Friends of Winter Granddaughter Sun Yat-sen Shorten the gap between urban and rural places Dormitory Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Institutional Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Institutional Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Social Ideology Behavior Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Institutional Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Material Culture Social Ideology Behavior Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Social Ideology Material Culture Social Ideology Institutional Culture Material Culture T 《《《《《《《 《《《《 ，，， ，，，， ，，，， ，， ，， ，，，， ，，， ，，， ，， ，，， ，， ，，， ，， ，，， ，，， ，，， ，， ，，，，， ，，，，， ， ，， ，，， ，， ，， ，， ，，， ，， ， ，，， ，，，， ，，， ，， ，，，，，， W Heaven Street Pushing Hands Play piano Taipei Book Street Night Markets in Taipei Typhoon Taiwan MiTAC International Corporation Tai chi Pacific Ocean Tang dynasty Chinatown Tang Poetry Fish with Sweet and Sour Sauce Flee from calamity Washing rice water Play soccer ball Gymnasium Tianjin Tianjin fried dough twist Tianjin Daily Sweet High jump Chinese Jump Rope Skydiving Dance Sticker activity Iron rice bowl, an occupation with guaranteed job security, as well as steady income and benefits Comrade, which was popularly used in Communist countries to address friend or colleague After 1990's, this term has been widely used to address lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender individuals Head Library Librarian Recommendation letter Blind massage "To something absolutely unnecessary." Social Ideology Social Ideology Behavior Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Behavior Culture Material Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Material Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Institutional Culture Institutional Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Social Ideology 《《《《《《《 《《《《《《《 《《《《《《《 《《《《《《 《《《《《《 WTO ，， ，， ，， ，， ，，， ，，， ，，， ，，，，， ，， ，，，， ，，， ，，， ，， ，，，，， ，，，， ，，，， ，，，，， ，，，， ，， ，，，， ，， ，， The Crescent Moon The Manifesto of Literature Revolution My Chinese Heart Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon A Crow Drinking Water World Trade Organization Toy blocks Grandpa Grandma Foreign-capital enterprise Foreign affairs office Major in Foreign Language Yellow Split Peas Cake Play video games Late marriage Taking a shower at night Halloween Wangfujing, one of the famous local snack street and night market in Beijing Tennis Online Chatting Room Hold high hopes for one's child Princess Wencheng Cultural Revolution Major in Literature Turtle May Fourth Movement Martial Arts Dance with a sword Social Ideology Social Ideology Social Ideology Social Ideology Social Ideology Material Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Journey to the West The Wedding Banquet A Little Monkey Came Down the Hill The Little Horse Crosses the River A Kitty Plants a Fish My Dear Little Rabbit Rocking on the New Long March Road Administrative division Butterfly Xi'an Northwestern wind China Western Development Tibet Autonomous Region Social Ideology Social Ideology Social Ideology Social Ideology Social Ideology Social Ideology Social Ideology Institutional Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Institutional Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Social Ideology Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Behavior Culture X 《《《《《 《《《《 《《《《《《《 ，，，，，， 《《《《《《 《《《《《《《 《《《《《《《《《《 ，，，， ，， ，， ，，， ，，，，， ，， ，， ，，，，， ，， ，，， ，，，， ，，，， ，， ，， ，， ，， ，， ，， ，，， ，，， ，，， ，， ，， ，，，， ，， ，， ，， ，，， ，， ，， ，，， ，， ，， ，， ，，，， ，， ，，，， ，，，，， ，，，， ，，， ，， ，，，， ，， ，， ，， ，， Watermelon Households specializing in growing watermelons Smoke Wash cloth Like excitement Like Western style Eurasian magpie Shrimp dumplings Laid-off Play Chinese chess Snow Summer Hawaii Salty rice dumplings Modernization Crosstalk, traditional Chinese comedic performance Hong Kong Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong Banana Hunan cuisine Tip Xiaolongbao, a type of steamed bun from the Jiangnan region of China Residential zone School bus Xiehouyu, a kind of Chinese proverb consisting of two elements: the former segment presents a novel scenario while the latter provides the rationale thereof Write letters Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region Sina, a Chinese online media company for Chinese communities around the world Xinmin Evening News New Year New apartment New Culture Movement News language The New China Credit A lack of trust Planet Almond Happiness Panda Material Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Social Ideology Social Ideology Material Culture Material Culture Institutional Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Social Ideology Material Culture Social Ideology Material Culture Material Culture Institutional Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Behavior Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Institutional