Contents Cover Title Page Copyright Preface Part I Introduction Science as a Moral Choice The moral case for scientific values Three Waves of science studies Revelation versus proof Structure of the book Notes Part II Elective Modernism Choosing Science Scientific values and the technical phase The problem of demarcation Formative aspirations of science Formative aspirations taken from traditional philosophy of science Formative aspirations from Mertonian sociology of science Additional formative aspirations Science as a logical machine and as a form of life The hard case: defending science when it is ineffectual Interim conclusion Notes Elective Modernism, Democracy and Science Elective modernism’s reach Elective modernism and the political phase The new understanding of science: the owls A new institution for policy advice A problem that still needs a solution Conclusion Notes Part III Academic Context Elective Modernism in Context Elective modernism and the second wave of science studies Intellectual precursors and contemporaries Notes Institutional Innovations Citizen panels, juries and consensus conferences Constructive Technology Assessment Citizen science Public debates and consultations Public engagement with science and technology Experts as policy advisors Conclusion Notes Part IV Manifesto Elective Modernism and Democracy Why bet on naïveté? Notes References Index End User License Agreement Why Democracies Need Science Harry Collins and Robert Evans polity Copyright © Harry Collins and Robert Evans 2017 The right of Harry Collins and Robert Evans to be identified as Authors of this Work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 First published in 2017 by Polity Press Polity Press 65 Bridge Street Cambridge CB2 1UR, UK Polity Press 350 Main Street Malden, MA 02148, USA All rights reserved Except for the quotation of short passages for the purpose of criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher ISBN-13: 978-1-5095-0963-8 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Collins, H M (Harry M.), 1943- author | Evans, Robert Title: Why democracies need science / Harry Collins, Robert Evans Description: Cambridge, UK ; Malden, MA : Polity Press, [2017] | Includes bibliographical references Identifiers: LCCN 2016038437 (print) | LCCN 2016055612 (ebook) | ISBN 9781509509607 | ISBN 9781509509614 (pb) | ISBN 9781509509645 (Epub) Subjects: LCSH: Democracy and science | Science Political aspects | Science and state Classification: LCC JC423 C6478 2017 (print) | LCC JC423 (ebook) | DDC 338.9/26-dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016038437 The publisher has used its best endeavours to ensure that the URLs for external websites referred to in this book are correct and active at the time of going to press However, the publisher has no responsibility for the websites and can make no guarantee that a site will remain live or that the content is or will remain appropriate Every effort has been made to trace all copyright holders, but if any have been inadvertently overlooked the publisher will be pleased to include any necessary credits in any subsequent reprint or edition For further information on Polity, visit our website: politybooks.com Preface There are four parts to our argument Part I introduces the problem, setting out the main issues as we see them, and describes the academic foundations on which our call to arms is built Part II contains most of the new ideas: it sets out the principles that inform what we call ‘elective modernism’ and explains their implications for the ways in which scientific advice should be sought and used in policy-making We argue that science should be seen as a moral enterprise and that the values that inform scientific work should be celebrated; this, as far as we know, is a new idea, so it takes precedence over the utilitarian justification of science in the argument of the book, but it can also be used in addition to the utilitarian argument when that works Crucially, however, the moral argument works for sciences that not have any obvious utility and, in that sense, it is prior We argue at the same time for the primacy of democratic institutions in technological decision-making and invent a new kind of institution – ‘The Owls’ – whose job is to represent faithfully the content and degree of certainty of any technical advice that might be thought to bear on these decisions Part III shows that we what we say should be done in Part II There we suggest that one of the values that characterizes science is ‘continuity’, by which we mean that even the most revolutionary of scientific ideas will seek to incorporate and retain a good portion of what was previously accepted as true In Part III, we show the ways in which our ideas, which we have come to realize in the light of reactions to them must include an unintended element of revolutionary thinking, relate to the huge existing literature that deals with science and democracy In Part IV, we sum up our argument in a manifesto for the future of science that sets out the key choices facing you, the reader, in as straightforward