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Bilingual and ESL Classrooms Bilingual and ESL Classrooms: Teaching in Multicultural Contexts Carlos J Ovando and Mary Carol Combs Foreword by Terrence G Wiley Afterword by Eugene E García Sixth Edition ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD Lanham • Boulder • New York • London Published by Rowman & Littlefield A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 www.rowman.com Unit A, Whitacre Mews, 26–34 Stannary Street, London SE11 4AB Copyright © 2018 by Carlos J Ovando and Mary Carol Combs All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Ovando, Carlos Julio, author | Combs, Mary Carol, author Title: Bilingual and ESL classrooms : teaching in multicultural contexts / Carlos J Ovando and Mary Carol Combs Other titles: Bilingual and English as a Second Language classrooms Description: Sixth Edition | Lanham, Maryland : Rowman & Littlefield [2017] | Includes bibliographical references and index Identifiers: LCCN 2017041176 (print) | LCCN 2017049847 (ebook) | ISBN 9781475823134 (Electronic) | ISBN 9781475823127 (Paper : alk paper) Subjects: LCSH: Education, Bilingual—United States | Multicultural education—United States | English language—Study and teaching—Foreign speakers | Community and school—United States Classification: LCC LC3731 (ebook) | LCC LC3731 O96 2017 (print) | DDC 372.65/1—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017041176 The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48–1992 Printed in the United States of America In memory of my parents, Victor Manuel Ovando and Marina Vaca Méndez, who lived the “Si Se Puede” spirit and shared with me their cultural and linguistic heritage —Carlos J Ovando To my current and future students at the University of Arizona, and to Claudia, Sarah María, and Amilcar —Mary Carol Combs Brief Contents Foreword to the Sixth Edition Terrence G Wiley xix Preface xxiii Acknowledgments xxvii Introduction xxix Students Carlos Ovando and Bryant Jensen Policy and Programs with sections by James W Crawford and Lorraine Valdez Pierce 39 Teaching 79 Language 115 Culture 161 Mathematics and Science 201 Social Studies 243 Assessment Lorraine Valdez Pierce 283 Bilingual Special Education Theresa A Ochoa 345 10 School and Community 371 Afterword 421 Glossary 423 Eugene E García vii viii Brief Contents References 435 Index 491 About the Authors 507 Contents Foreword to the Sixth Edition Terrence G Wiley xix Preface xxiii Acknowledgments xxvii Introduction Audience Balance of Theory and Practice Classroom Focus Terminology Chapter Overview New Coverage in the Sixth Edition xxix xxix xxx xxx xxxi xxxi xxxiv Students Carlos Ovando and Bryant Jensen Carmen—A Case Study of Demographic Shift in North Carolina What Do We Mean by Bilingual Education and ESL? Guidelines for Teaching: Basic Characteristics of a Bilingual Education Program Bilingual Education4 English as a Second Language4 Guidelines for Teaching: Recommendations on the Role of Bilingual Education and ESL5 Demographics Twenty-First-Century Shifts in Migration Flows A Demographic Imperative Types of Language Minority Students Student and Family Background 10 The Role of Culture11 The Social Context 12 Previous Schooling Experience15 What Happens at School? 17 ix Index of the District of Columbia, 348; Morgan v Kerrigan, 70; OCR and, 66 – 72; for parental involvement, 403; Pennsylvania Association of Retarded Children v Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, 348; Plyler v Doe, 71 – 72, 380; Ríos v Read, 380; Serna v Portales, 69; Teresa P v Berkeley Unified School District, 381; Tobeluk v Lind, 380; United States v Texas, 69, 70; Y S v School District of Philadelphia, 71 Crawford, James W., 42 – 50 CRE See culturally relevant education creative intelligence, 112 criterion-referenced assessments, 309, 318, 425 See also norm-referenced test critical pedagogy, 93, 425; literacy and, 101 – 2; teaching, 100 – 2 critical thinking, 250 – 56, 270 – 71, 425 cross-cultural research, 229 – 32 CST See California Standards Test Cubans, 15, 53 Cuevas, Stephany, 254 cultural bias, 16, 303, 425 cultural capital, 190 – 91, 213 cultural compatibility studies, 193 – 95 cultural deficit theory, 184 – 85, 415 – 16, 426 cultural difference theories, 185 – 88 cultural identity, 162; acculturation relating to, 171; assimilation relating to, 171 – 72; biculturalism relating to, 169 – 71; cultural transmission relating to, 168 – 69; development of, 168 – 72; enculturation and, 168 – 69 culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students: disproportionate representation of, 352 – 54; special education and, 352 – 56, 365; under-referral for special education evaluation, 354 – 56 culturally relevant education (CRE), 172 cultural norms, 11 cultural patterns, 194 – 95 cultural pluralism, 172 – 73 cultural relativism, 175, 430; discrimination and, 181 – 83 cultural structures, 11 cultural transmission, 168 – 69, 426 culture: acculturation, 12, 167, 171, 255, 390, 423, 430; American, 11 – 12; anthropological view of, 163 – 66; art and, 103 – 4; assessment relating to, 303, 317 – 18; biculturalism, 81, 169 – 71, 424; communication relating to, 11; deficit theories on, 184 – 85, 411 – 12, 495 426; defining, 163 – 65, 426; enculturation, 168 – 69, 363, 402 – 3; ethnographic approaches to cultural understanding, 192 – 97; high civilization view of, 166 – 67; as integrated, 165 – 66; key terms, 199; language and, 116; language minority achievement and, 183 – 92; language minority students and role of, 11 – 12, 162 – 63; as learned, 164 – 65; marked and unmarked, 175, 176 – 78, 430; mathematics and science cultural issues, 229 – 36; multicultural education and, 172 – 75; multiculturalism, 6, 163, 378, 430; perspectives on concept of, 163 – 68; popular views of, 166 – 68; prejudice, discrimination, and, 175 – 83; reflection questions on, 199 – 200; religion and, 11; role of, in education, 197 – 98; set-of-traits view of, 167 – 68; as shared, 165; social studies and, 252; summary of, 198 – 99; traits, 11 See also sociocultural processes; sociocultural theory culture shock, 389 culture talk, 354, 426 Cummins, Jim, 102, 122, 123, 137, 432; on interdependence of languages, 125 – 26; on sociocultural processes, 160n2 Darling-Hammond, Linda, 63 DBE See developmental bilingual education declarative knowledge, 330 – 31, 426 deficit theories, 184 – 85, 411 – 12, 426 Delaware, 382 Delgado-Gaitán, C., 400 demographic imperative, demographics: case study, on demographic shifts, 2; of European, Hispanic, and Asian immigrants, 6, 6 – 7; of immigrant and native children in K-12 schools, 7; population growth and, 6; twenty-first century shifts in, 7 – 8 demonstration, 88 Deukmejian, George, 46 developmental bilingual education (DBE), 33 – 34, 35, 56 – 57, 426 developmental standards, 311, 426 developmental universalities, 229 – 32 DeVos, Betsy, 83 Dewey, John, 91 dialect diversity, 149 – 52 dialects, 151 dialogue journals, 156 – 57 Diana v California (1970), 71, 348 differentiated scoring, 330, 333, 426 diglossia, 395 – 96, 426 – 27 496 Index Directed Reading Thinking Activity (DRTA), 271, 427 discovery learning, 91 – 93 discrimination: against Arab population, 14; court cases on, 380, 381; cultural relativism and, 181 – 83; culture, prejudice, and, 175 – 83; emotional issues relating to, 18; English Only movement and, 44; ethnocentrism and, 180 – 81; inequality and, 135, 191 – 92; of language minority students, 14 – 15; marked and unmarked cultures and, 176 – 78; stereotyping and, 178 – 80; Title VI on, 66 disproportionate representation, 352 – 54, 427 diversity: in collaborative learning, 96; dialect, 149 – 52; principles for culturally diverse students, 90 Douglas, William O., 40 Douglass, Frederick, 174 drama, 104 – 5 DRTA See Directed Reading Thinking Activity dual language, 74 dual-language immersion education, 28 – 29, 34 – 35, 434 Duncan, Arne, 63 Dyrcia S et al v Board of Education of the City of New York et al (1983), 349 early-exit bilingual education, 47 – 48 See also transitional bilingual education early total immersion, 34 ECAA See Every Child Achieves Act economic recession, 63 – 64 economy: global, 202 – 3; immigration and, 14 – 15; OECD and, 202 – 3; trade and, 14 Ecuador, 392 – 93 educational background: community partnerships and, 407 – 9; family attitudes and, 392, 407 – 11; immigrants’ previous school experience, 16 – 17; students’ previous schooling experience, 15 – 17, 132 – 33 EEOA See Equal Educational Opportunities Act EFL See English as foreign language electronic media, 269 – 70 Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) (1965), 293, 427; NCLB and, 59, 65; parental involvement and, 403; reauthorization of, 59 See also Title VII ELLs See English language learners emotional issues, 17 – 19 empowerment: community partnerships and, 401 – 2; pedagogy, 135; writing and, 157 enculturation, 168 – 69, 363; socialization and, 402 – 3 English as foreign language (EFL), 52 English as second language (ESL): CALLA and, 143; collaborative learning and, 96; current approaches to teaching, 85 – 88; defining, 3 – 5, 29, 427; ESL content classes, 30 – 31, 427; ESL pullout and language minority students, 29 – 31; history of, 52 – 53; in mathematics and science, 215 – 29; recommendations on role of, 5 – 6; school policies and, 53; social studies classroom settings for, 258 – 63; state certification of bilingual/ESL teachers, 76; teaching profession of, 52 See also content English as second language English-dominant language minorities, 10 English Language Acquisition, 58 English Language Empowerment Act (1996), 44 English language learners (ELLs): in Arizona, 117; AYP and, 61 – 65; bilingual special education identification and referrals for, 355 – 56, 365 – 67; choosing instructional technology materials for, 106 – 7; defining, 427; ESSA and, 116; Lau v Nichols and, 66 – 67; long-term, 430; recommended program elements for, 5 – 6; RTI and, 356 – 58; translation and, 145, 265 – 66 English language proficiency testing, 311 – 13 English Only movement: discrimination and, 44; Hayakawa and, 43 – 44; impact of Official English, 45 – 47; politics of, 43 – 47; on sheltered content teaching, 86 English Plus, 47 English to speakers of other languages (ESOL), 29 enrichment programs, 29 Equal Educational Opportunities Act (EEOA) (1974), 67, 427 equality, 40 equity, 211 Erickson, F., 171, 191, 194 error correction: in language arts, 152; in math and science, 221 ESEA See Elementary and Secondary Education Act ESL See English as second language ESOL See English to speakers of other languages ESSA See Every Student Succeeds Act ethnic identity, 19 ethnicity, in community, 387 – 88 ethnocentrism, 180 – 81, 427 Index ethnography, 392, 393 – 94, 427; cultural compatibility studies, 193 – 95; ethnographic approaches to cultural understanding, 192 – 97; as resources, 400 – 1; sociocultural theory and knowledge construction studies, 195 – 97 ethnomathematics, 229, 232 – 34, 427 ethnoscience, 229, 232 – 34, 427 evaluating informational texts, 321, 323, 324 Evans v Buchanan (1976), 70 Every Child Achieves Act (ECAA) (2015), 203 – 4, 403 – 4 Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) (2015), 59, 428; assessment and, 295 – 300; bilingual special education and, 350 – 52; bottom line for, 299 – 300; changes in, 295 – 96; civil rights and, 299; current Titles in, 65 – 66; ELLs and, 116; federal funding and, 299; NCLB, similarities and differences from, 296 – 97; Obama, B., and, 350; overview of, 65 – 66, 280; problems with, 299 – 300; requirements of, 297 – 98; school accountability in, 297 – 98, 300; social studies and, 279 – 80; state capacity for, 298 – 99; Trump on, 295 – 96; validity and, 300 evidence-based practice, 60, 428 exemplars, 318, 321 – 22, 428 family: attitudes, on education, 392, 407 – 11; background, 10 – 17; literacy programs, 413 – 15; structure, 406 – 7 See also parental involvement; parents Featherstone, Helen, 95 federal funding: Bilingual Education Act and, 55 – 57; for DBE, 56 – 57; for education, 54; eligibility for, 55 – 56; ESSA and, 298; funding appropriations, 55, 55 – 56; grants, 56 – 57; purposes of, 56 – 57; for training and resources, 57; Trump on, 83 Finding Out/Descubrimiento (FO/D) program, 226 – 27 first language (L1), 4; cognition, 137; firstlanguage acquisition, 120 – 21, 128; interdependence of second language with, 125 – 28; language development and, 119; for language minority students, 21, 28 – 29; literacy in, 154 – 56; for math and science instruction, 216 – 18; recommendations on usage at home, 21, 155; in social studies, 264 – 66; supporting and valuing, 144; use of, 28 – 29 Fishman, Joshua, 176 Florida, 53 FO/D program See Finding Out/Descubrimiento program 497 folk art, 103 – 4 foreign-language policy, 52, 54 – 55 formal writing, 157 formative assessment, 300, 315, 428 Franklin, Benjamin, 377 free speech, 46 Freire, Paulo, 100 – 2, 425 From the Other Side (Merkle), 244 – 45 funding See federal funding; grants funds of knowledge, 99, 142, 158, 428; community-based research and, 397 – 400 Gallas, Karen, 102 – 3 Gandhi, Mahatma, 162 Garbarino, James, 18 García, Eugene E., 421 – 22 García, Ofelia, 138, 139 Gardner, Howard, 112 Gawande, Atul, 202 Geertz, C., 164 gender, 202 Gingrich, Newt, 44 Glassie, Henry, 162 global economy, 202 – 3 global education, 202 – 3, 256 – 57, 428 globalization, 163, 428; social studies and, 244 – 45, 253 Gómez v Illinois State Board of Education (1987), 71 goofiness pedagogy, 105 grade placement, 18 – 19 grading, 324 – 26 grants, 56 – 57 graphic depiction, 88 graphic organizers, 273, 274 Greenlandic Eskimos, 237 group activities, 96 – 97 group and community building, 97 group formation, 96 groupwork, 95 See also collaborative learning groupworthy tasks, 95 Gumperz, John, Guthrie, G P., 400 hands-on activities, 268 – 70 Hatch, Barry, 37n5 Havighurst, Robert J., 377 – 79 Hawaii, 193 – 94, 200n2 Hawkins, Stephen, 201 Hayakawa, S I., 43 – 44 Hechinger, F M., 377 – 78 heritage