Military Inc Military Inc Inside Pakistan’s Military Economy SECOND EDITION Ayesha Siddiqa First published 2007 by Pluto Press 345 Archway Road, London N6 5AA Second edition 2017 www.plutobooks.com Copyright © Ayesha Siddiqa 2007, 2017 The right of Ayesha Siddiqa to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN ISBN ISBN ISBN ISBN 978 7453 9902 978 7453 9901 978 7868 0011 978 7868 0013 978 7868 0012 Hardback Paperback PDF eBook Kindle eBook EPUB eBook This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental standards of the country of origin Typeset by Stanford DTP Services, Northampton, England Simultaneously printed in the United Kingdom and United States of America To the hope in my life, Sohail, and the wretched of my land We shall live to see, So it is writ, We shall live to see, The day that’s been promised, The day that’s been ordained; The day when mountains of oppression, Will blow away like wisps of cotton; When the earth will dance Beneath the feet of the once enslaved; And heavens’ll shake with thunder Over the heads of tyrants; And the idols in the House of God Will be thrown out; We, the rejects of the earth, Will be raised to a place of honor All crowns’ll be tossed in the air, All thrones’ll be smashed And God’s word will prevail, He who is both present and absent He who’s beheld and is the beholder And truth shall ring in every ear, Truth which is you and I, We, the people will rule the earth Which means you, which means I Faiz Ahmed Faiz America, January 1979 Contents List of Figuresix List of Tablesx List of Acronymsxi Acknowledgementsxiv Preface to the Second Editionxv Introduction1 Defining Milbus 5; Literature survey 9; What drives Milbus? 11; Consequences of Milbus 16; Milbus and Pakistan 20; Outline of the book 28 Chapter 1 Milbus: A Theoretical Concept35 Civil–military relations framework 35; A typology of civil– military relations 39; The civil–military partnership type 41; The authoritarian–political–military partnership type 46; The ruler military type 49; The arbitrator military type 54; The parentguardian military type 58; The warlord type 62 Chapter 2 The Pakistan Military: The Development of Praetorianism, 1947–7767 The military institution 68; The military’s primary role 72; The military’s secondary role 74; The military in politics and governance 76; Initiation to power, 1947–58 80; The rise to power, 1958–71 83; Returning to democracy, 1971–7 89 Chapter 3 Evolution of the Military Class, 1977–200597 The coercive military, 1977–88 98; A thorny partnership, 1988–99 107; Consolidation of power, 1999–2005 112; Evolving into a military class 124 Chapter 4 The Structure of Milbus131 The economic empire 131; Level 1: the organization 134; Level 2: the subsidiaries 137; Level 3: the members 147 Chapter 5 Milbus: The Formative Years, 1954–77150 Setting up the economic empire, 1954–69 150; The era of restraint, 1969–77 157 military inc Chapter 6 Expansion of Milbus, 1977–2005161 Re-establishing financial autonomy, 1977–88 161; Civilian–military politico-economic integration, 1988–99 176; Consolidating the economic interests, 1999–2005 193 Chapter 7 The New Land Barons203 The military and land 204; Urban land acquisition 216; The sociology of military land 233 Chapter 8 Providing for the Men: Military Welfare241 Military welfare 241; The Fauji Foundation model 244; The AWT model 246; Welfare for individuals 248; The political geography of military welfare 249 Chapter 9 The Cost of