and uncompromising a manner as possible Given what has been said so far, it will be no surprise that this manifesto emphasizes the moral responsibility of scientists to act in ways that preserve science’s traditions and values If scientists fail in this task and we fail to support them in it, then a crucial element of the culture that sustains democratic societies will be lost Though both authors take full responsibility for the whole of this book, Collins was the lead author of Part II while Evans took the lead on Part III The authors have to thank many people We thank Martin Weinel for his marvellous analysis of the Thabo Mbeki, antiretroviral drugs affair and for his contributions to the more political parts of this book Under slightly changed circumstances, he would have been a co-author Above all, we thank the various audiences who have been willing to listen to talk of elective modernism The term had been batted around a bit but the ideas were probably first presented by Collins on October 2008 at the regular meeting of Cardiff’s Centre for the Study of Knowledge Expertise and Science, and since then they have been presented at many national and international meetings and mentioned, en passant, in a few pieces of published work Intervening events have slowed their presentation in extended form much more than we anticipated Part I Introduction 10 deliberative democracy citizenship in democracy, difference between democracy and politics democratization of science Dewey, John disciplinary matrix disinterestedness (Mertonian norm) diversity in scientific community Douglas, Heather analytic-deliberative methods epistemic values moral responsibility of care non-epistemic values reasonable foresight socially relevant science value-free ideal downstream engagement with science Duesberg, Peter Dupré, John Durant, Darrin Durkheim, Emile E eagles (scientists) econometrics / economic forecasting Edinburgh phrenology controversy Einstein, Albert 205 elective modernism and art and creationism / intelligent design and religion political decisions and technical opinion science as cultural resource science as moral choice science as moral leadership energy too cheap to meter epistemic injustice essential tension evolution / natural selection experience-based expertise experimenter’s regress expertise (as formative aspiration of science) extrinsic politics F fact–value distinction falsification family resemblance Feynman, Richard file-drawer problem Fischer, Frank Fleck, Ludwig form of life formative aspirations 206 of Wave Three / Third Wave of Science Studies formative aspirations of science clarity communism (Mertonian norm) continuity corroboration desire to find truth disinterestedness (Mertonian norm) expertise falsification (Mertonian norm) generality honesty individualism integrity locus of legitimate interpretation observation open-endedness organized scepticism (Mertonian norm) universalism (Mertonian norm) formative intentions fractal model of society framing (of technical or policy problems) Frewer, Lynn Fricker, Miranda fringe science publications Fuller, Steve 207 G generality (as formative aspiration of science) Generation Scotland GM crops GM Nation? debate gravitational wave physics H Habermas, Jürgen colonization of lifeworld communicative action scientization of politics hawks (scientific fundamentalists) Holton, Gerald honest broker House of Lords Science and Technology Committee HPV (Human Papilloma Virus) vaccine Huxley, Aldous hybrid forum I Imitation Game research method immoral science individualism (as formative aspiration of science) inequality in Western societies institutions, nature of institutions, trust in 208 integrity (as formative aspiration of science) intelligent design interactional expertise Interactive Technology Assessment Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) interpretive flexibility intrinsic politics Ioannidis, John Irwin, Alan is-ought distinction issue public J Jasanoff, Sheila JASONS K Kantrowitz, Arthur Kitcher, Philip well-ordered science Kuhn, Thomas disciplinary matrix essential tension paradigm views on Wave Two of science studies L 209 Lakatos, Imre language as collective property lay experts, lay expertise legal jury Lippmann, Walter locus of legitimate interpretation as formative aspiration of science logical positivism M Manhattan Project mavericks Mbeki, Thabo Medawar, Peter meritocracy in technical phase Merton, Robert K Mertonian norms of science as efficacious as response to totalitarian regimes communism disinterestedness organized scepticism universalism meta-expertise Millikan oil drop experiment minimal default position MMR vaccine controversy 210 moral philosophy Mullis, Kary N National Health Service (NHS) Netherlands Organization of Technology Assessment network conception of expertise Newton, Isaac NIMBY (Not In My Backyard) Nussbaum, Martha O observation (as formative aspiration of science) omni-competent citizen open-endedness (as formative aspiration of science) oral culture of science Oreskes, Naomi organized scepticism (Mertonian norm) Orwell, George owls, the job description