languages, 4, 21 – 22, 37n2 498 Index Herrnstein, R J., 184 high civilization view, 166 – 67 Higher Education Act (1965), 13 high-intensity language training (HILT), 261 Hispanic American stereotyping, 178 – 79 history: of bilingual instruction, 53 – 54; in classroom, 258 – 59; of ESL, 52 – 53; language minority community historical context, 377 – 83; of NCLB legislation, 58 – 63; of pluralism, 377 – 79; of schooling, in 1800s, 50; of schooling, in 1900s, 50 – 52; of schooling, in 1960s, 53 – 54; of Title VII legislation, 1968 – 2001, 54 – 58 home: dialects of, 151; language spoken at, 21, 137, 155 homelessness, 145 home-school mismatch, 185, 196 home-school relationships, 407 – 11 House Education and Labor Committee, 46 Houston, Paul, 12 Hubble, Edwin, 202 hunger, 145 IASA See Improving America’s Schools Act IDEA See Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act identity: ethnic, 19; negotiating, 160n2; in social studies, 252 See also cultural identity immersion: bilingual immersion education, 34 – 35, 155, 434; in Canada, 31, 155; defining, 429; dual-language immersion education, 28 – 29, 34 – 35, 434; early total, 34; marked and unmarked culture and immersion programs, 178; structured, 31 – 32, 73 – 74, 433; two-way immersion education, 434 immigrants: Americanization of, 51, 52; ancestral ties for, 12; demographics, of European, Hispanic, and Asian immigrants, 6, 6 – 7; demographics, of immigrant and native children in K-12 schools, 7; four stages of adjustment experienced by newcomer parents, 389 – 90; national origins of, 7 – 8; previous school experience for, 16 – 17; social studies and, 259 – 60; undocumented, 71 – 72 immigration, 2; acculturation and, 390; arrival survival, 389; citizenship and, 43 – 44; community and, 373, 387 – 90, 397; coping after, 390; culture shock and, 389; economy and, 14 – 15; language restrictionism and, 44; length of residence in country of immigration, 133 – 34; migration shifts, in twenty-first century, 7 – 8; in 1900s, 50 – 51; preparedness for, 8; second-language acquisition and, 133 – 34; teaching style and, 80 – 81 Improving America’s Schools Act (IASA) (1994): Title VII of, 57 – 58 inclusion, 429 Indigenous groups: Indigenous minority communities, 390 – 92; during 1900s, 51 – 52; school–community partnerships for, 416 Indigenous languages, 4, 51 – 52, 429 Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA), 429; bilingual special education and, 348, 349 – 50, 357; RTI and, 357 inequality: community partnerships and, 411; discrimination and, 135, 191 – 92 input hypothesis, 127, 429 inquiry-based learning See active learning institutions: community partnerships and, 402; social studies and, 252 – 53 instructional conversations, 266 instructional technology materials, 106 – 7 intellectual development, 230 – 32, 241n3 interaction, input and, 127 interactive classrooms, 146 – 47 interdependence: common underlying proficiency and, 125; of first and second languages, 125 – 28; of languages, 125 – 28, 425; positive, 98; in prism model, 120; semilingualism and, 126 – 27; threshold hypothesis on, 125 – 28 interdisciplinary instruction, 147 internet communication, 107 – 8 inter-rater reliability, 307, 429 invented spelling, 152 iPads, 109 Jackson, G., 198 Jigsaw, 98 jobs, 151 Johnson, Lyndon, 13 José P v Amback (1983), 349 Kagan, S., 96 – 98 Kamehameha Early Education Program (KEEP), 193 – 94, 200n2, 418 Keyes v School District #1 (1983), 70 – 71, 381 key words, in tests, 333 – 34 knowledge: declarative, 330 – 31, 426; on education, 409 – 11; funds of knowledge, 99, 142, 158, 397 – 400, 428; procedural, 330 – 31, 431; students’ prior knowledge, 93 knowledge construction studies, 195 – 97 Krashen, Steve, 127 – 28, 135, 429 Index L1 See first language L2 See secondary language Landes, Ruth, 162 language: academic, 122 – 24, 423; CALP, 123, 126; CCSS language demands, 289 – 95; community language use, 394 – 96, 398 – 99; community partnerships and issues in, 405 – 6; culture and, 116; diglossia, 395 – 96, 426 – 27; dual, 74; four language modes, 117; heritage, 4, 21 – 22, 37n2; at home, 21, 137, 155; Indigenous, 4, 51 – 52, 429; integration of content and, 85 – 86; interdependence of, 125 – 28, 425; literacy and, 117; marked and unmarked, 175, 176 – 78, 430; in mathematics and science classrooms, 210, 215 – 29; meaning in, 116; new language varieties, 152; oral, 331; reverse diglossia, 396; social, 121 – 22, 127, 432; socialization, 398 – 99; in social studies, 264 – 66, 271 – 75; use, at school, 130 – 31; use decisions, 130 – 31; during World War II, 52 language acquisition, 117 – 18; academic language time requirements, 124 – 25; firstlanguage acquisition, 120 – 21, 128; linguistic processes in, 120 – 25; prism model, 118, 118 – 20, 183 – 84, 215; in school context, 120; simultaneous bilingual acquisition, 121; social exchange and, 141 See also second-language acquisition language arts: bilingual instruction for, 148 – 58; bilingual proficiency and, 148 – 49; dialect diversity and, 149 – 52; invented spelling, error correction, and new language varieties, 152; language distribution in classroom, 152 – 53; literacy in first and second languages, 154 – 56; RRENLAP, 418; teaching, 117, 148 – 58; teaching listening and speaking in, 153 – 54; teaching reading and writing in, 154, 156 – 58 language development: mathematics and science relating to, 215; in prism model, 119 language distribution, 152 – 53 Language Enhancement, 58 language experience approach, 272 language loss, 21 – 22 language minority achievement: culture and, 183 – 92; in mathematics and science, 205 – 10; social, economic, and political factors in achievement of, 189 – 92 language minority students: academic issues for, 23 – 24; active learning for, 92 – 93; assessment of, 67; basic rights of, 66; bilingual education for, 9 – 10, 28 – 35; civil rights and, 66; culture’s role for, 11 – 12, 162 – 63; 499 defining, 8; discovering students, 24 – 28, 267 – 68; educational background and family attitudes, 392, 407 – 11; emotional issues for, 17 – 19; English-dominant language minorities, 10; ESL pullout and, 29 – 31; first language for, 21, 28 – 29; key terms, 36; language minority community historical context and, 377 – 83; Lau Remedies and, 67 – 68; as LEP, 9; linguistic issues for, 20 – 23; myths on, 49; poverty and, 13; prejudice and discrimination against, 14 – 15; previous schooling experience, 15 – 17, 132 – 33; program models for, 28 – 35; reflection questions on, 37; social reproduction theory and, 190 – 92; sociocultural processes for, 130 – 35; socioeconomic status and, 12 – 13, 131 – 32, 189 – 90; special education for, 71 – 72; student and family background on, 10 – 17; student observation, 24 – 25; studentteacher relationships, 27; summary of, 35 – 36; teacher expectations and, 23 – 24; teaching style relating to, 28; types of, 8 – 10 language modification, 222 – 23 language objectives, 219 – 20 language play, 104 – 5, 429 language restrictionism, 44 language use patterns, 188, 194 – 95 