Milbus256 The cost of economic inefficiency 256; Army Welfare Trust: a financial assessment 257; Fauji Foundation 266; Shaheen Foundation 271; Resource pilferage 272; Frontier Works Organization 273; Economic opportunity cost 274 Chapter 10 Milbus and the Future of Pakistan283 Recapping Milbus 283; Milbus in Pakistan 284; Milbus and military professionalism 285; The politics of Pakistan 289; The impact of Milbus in the future 293 POSTSCRIPT TO THE SECOND EDITION Chapter 11 From Military Government to Military Governance, 2007–16297 From military dominance to military hegemony 298; Expansion of Milbus 310 Chapter 12 From Military Inc to Media Inc.319 From control to hegemonic power 319; The image management infrastructure 328 Notes335 References359 Index375 viii Figures 4.1 4.2 4.3 Milbus: the structure Structure of the National Logistic Cell The sign of Bahria Foundation College, Bahawalpur, marks it as a subsidiary of the Pakistan Navy 4.4 The military’s institutional linkage with Milbus 4.5 Organizational chart of the Fauji Foundation 4.6 Organizational chart of the Army Welfare Trust 4.7 Organizational chart of the Shaheen Foundation 4.8 Organizational chart of the Bahria Foundation 6.1 Division of the defence budget 7.1 Military urban real estate 8.1 Ethnic division of military pensioners: JCOs and other ranks 8.2 Military pensioners: officer cadre 8.3 Military pensioners data, Punjab 8.4 Military pensioners data, NWFP 8.5 Military pensioners data, Sindh Map Placement of welfare foundation businesses 12.1 From military control to hegemony 12.2 Controlling the narrative ix 132 135 137 138 141 143 145 146 168 218 250 251 251 252 252 254 324 331 references Papers and reports Asch, Beth J and Warner, John T (1994) ‘A policy analysis of alternative military retirement systems’, RAND report MR-465-OSD, Santa Monica: RAND Corporation Gadzar, Harris (2003) ‘The land question’, paper written for Department for International Development (DFID), UK, December Hasnain, Zahid (2005) ‘The politics of service delivery in Pakistan: political parties and the incentives for patronage, 1988–1999’, World Bank Report No SASPR-6, May Holmqvist, Caroline (2005) 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lack of data 28–9; lack of transparency 2, 7, 24–5, 257, 288–9 Afghanistan 63, 298; war (1979–88) 102, 105–6 Africa, warlord types 62–3 agriculture 207–9; agri-business 169, 170 Ahmed, Khaled 284–5 Ahmed, Qazi Hussain 128 Ahmed, Tanveer Mehmood 285 Akba, Zahid Ali 288 Alavi, Hamza 31, 68, 78–9, 153, 234 Ali, F.B 303 Altaf, Saleem 271 AMAA (Army Mutual Assistance Association) 129 Amin, Idi 52 Amjad, Rashid 280 Amjad, Syed Mohammad 142, 171, 218, 267–8, 270–1, 290, 321–2 Anjuman-e-Muzarain Punjab (AMP) 315, 327 arbitrator military type 54–8, 61; temporary political rule 54–5 Armed Forces Mutual Assistance Fund see OYAK Askari Education Board 195 Aslam, Imran 326 Auchinleck, General 73 authoritarian-political-bureaucratic partnership 39, 40, 46–9, 290–1 Avant, Deborah 10 aviation sector 172, 180, 187–8, 263, 265, 271–2, 317 Awami League 81, 89, 159 AWT (Army Welfare Trust) 2, 21, 124, 142–4, 143, 158; Askari Bank 181–2, 183, 247, 316; bankruptcy and bailout 192, 200, 257–60; benefits 246–7, 246; expansion 170–1, 181–3, 186, 187–8, 192; financial assessment 257–66; financial returns 261–3, 262, 264, 265–6, 265; projects 144, 257, 261, 263, 264 Azeem, Asiya 110 Azeem, Zarrar 220 Aziz, Donya 109 Aziz, Shaukat 26, 298, 321 Aziz, Sirtaj 176, 182 