Culture Social Ideology Material Culture Social Ideology Social Ideology Material Culture ，，， ，， ，，，，，，，，，，，，，，，，，， ，，，， ，，， ，，，， Xu Beihong, a Chinese painter Beauty pageant "Marrying well is more important than studying well, having an attractive appearance is more important than marrying well." The student cafeteria Student identity card To learn foreign languages Social Ideology Material Culture Social Ideology Camel and Sheep An Incident Eat Drink Man Woman Hero Mr FooI Wants to Move the Mountain Opium War Freedom of speech Yan Emperor Graduate school Eye Proverb Chuanr, a popular street food in China Balcony Beekeeper Raising a dog Raising flowers Yao Ming To shake off the sweet scented osmanthus Remote control car Yaotang, a traditional candy in Beijing and Tianjin Grandpa Grandpa teaches Tang poems Picnic Night market Monogamy One country, two systems "The whole year's work depends on a good start in spring " Doctor Medicine Hospital Ruling a country by law Judge someone by his looks Being skinny is beautiful Social Ideology Social Ideology Social Ideology Social Ideology Social Ideology Material Culture Institutional Culture Social Ideology Material Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Social Ideology Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Y 《《《《《《 《《《《《《 《《《《《《 《《《《 《《《《《《 ，，，， ，，，， ，， ，，，， ，， ，， ，，， ，， ，，， ，， ，， ，， ，，， ，，，， ，， ，， ，，，，， ，， ，， ，，，， ，，，， ，，，，，，， ，， ，， ，， ，，，， ，，，， ，，，， Material Culture Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Institutional Culture Institutional Culture Social Ideology Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Institutional Culture Social Ideology Social Ideology ，， ，，，， ，，，， ，，， ，， ，，，， ，，，， ，， ，，，， ，，， ，，， ，， ，，， ，，，，，，， ，， ，， ，，，， ，， ，， ，，， ，，， ，，，， ，，，， ，，， ，， ，， ，， ，， ，，，，，， ，，， Volunteer Compulsory education Music CD Concert Bank Introduction of foreign investment Indigenous peoples of the Americas Seal English Literature Intel Corporation English class Hero English corner After-school English class Post office Post-office Postal savings Chinese fried breadstick, a long golden-brown deep-fried strip of dough eaten in China Grapefruit Fish Rice Soup Yu Zuomin Language institute Corn soup First Full Moon Festival Chinese garden Moon Lunar eclipse Yunan province Private Property Rights Sports meeting Material Culture Institutional Culture Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Institutional Culture Behavior Culture Social Ideology Material Culture Social Ideology Material Culture Social Ideology Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Institutional Culture Material Culture In That Distant Place Ode to Chinese Nation The Last Class Tibetan people Remarriage "At home one relies on one's parents and outside on one's friends." Morning tea "Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise." Noise pollution Fried cake Social Ideology Social Ideology Social Ideology Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Social Ideology Material Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Material Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Social Ideology Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Institutional Culture Behavior Culture Z 《《《《《《《《《 《《《《《《《 《《《《《《 ，， ，， 《《《《《《《《《《《《 ，， ，，，，，，， ，，，， ，， Material Culture Social Ideology Institutional Culture Material Culture ，， ，，， ，， ，，， ，，， ，， ，， ，，，， ，， ，，，， ，， ，， ，，，， ，，，，，，，，， ，，，， ，，，，， ，，， ，，， ，，， ，，，， ，， ，，，，， ，， ，，， ，， ，，，， ，，，， ，，，，，， ，，，，， ，， ，，，， ，，， ，， ，，， ，，，， ，，， ，， ，， ，，，， ，，，， ，，，， ，，， ，，， Fried chicken Zhang Yimou Grow-up Job Hunting Anji Bridge Acupuncture Calm Conscription Plastic surgery Intellectual Office worker China China map Law of the Peoples Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language Chinese Literature china-woman.com Senior Mid-Autumn Festival Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum Chinese school Middle school China Central Television Traditional Chinese medicine Chinese medicine hospital Loyal and filial concept Key high school Men Are More Important Than Women Emphasis on children's education Mount Everest Housing Housing policy Live off campus Punctual Bicycle Friends of Nature A secret or underhand means of access (to a place or a position) Car rental House rental House rental agency Drill wood to make fire To follow rules and regulation To homework Do morning exercises Material Culture Social Ideology Social Ideology Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Institutional Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Institutional Culture Material Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Institutional Culture Social Ideology Social Ideology Material Culture Material Culture Institutional Culture Behavior Culture Social Ideology Material Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Behavior Culture Behavior Culture Material Culture Social Ideology Social Ideology Behavior Culture Behavior Culture