language variation, 20 – 21, 187 – 88 laptops, 109 late-exit bilingual education, 47 – 48 See also developmental bilingual education Lau plans, 429 Lau regulations, 68 – 69, 429 Lau Remedies, 67 – 68, 429 Lau v Nichols (1974), 40, 160n3, 380, 429; bilingual special education and, 348; OCR Memorandum of 1970 and, 68; overview of, 66 – 72 Lave, Jean, 429 LEAD See Learning English Advocates Drive learning: accelerated, 93, 99 – 100, 247; active, 90 – 93, 423; assessment relating to, 317; collaborative, 93 – 99, 134; cooperative, 425; culture, as learned, 164 – 65; discovery, 91 – 93; improving, 317; mathematics and science, 212; myths about, 42; opportunity to learn standards, 214 – 15; passive, 16, 89 – 90, 431; styles of, 186 – 87, 429 Learning English Advocates Drive (LEAD), 47 learning strategies, 429; in math and science, 219 – 26; for second-language acquisition, 136 – 37; types of, 225 legitimate peripheral participation, 141 – 42, 429 – 30 500 Index LEP See limited English proficient Levin, Henry, 99 – 100 limited English proficient (LEP), 78n3, 427, 430; bilingual special education for, 347, 350 – 52; criteria for evaluating programs serving, 70; language minority students as, 9; special education for, 71 – 72; Title VII and, 57 – 58 linguistic issues, 20 – 23 linguistic processes: first-language acquisition, 120 – 21; in language acquisition, 120 – 25; second-language acquisition, 121 – 22; simultaneous bilingual acquisition, 121; social language, 121 – 22 linguistic universals, 136 Linn, Robert, 63 listening, 153 – 54 literacy: biliteracy, 138 – 40, 395, 424; in Canada, 155; critical pedagogy and, 101 – 2; developing, 154 – 55; family literacy programs, 413 – 15; in first language, 154 – 56; language and, 117; new literacies, 89; Pájaro Valley Literacy Project, 109; reading, writing, and, 158; for refugees, 155 – 56; in secondary language, 154 – 56; social studies and, 264, 272 – 73; threshold, 125 – 27 Literacy for Empowerment (Delgado-Gaitán), 400 local level assessment, 301 – 2 long-term ELLs, 430 Lopez, Sandy, 284 MacSwan, J., 123, 126 – 27 maintenance bilingual education See developmental bilingual education mantra of multicultural education, 83, 430 Maori, 28 maps, 88, 268 – 69 marked languages and cultures, 175, 176 – 78, 430 Massachusetts, 73 mathematics and science: AAAS, 285; for all students, 211; assessment in, 206 – 9, 212; bilingualism relating to, 231 – 32; case study on, 204 – 5; cognitive apprentice model for, 227 – 28; cognitive development in, 222; cognitively guided instruction for, 228 – 29; combined SAT score, by race and ethnicity, 208; Communicative Math and Science Teaching, 226; content ESL for, 218 – 24; content standards for mathematics, 212 – 13; cross-cultural research and developmental universalities, 229 – 32; cultural issues in, 229 – 36; current standards in math and science reform, 210 – 13; curriculum for math, 211; error correction in, 221; ESL in, 215 – 29; ethnomathematics, 229, 232 – 34, 428; ethnoscience, 229, 232 – 34, 428; first language for instruction in, 216 – 18; FO/D program for, 226 – 27; key terms, 238; language development relating to, 215; language in classrooms of, 210, 215 – 29; language minority achievement in, 205 – 10; language modification in, 222 – 23; language objectives in, 219 – 20; learning, 212; learning strategies in, 219 – 26; in linguistically and cognitively rich environments, 226 – 29; mathematics SAT scores, by ethnicity and year, 206; mathematics standards, 430; math performance, of American Indians, 209 – 10; math URL resources, 239 – 41; modeling in, 222 – 24; multiple modalities in, 219, 221 – 22, 430; NAEP mathematics scores, by ethnicity and grade, 206; NAEP science scores, by ethnicity and grade, 207; NCLB on, 203; NCTM, 203 – 4, 211, 285; opportunity to learn standards in, 214 – 15; PAL, 222; process standards for mathematics, 212 – 13; reading and writing in, 224; reflection questions on, 238 – 41; science, technology, and society, 236 – 37; Sciences for All Americans, 241n2; second-language acquisition integrated with science content, 219; sheltered content teaching for, 218 – 24; six principles for school mathematics, 211 – 12; socioeconomic status and achievement in, 210, 213; STS, 237, 253; student and community resources for, 234 – 36; summary of, 238; teaching, 211 – 12, 226; technology in, 212, 236 – 37; thematic instruction for, 236 – 37; 3-D Project for, 227; vocabulary development in, 222, 223 Mather, Cotton, 233 meaning: in language, 116; in social language, 122 medicine, 233 – 34 melting pot, 171 – 72, 377 – 78, 430 memory, 110 Merkle, Lou Ann, 244 – 45 metacognitive strategies, 136, 225 metaphors, 221 – 22 migration flows, 7 – 8 Mills v Board of Education of the District of Columbia, 348 Minnesota, 418 minorities: community partnerships and, 412 – 13; disproportionate representation of, 352 – 54, 427; Indigenous minority communities, 390 – 92; jobs and, 151; pluralism and, 377 – 79 Index501 See also language minority students; specific minority groups Mississippi, 417 modeling, 87, 222 – 24 Mohatt, G., 194 monocultural perspective, 254 monolingual, Monterey Park, California, 15 moral principles, 354 Morgan v Kerrigan (1975), 70 Morine-Dershimer, G., 194 morpheme acquisition, 129 multicultural education: characteristics of, 174; cultural pluralism as basis for, 172 – 73; culture and, 172 – 75; dimensions of, 173 – 75; mantra of, 83, 430; race and, 254; social studies and, 254 – 56 multiculturalism, 6, 163, 378, 430 multicultural perspectives, 145 multidimensional lessons, 112 multimedia, 88 multiple acculturation, 255, 430 multiple-choice tests, 296 – 97, 311, 334 multiple intelligences, 110, 430 multiple modalities, 219, 221 – 22, 430 Murray, C., 184 music: memory and, 110; multiple intelligences and, 110; singing and, 111; teaching, 110 – 11; technology and, 110 – 11 myths: on language minority students, 49; on learning, 42 NABE See National Association for Bilingual Education NAEP See National Assessment of Educational Progress NAFTA See North American Free Trade Agreement National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 60 – 61, 206, 206 – 7, 207, 286 – 87 National Association for Bilingual Education (NABE), 8, 53, 430 – 31 National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition (NCELA), 57 National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future (NCTAF), 337 National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE), National Council for Social Studies (NCSS), 248 – 49, 282n1, 285 National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE), 285 National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), 203 – 4, 211, 285 National Defense Education Act (1958), 52, 431 nationalism, 14 national unity, 377 – 79 Native Americans See American Indians nativist lobbies, 45 NCATE See National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education NCELA See National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition NCLB See No Child Left Behind Act