recruitment to committee ozone layer (hole in) P paradigm paranormal 211 parapsychology Parsons, Talcott participant comprehension Participatory Technology Assessment pat answers to interviews pathological individualism Periodic Table of Expertises Pielke Jr, Roger Planck, Max Plato Polanyi, Michael political liberalism political phase Popper, Karl popular epidemiology postmodernism practice language precautionary principle prefer those who know what they are talking about problem of demarcation problem of extension problem of induction problem of legitimacy professions progress, nature of in Western societies protestant ethic public as constituted by issue 212 public consultations Public Engagement with Science and Technology (PEST) Q quasi-religious vs utilitarian arguments R Rathenau Institute Rawls, John comprehensive doctrine public reason relational conception of expertise religion and science use of religious iconography in science replication (of observations) representation in technical phase representative democracy republican model of science Rip, Arie role of science in society oil and water metaphor sandwich model Rowe, Gene S sandwich model of science and society Schot, Johan 213 science as moral institution science court science war / science wars scientific fundamentalism scientific norms, norms of science counter-norms scientific values (see also formative aspirations of science) scientism Second Wave of science studies sell-by date (of controversy or knowledge-claim) SETI@home Shapin, Steven social cartesianism social science (as science) socialization into social group sociology of knowledge solar eclipse spell checker standpoint epistemology statistical methods Strategic Defense Initiative T tacit knowledge collective tacit knowledge technical phase technocracy 214 decisionist model technological populism tenure, university academics Thatcher, Margaret Third Wave of science studies formative aspiration quasi-religious vs utilitarian arguments relationship to Wave Two tobacco industry transmuted expertise trials factor Turner, Stephen U ubiquitous expertise underdog universalism (Mertonian norm) upstream engagement with science utilitarian philosophy V value–value distinction value-free ideal (of science) values, how to justify choice of values of science (see also formative aspirations of science) Veblen, Thorstein veil of ignorance 215 verification (of observations) virtue epistemology vultures (apologists for scientific fundamentalists) W Wakefield, Andrew Wave One (of science studies) Wave Three (of science studies) formative aspiration quasi-religious vs utilitarian arguments relationship to Wave Two Wave Two (of science studies) Weber, Max Who will guard the guardians? Winch, Peter Wittgenstein, Ludwig Wynne, Brian 216 POLITY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT Go to www.politybooks.com/eula to access Polity’s ebook EULA 217 Indice Title Page Copyright Preface Part I Introduction 10 Science as a Moral Choice The moral case for scientific values Three Waves of science studies Revelation versus proof Structure of the book Notes Part II Elective Modernism 11 12 17 26 30 32 37 Choosing Science Scientific values and the technical phase The problem of demarcation Formative aspirations of science Formative aspirations taken from traditional philosophy of science Formative aspirations from Mertonian sociology of science Additional formative aspirations Science as a logical machine and as a form of life The hard case: defending science when it is ineffectual Interim conclusion Notes Elective Modernism, Democracy and Science Elective modernism’s reach Elective modernism and the political phase The new understanding of science: the owls A new institution for policy advice A problem that still needs a solution 218 38 38 40 45 49 52 58 63 65 68 69 77 77 83 91 99 109 Conclusion Notes 110 111 Part III Academic Context 117 Elective Modernism in Context Elective modernism and the second wave of science studies Intellectual precursors and contemporaries Notes Institutional Innovations Citizen panels, juries and consensus conferences Constructive Technology Assessment Citizen science Public debates and consultations Public engagement with science and technology Experts as policy advisors Conclusion Notes Part IV Manifesto 118 118 127 151 159 159 160 163 165 166 166 168 168 172 Elective Modernism and Democracy Why bet on naïveté? Notes References Index End User License Agreement 219 173 178 180 183 203 217 ... under Wave Two of science studies makes it very difficult to defend science on the grounds of its truth and utility Instead, we argue that democracies need science because science is, or can... Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Collins, H M (Harry M.), 1943- author | Evans, Robert Title: Why democracies need science / Harry Collins, Robert Evans Description: Cambridge, UK ; Malden, MA : Polity... desperately wanted That is why we are looking to science as an institution that can give moral leadership, rather than as something from which society needs protecting Science is not the only institution