NCSS See National Council for Social Studies NCTAF See National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future NCTE See National Council of Teachers of English NCTM See National Council of Teachers of Mathematics needs improvement label, 62 negotiating identities, 160n2 newcomer programs, 31 – 35, 261 New Jersey, 292 new language varieties, 152 new literacies, 89 New Mexico, 73, 415 New York, 292, 349, 395, 415 Nicaragua, 12 Nieto, Sonia, 102, 185, 190, 192 No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act (2001): assessment and, 285 – 87; AYP and, 59, 61 – 63, 423 – 24; Bilingual Education Act and, 58; bilingual special education and, 354 – 55; description of, 285 – 86, 431; English language proficiency testing and, 312 – 13; ESEA and, 59, 65; ESSA, similarities and differences from, 296 – 97; historical overview of legislation for, 58 – 63; leaving behind, 60 – 61, 286 – 87; on mathematics and science, 203; Obama, B., on, 59, 63; on parental involvement, 403; school accountability and, 59, 61; social studies and, 279; success of, 59 – 60; teaching profession and, 82 See also Title III norming bias, 303 – 5, 431 norm-referenced test, 308 – 9, 425, 431 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 14 North Carolina, 2, 80 – 81, 374 “Numbered Heads Together” structure, 97 – 98 502 Index Obama, Barack, 428, 431; CCSS and, 288; ESSA and, 350; on NCLB, 59, 63; policy in administration of, 63 – 64 Obama, Michelle, 63 OCR See Office for Civil Rights, U.S OECD See Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Of Borders and Dreams (Carger), 400 Office for Civil Rights, U.S (OCR), 434; court cases and, 66 – 72; Lau Regulations and, 68 – 69, 429; Lau Remedies and, 67 – 68, 429; OCR Memorandum of 1970, 68 Official English, 44 – 47 O’Malley, J M, 142 – 43 opportunity to learn standards, 214 – 15 Opt Out movement, 59, 291 – 93, 431 oral language, 327 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 202 – 3 Otavalo Indians, of Ecuador, 392 – 93 output, 128 Pájaro Valley Literacy Project, 109 PAL See Pre-Algebra Lexicon paragraph templates, 321, 324 PARCC See Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College & Careers parental involvement, 372; Bilingual Education Act on, 403; in bilingual special education, 361 – 64; community and, 375, 389 – 90; court cases for, 403; ECAA on, 403 – 4; ESEA and, 403; legislation for parental participation and community partnerships, 403 – 4; NCLB on, 403 parents: BPAC, 404; community partnerships and family structure, 406 – 7; cultural deficit theory and, 411 – 12; family and parental attitudes, on education, 392, 407 – 8; four stages of adjustment experienced by newcomers, 389 – 90; parental knowledge and beliefs, on education, 409 – 11 Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College & Careers (PARCC), 288 – 89, 339 – 43 “Partners in Print” program, 81 passive learning, 16, 431; teaching, 89 – 90 pedagogy: accelerated learning and, 93; critical, 93, 100 – 102, 425; empowerment, 135; goofiness, 105; responsive, 91 – 92 peer tutoring, 145 Pennsylvania Association of Retarded Children v Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, 348 performance-based activities, 268 – 70 performance-based assessment, 309 – 11, 431 performance criteria, 318 – 26 Philips, S U., 194 Piaget, Jean, 230 – 32, 241n3 pictures, 87 PISA See Programme for International Student Assessment planning matrix, 315, 317 pluralism, 172 – 73, 377 – 79 Plyler v Doe (1982), 71 – 72, 380 policy and politics: anti-bilingual education ballot initiatives, 32, 42; assessment and, 285 – 302; of bilingual education, 42 – 50; Bilingual Education Act and, 43; bilingual special education and, 346 – 52; California state policy and legislation, 73 – 74; changing terms of policy debate, 47 – 48; of English Only movement, 43 – 47; foreign-language policy, 52, 54 – 55; key terms, 77; nativist lobbies in, 45; in Obama administration, 63 – 64; in parent participation and community partnerships, 403 – 4; political factors in language minority achievement, 189 – 92; public opinion and, 42 – 43; reflection questions on, 77 – 78; school policy, 40 – 41, 47 – 48, 53; special education and, 346 – 47; state policies, 72 – 76; summary of, 76 – 77; symbolic politics, 42; in Unz era, 48 – 50 population growth, positive interdependence, 98 postfigurative transmission, 168 poverty, 13 See also socioeconomic status power, 402, 411 – 13 power relations, 40, 41, 253 Pre-Algebra Lexicon (PAL), 222 prefigurative transmission, 169 prejudice: culture, discrimination, and, 175 – 83; of language minority students, 14 – 15; reducing, 182 – 83 pre-referral interventions, 357 – 58, 431 prism model, 183 – 84, 215; academic development in, 119; cognitive development in, 119; description of, 118, 118; dimensions of, 118 – 20; interdependence of four components, 120; language development in, 119; sociocultural processes in, 118 – 19 private school vouchers, 83 private speech, 141 problem-posing education, 100 – 101 procedural knowledge, 330 – 31, 431 process standards, 212 – 13 production, 253 Index Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), 202 Proposition 58, 74 – 76 Proposition 63, 46 – 47 Proposition 106, 45 – 46 Proposition 187, 72, 378 – 79 Proposition 227, 48 – 50, 73 – 74, 379 protest, 275 – 77 public opinion, 42 – 43 race, 254 Race to the Top Program (RTTP), 64, 288, 293 racial bias, 135 racism, 191 – 92 Ramírez, David, 33 READ See Research in English Acquisition and Development readability formulas, 290 – 91 reading: assessment for, 328 – 29, 330; DRTA, 271, 427; literacy and, 158; in math and science, 224; reciprocal reading comprehension strategy instruction, 367, 431; strategies for tests and assessment, 334 – 36, 337; teaching, 154, 156 – 58, 328 – 29, 330, 367, 431 Reagan, Ronald, 69 realia, 87 Reardon, Sean, 13 reauthorization, 431; of Bilingual Education Act, 46, 48, 55 – 57; of ESEA, 59; of laws and Acts, 424 reciprocal reading comprehension strategy instruction, 367, 431 referral for special education, 359, 432 See also bilingual special education refugees, 14, 17 – 18, 132 – 33; background topics relevant to, 26; literacy for, 155 – 56 relative standards, 307, 426 reliability: absolute standards for, 307 – 8, 423; of assessment, 289, 307 – 8, 432; developmental standards and relative standards for, 307, 426; inter-rater, 307, 429; scoring rubrics and, 307 religion, 11, 178 – 79 remediation programs, 29 repertoire of communicative practice, 354 Research in English Acquisition and Development (READ), 47 resistance theory, 191 resources: ethnography as, 400 – 1; federal funding for, 57; math URL, 239 – 41; shared, for teaching, 111; student and community resources, for math and science, 234 – 36 503 response to intervention (RTI) model, 432; ELLs and, 356 – 58; IDEA and, 357 responsive pedagogy, 91 – 92 reverse diglossia, 396 Ríos v Read (1977), 380 role-playing, 104 – 5 Rolstad, K., 123, 126 – 27 Roosevelt, Theodore, 171 – 72 Roth, Toby, 42 Rough Rock English-Navajo Language Arts Program (RRENLAP), 418 RTI See response to intervention model RTTP See Race to the Top Program Said, Edward, 162 SAIPs See Special Alternative Instructional Programs scaffolding, 318, 319 – 21, 320, 321, 331, 332, 432 school accountability: assessment and, 59, 61, 297 – 98, 296; in ESSA, 297 – 98, 296; NCLB and, 59, 61 school-based assessment, 311 – 13 school–community partnerships, 415 – 17 School Divided (Guthrie), 400 schooling: in 1800s, 50; in 1900s, 50 – 52; in 1960s, 53 – 54 school policy, 40 – 41, 47 – 48, 53 school reform: for bilingual special education, 349 – 52; current standards in math and science reform, 210 – 13; for social studies, 261; Title VII and, 57 – 58 science See mathematics and science Sciences for All Americans, 241n2 science-technology-society education (STS), 237, 253 scoring: benchmarks, 318, 424; differentiated, 330, 333, 426 scoring rubrics, 432; reliability and, 307 – 11; sample of, 312 SDAIE See Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English secondary language (L2), 4; interdependence of first language with, 125 – 28; language development and, 119; literacy in, 154 – 56; output in, 128; in social studies, 264 – 66 second-language acquisition, 4; academic language and, 122 – 24, 137; age of initial exposure to, 122; CALLA and, 143; classroom environment and affective factors, 134; cognitive development and, 142 – 43; cognitive processes in, 135 – 38; collaborative 504 Index learning and, 134; immigration and, 133 – 34; individual variations in, 137 – 38; interactive classrooms and, 146 – 47; interdisciplinary instruction for, 147; key terms, 159; learning strategies for, 136 – 37; linguistic processes, 121 – 22; morpheme acquisition, 129; multicultural perspectives relating to, 145; as natural developmental process, 128 – 38; output in, 128; previous schooling experience relating to, 132 – 33; reflection questions on, 159 – 60; science content integrated with, 219; silent period and, 128; simultaneous bilingual acquisition, 121; social language and acquisition of, 121 – 22; societal factors relating to, 134 – 35; sociocultural processes in, 129 – 35; sociocultural theory on, 140 – 48; socioeconomic status relating to, 131 – 32; summary of, 158 – 59; teacher-student partnership for, 146; technology for, 147 – 48; thematic instruction and, 147; written input, 127 SEI See structured English immersion semilingualism, 126 – 27, 432 separatism, 43 Serna v Portales (1974), 69 set-of-traits view, 167 – 68 Shanker, Albert, 43 shared resources, 111 sheltered classes, 30 – 31, 427 sheltered content teaching: content ESL and, 86 – 88; defining sheltered content instruction, 87; English Only movement on, 86; instructional strategies, 87 – 88; for mathematics and science, 218 – 24; for social studies, 262 Significant Bilingual Instructional Features Study, 191 – 92 silent period, 128, 432 simultaneous bilingual acquisition, 121 singing, 111 Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium, 288 smartphones, 109 social exchange, 141 socialization, 398 – 99, 402 – 3 social language, 127; defining, 122, 432; meaning in, 122; second-language acquisition and, 121 – 22 social mobility, 13 social networking, 107 – 8 social reproduction theory, 190 – 92 social science, 250 – 54 social strategies, 136, 225 social studies: bilingual and ESL classroom settings for, 258 – 63; in California, 258 – 59; CALLA in, 275; civic ideals in, 253; content ESL for, 262; critical thinking in, 250 – 56, 270 – 71; culture and, 252; defining, 245 – 46, 248 – 49, 432; discovering and connecting with students, 267 – 68; elementary classroom settings, 258 – 59; engaging in, 245 – 48; ESSA and, 279 – 80; first language in, 264 – 66; framework for, 248 – 57; global education and, 256 – 57; globalization and, 244 – 45, 253; handson and performance-based activities for, 268 – 70; identity in, 252; immigrants and, 259 – 60; institutions and, 252 – 53; instructional strategies, 266 – 70; instruction challenges, 263 – 64; instruction guidelines, 249 – 50; instruction methods in, 248 – 49, 263 – 70; key terms, 281; language experience approach to, 272; language in, 264 – 66, 271 – 75; literacy and, 264, 272 – 73; middle and high school classroom settings, 259 – 62, 275 – 77; multicultural education and, 254 – 56; NCLB and, 279; NCSS, 248 – 49, 282n1; power relations in, 253; on protest and conflict, 275 – 77; reflection questions on, 281 – 82; school reform for, 261; secondary language in, 264 – 66; sheltered content teaching for, 262; study skills development for, 270 – 71; successful strategies in, 267 – 68; summary of, 280 – 81; technology in, 246, 269 – 70; thematic instruction for, 248 – 49, 275 – 80; thematic strands in, 252 – 53; themebased examples of, 277 – 79; time lines in, 252; transmission, social science, and critical thinking in, 250 – 54; types of classes, 262 – 63; vocabulary development and, 264, 271 – 72; writing and, 272 – 73 societal structure analysis, 134 – 35 society: caste, 135; science, technology, and, 236 – 37; STS, 237, 253 sociocultural processes: Cummins on, 160n2; for language minority students, 130 – 35; language use at school, 130 – 31; in prism model, 118 – 19; in second-language acquisition, 129 – 35; theoretical concept of, 160n2 sociocultural theory, 432; knowledge construction studies and, 195 – 97; on second-language acquisition, 140 – 48 socioeconomic status: community socioeconomic structure, 392 – 94; cultural capital and, 190 – 91, 213; language minority students and, 12 – 13, 131 – 32, 189 – 90; math and science achievement and, 210, 213; second-language acquisition relating to, 131 – 32 speaking, 153 – 54, 327 Special Alternative Instructional Programs (SAIPs), 266 Index505 special education: CLD students and, 352 – 56, 365; criticisms of approaches to, 346; current policies and reform, 349 – 52; defining, 346, 432; disproportionate representation in, 352 – 54; for language minority students, 71 – 72; for LEP students, 71 – 72; politics and, 346 – 47; referral for, 359, 432; under-referrals for evaluation, 354 – 56 See also bilingual special education Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English (SDAIE), 30 speech: free, 46; private, 141 spelling, 152 SQ4R study skills, 271 standardized testing See assessment state legislation: Bilingual Education Act and, 72 – 73; state policies and, 72 – 76 state level assessment, 300 – 1 state policies: state certification of bilingual/ESL teachers, 76; state legislation and, 72 – 76 stereotypes, 175, 178 – 80, 433 Sternberg, Robert, 112 structured English immersion (SEI), 31 – 32, 73 – 74, 433 structured immersion, 31 – 32 STS See science-technology-society education student background, 10 – 17 student-centered teaching, 314 – 16, 316 student observation, 24 – 25 students’ prior knowledge, 93 Students Transforming School, 270 student-teacher relationships, 27 study skills development, 270 – 71 submersion, 53, 433 subtractive bilingualism, 21 summative assessment, 300, 314, 433 symbolic politics, 42 Takaki, Ronald, 254 teachers: community observations by, 384 – 87; language minority students and teacher expectations, 23 – 24; shortages of, 82 – 83; state certification of bilingual/ESL teachers, 76; student-teacher relationships, 27; student test scores for teacher evaluation, 293 – 95; teacherstudent partnership, 146; turnover rates of, 82, 83; value-added models and, 293 – 94, 434 Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL), 5, 22, 52, 285, 433 teaching: accelerated learning, 99 – 100; activating students’ prior knowledge, 93; active learning, 90 – 92; art, 102 – 4; assessment and, 306 – 7, 326 – 37; bilingual special education, 366 – 67; case study on, 80 – 82; changes in style, 84; coaching teacher colleagues, 99; cognitively guided instruction, 228 – 29; collaborative learning, 93 – 99; complex instruction, 95; critical pedagogy, 100 – 102; current approaches to ESL and bilingual instruction, 85 – 88; drama and language play, 104 – 5; of ESL, 52; global education, 257; goofiness pedagogy, 105; integration of content and language, 85 – 86; with interdisciplinary instruction, 147; key terms, 113; language arts, 117, 148 – 58; listening and speaking, 153 – 54; long-term professional development for, 337; mathematics and science, 211 – 12, 226; multidimensional lessons, 112; music, 110 – 11; NCLB and, 82; NCTAF, 337; oral language, 331; passive learning, 89 – 90; planning matrix for, 315, 317; principles for effective classrooms for linguistically and culturally diverse students, 90; reading, 154, 156 – 58, 328 – 29, 330, 367, 431; reciprocal reading comprehension strategy instruction, 367, 431; reflection questions on, 113; responsive pedagogy, 91 – 92; second-language teaching approaches, 84 – 85; shared resources for, 111; sheltered content, 86 – 88, 218 – 24, 262; social studies bilingual and ESL classroom settings, 258 – 63; social studies instruction methods, 248 – 49, 263 – 70; student-centered, 314 – 16, 316; style, 28, 80 – 81; summary of, 112 – 13; technology and, 89, 106 – 10; with thematic instruction, 147, 236 – 37, 248 – 49, 275 – 80; traditional, 84, 314 – 16, 316; translanguaging and, 139 – 40, 150 – 51; in twenty-first century, 89; writing, 154, 156 – 58, 196, 328 – 29, 330 See also bilingual instruction technology, 87 – 88; choosing instructional technology materials, 106 – 7; computer access, 106, 108, 210; downsides of, 106; electronic media, 269 – 70; internet communication and social networking, 107 – 8; iPads, 109; laptops, 109; in mathematics and science, 212, 236 – 37; music and, 110 – 11; principles for use of, 110; science, society, and, 236 – 37; for secondlanguage acquisition, 147 – 48; smartphones, 109; in social studies, 246, 269 – 70; teaching and, 89, 106 – 10; videos, 108 – 9 Teresa P v Berkeley Unified School District (1989), 381 506 Index terror attacks, 14 TESOL See Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages test-based accountability, 59 – 61, 284 – 85, 286, 433 test bias, 304 – 5, 433 test complexity, 291, 433 testing See assessment test-taking skills, 333 – 34, 336, 337 Texas, 415; bilingual education in, 53; community programs in, 375 – 76; in United States v Texas, 69, 70 text complexity, 290, 291 thematic instruction, 147; for mathematics and science, 236 – 37; for social studies, 248 – 49, 275 – 80 3-D Project, 227 threshold hypothesis, 125 – 28, 433 time lines, 88; in social studies, 252 Title III: Language Instruction for Limited English Proficient and Immigrant Students, 58, 312, 433 Title VI, of Civil Rights Act of 1964, 66, 434 Title VII, of ESEA, 434; Bilingual Education Act and, 54 – 57; critics of, 46 – 47; developmental bilingual education and, 35, 43; foreignlanguage policy and, 54 – 55; on funding appropriations, 55, 55 – 56; on funding eligibility, 55 – 56; on funding purposes, 56 – 57; historical overview of legislation, 1968 – 2001, 54 – 58; of IASA and school reform, 57 – 58; LEP students and, 57 – 58; Proposition 63 and, 46 – 47 T-Lists, 335 – 36, 337 Tobeluk v Lind (1976), 380 trade, 14 traditional teaching, 84, 314 – 16, 316 training: federal funding for, 57; grants for, 57; long-term professional development, for teachers, 337 transitional bilingual education, 32 – 33, 434 translanguaging, 121, 434; definition and overview of, 138 – 39; implications of, 139 – 40; teaching and, 139 – 40, 150 – 51 translation: bias and, 305; ELLs, 145, 265 – 66 translingual, defined, 434 translingual practice, 140, 434 transmission, 250 – 54; cultural, 168 – 69, 426 true-false test questions, 334 Trump, Donald, 41; on ESSA, 295 – 96; on federal funding, 83 tutoring, 145 two-way bilingual classroom, 22 – 23, 28 – 29, 34 – 35 two-way immersion education, 434 Tylor, E B., 163 – 64 undocumented immigrants, 71 – 72 United States v Texas (1971), 69, 70 unmarked languages and cultures, 175, 176 – 78, 430 Unz, Ron, 48 – 50 Valdés, Guadalupe, 124, 383, 400 – 2 validity: assessment and, 284, 289, 300, 303 – 7, 318, 425, 434; consequential, 303, 318, 425; construct, 289, 425; content, 303, 318, 425; ESSA and, 300 value-added models, 293 – 94, 434 videos, 108 – 9 Virginia, 376 – 77, 416 vocabulary development: in mathematics and science, 222, 223; social studies and, 264, 271 – 72 Vonnegut, Kurt, 181 Vygotsky, Lev, 140 – 42, 195 – 96, 230 – 31, 432, 434 Walsh, Catherine, 101 – 2 War on Poverty, 13 Washington, DC, 382 – 83 Washington, George, 244 Wayne, William, 70 Wei, Li, 138, 139 Wenger, Etienne, 429 “Whole-Class Question—Answer” structure, 97 – 98 Wilson, Pete, 46 Wisconsin, 382 World War II, 52 writing: assessment for, 328 – 29, 330; dialogue journals, 156 – 57; editing and revision, 157; empowerment and, 157; formal, 157; literacy and, 158; in math and science, 224; social studies and, 272 – 73; teaching, 154, 156 – 58, 196, 328 – 29, 330 written input, 127 xenophobia, 14 Yarborough, Ralph, 43 Y S v School District of Philadelphia (1988), 71 Zinn, Howard, 372 zone of proximal development (ZPD), 140 – 41, 142, 434 About the Authors CARLOS J OVANDO is professor emeritus, School of Transborder Studies, College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Arizona State University Before joining the School of Transborder Studies, he served as associate dean of Teacher Education and director of the Division of Curriculum and Instruction in the Mary Lou Fulton College of Education He also coordinated the master’s degree program in the Social and Philosophical Foundations of Education and a multisection undergraduate course titled Culture and Schooling He also taught graduate and undergraduate courses addressing issues on language policy, bilingual education, applied research, and curriculum and instruction He was an advisor for the Initiative of the Americas Office of the Vice President for University School Partnerships and College of Education— Office of the Dean, Arizona State University He served as associate dean of Teacher Education and director of the Division of Curriculum and Instruction Prior to joining the faculty at Arizona State University, he served as chair of the Department of Curriculum and Instruction at Indiana University, Bloomington, and he served as director of the Bilingual Education Program Professor Ovando received his PhD in curriculum and instruction and international comparative education from Indiana University A  former high school Spanish teacher, his research, teaching, and service focus on factors that contribute to the academic achievement of language minority students and ethnically diverse groups He served as guest editor of two special issues of Educational Research Quarterly and contributed to the first and second editions of the Handbook of Research on Multicultural Education In addition, Professor Ovando has published in the following venues: Educational Researcher, Encyclopedia of Diversity in Education, Peabody Journal of Education, Bilingual Research Journal, Phi Delta Kappan, Educational Leadership, Kappa Delta Pi Record, Race Ethnicity and Education, World Yearbook 2003: Language Education, and the Harvard Educational Review His books include Bilingual and ESL Classrooms: Teaching in Multicultural Contexts (with Virginia P Collier), 1st and 2nd eds (1985, 1998); Bilingual and ESL Classrooms: Teaching in Multicultural Contexts (with Virginia P Collier and Mary Carol Combs), 3rd and 4th eds (2003, 2006) and 5th ed (with Mary Carol Combs) (2012); The Politics of Multiculturalism and Bilingual Education: Teachers and Students Caught in the Cross Fire (with Peter McLaren) (2000); and The Color of Bureaucracy: The Politics of Equity in Multicultural School Communities (with Colleen Larson) (2001) In partnership with the Paulo Freire Institute at UCLA, Professor Ovando was involved with a research initiative examining how globalization has affected educational reforms in K–12 and higher education systems in several countries in Latin America, North America, Europe, and 507 508 About the Authors Asia The countries selected for the study were the United States, Canada, Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, Portugal, Spain, Italy, Korea, Japan, Taiwan, and China This research initiative resulted in an edited volume edited by Liliana Olmos, Carlos Alberto Torres, and Rich Van Heertum titled Educating the Global Citizen: In the Shadow of Neoliberalism, Thirty Years of Educational Reform in North America (2011), to which Ovando contributed a chapter coauthored with Salvador Gabaldón titled “Restrictive English-Only Policies in a Globalizing World: The Conflictive Case of Arizona Orchestrated by a Conservative Political Agenda.” Professor Ovando has served as a consultant on English as an international language for the regional English offices of U.S embassies in Mexico, Costa Rica (cosponsored by Costa Rica Multilingüe, a national language planning and implementation initiative sponsored by the Casa Presidencial of Costa Rica), and Peru (cosponsored by the Fulbright Commission) He is currently researching globalization and equity issues within south-to-south migration patterns, especially in Central America Professor Ovando has given talks and presented papers in Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Egypt, England, Guam, Guatemala, Mexico, the Netherlands, Nicaragua, Peru, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Spain, Taiwan, Turkey, and the United States He has been a professor of education at Indiana University, Oregon State University, the University of Alaska, Anchorage, and the University of Southern California He has also been a visiting scholar at the Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica (Instituto de Estudios Latinoamericanos) and the University of Washington, Seattle He has worked with Chicanos/as, Mexican nationals, Athabascan Indians, Asian Americans, Pacific Islanders, African Americans, Southwestern Indians, Chamorros, Costa Ricans, and Nicaraguans He is the recipient of two Teaching Excellence Recognition awards from the School of Education at Indiana University In recognition of his commitment to education and support for the Latino community, Professor Ovando also received the 2010 Indiana University Distinguished Latino Alumni Association Award In 2011 he was Finalist, Arizona State University President’s Professor, School of Transborder Studies, Arizona State University (one of two faculty nominated by the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, the largest academic unit at Arizona State University with over 1,000 faculty members); the award recognizes Arizona State University faculty “who have made substantial contributions to undergraduate education at Arizona State University.” In 2013 the Victoria Foundation awarded Professor Ovando the Dr Eugene García Outstanding Latina/o Faculty Award for Research in Higher Education, Research Institutions At the Victoria Foundation’s ceremony, he was also presented a Certificate of Special Congressional Recognition for his outstanding and invaluable service to the community He has served as a manuscript reviewer for the National Academy of Education (Multicultural Education Series); Discipline Peer Review Committee member for the Fulbright Specialists Program as well as on the selection committee for the Fulbright Teacher Exchange Program He also served on the Truman Scholarship selection committee at the Barrett Honors College at Arizona State University Professor Ovando has served on various editorial boards, including the American Educational Research Journal (AERJ), the Bilingual Research Journal, and the International Multilingual Research Journal (consulting editor) Born in Nicaragua, Ovando immigrated to the United States in his preteen years and has therefore experienced firsthand many of the academic, sociocultural, and emotional issues that confront language minority students in the United States He is a naturalized citizen of the United States MARY CAROL COMBS is a professor in the Department of Teaching, Language and Sociocultural Studies, University of Arizona, in Tucson Her research explores the intersections between language and education policies, school funding, and public perceptions about About the Authors 509 immigration and schooling, particularly in the state of Arizona She has published numerous articles and book chapters on these issues, and has presented her work at national and international conferences She teaches graduate and undergraduate courses in bilingual education, second-language acquisition, English as a second-language methods, Indigenous language revitalization and development, language planning and policy, critical pedagogy and immigration and education Prior to her academic career, Dr Combs was the director of the Washington, DC–based English Plus Information Clearinghouse, a national clearinghouse on language rights and public policy at the National Immigration and Refugee Forum She remains active in national and international networks concerned with equity and social justice for migrant and refugee children in public schools