Baaz, Bashir 188 Babur, Farhatullah, Senator 25 Baker, Raymond W 307 Baluchistan 69, 74, 94–5; conflict 326–7, 328; land acquisition 224, 232–3, 238 bandits, roving 26, 53 Bangladesh 54, 57; independence 67, 90–1; pre-independence tensions with 89–91, 152, 159 banking 128, 138, 181–2 Baqai, Huma 301 Bashir, Muhammad 238–9 BCCI 102–3 Beg, Mirza Aslam 107, 167, 176–7, 182, 274 Ben-Gurion, David 44 Bengal/East Pakistan see Bangladesh Bengali, Kaisar 224–5, 249 BF (Bahria Foundation) 21, 137, 139, 146–7, 168–9; expansion of interests 172, 184–5, 195, 222; projects 147 Bhandara, M P 180 Bhutto, Benazir 26, 128, 301, 307; assassination 301; Musharraf and 118, 121, 299–300; overthrow (1990) 107, 111; as prime minister 121, 123–4; relations with military 107, 176–7, 185–6, 310 Bhutto, Zulfiqar Ali 26, 31, 32, 60, 91–6; death 95, 99, 160; Islamic socialism 91, 375 military inc 96; nationalization policy 91–2, 102–3, 123, 280; and Pakistan People’s Party (PPP) 88; political flaws 79, 92–3, 94–6; relations with military 71–2, 93–5, 159–60 BICC 5, 11 black economy 177–8, 182, 217 Blood, Archer, ‘Blood Telegram’ 90 Bogra, Mohammad Ali 81 Bokhari, Fasih 112–14, 179 Brazil 52, 53 business: famous 22 families 87, 153, 158; military links with 102–3, 122–3, 128–9, 278–9 Butt, Zia-u-Din 113 Cabinet Committee for Defence (DCC) 72 Callahan, Mary 14, 53 Canada, arms sales 10 capitalism: crony 177, 281–2; peripheral 78–9 cargo transport 166–7, 166, 277 Castro, Fidel 46, 47, 49 cement industry 192, 257, 260 CENTO (Central Treaty Organization) 83 Charitable Endowments Act (1890) 139, 144, 146, 246, 257 Charter of Democracy (2006) 128, 201, 291–2, 301 Chaudhry, Ifitkhar Muhammad 298–9, 304, 305, 307 Cheema, Pervaiz 75 Cheema, Umer 330 Chile 28 China 47, 283, 307; Milbus and ruling elite 2, 11; PLA 11, 12, 20, 48–9; Revolution in Military Affairs 20 Chisti, Faiz Ali 81, 165 Cholistan Development Authority 238, 313–14 civil bureaucracy: Pakistan 67–8, 77–8, 81, 242–3 Ayub Khan and 84–6 civil society: institutions 48, 51, 55; weakness of 77, 154–5, 290, 333 civil-military partnership 17–18, 39, 40, 41–6, 280, 297–8 civil-military relations 2, 8, 23, 35–9; army rise to power 83–9, 108–9; imbalance 130, 176–93, 308–9; and levels of economic exploitation 65; typology 39, 40, 41–64, 42 class(es): dominant 79–80, 87–8, 119, 153; and land ownership 235–6; military 70, 124–30 Cloughly, Brian 75 Cockburn, Alexander 182 Cohen, Stephen P 72, 73, 77, 120, 251 Colonization of Land Act (1912) 211 Companies Ordnance (1984) 185, 186 conservatism, social and religious 100–1 Constitution: amendments 102, 122, 177, 227, 305; Article 58(2)(b) 23, 31, 104–5, 112, 124, 173, 286; Bhutto’s (1973) 93; first (1956) 81; second (1962) 84, 159 contracts, government 179, 199–200, 277–8 cooperatives, Milbus 136–7, 167 corporate sector, Milbus and 2, 14, 52, 279 corruption 198, 229, 288, 312, 313; allegations of 186–7 Crescent Group of Industries 178, 278 Cuba 2, 46, 47 cyber security 330, 331–2 Dar, Ishaq 178, 192–3, 258, 259 Daultana, Mumtaz 80 Davis, James 10 defence budget 1, 168, 180, 190, 256 defence contractors 148 Demirel, Suleyman 175 democracy: guided 84, 86; in Pakistan 21, 28–9, 67, 290, 301; in strong states 38–9, 283, 292 developing states, militaries in 19, 53–4 DHA (Defence Housing Authority) 17–18, 163, 185, 197, 217–32; and Baria Town developer 311–12; land acquisition 217; management 226–7, 228 drug trafficking and smuggling 174, 182–3, 217 Durrani, Asad 107, 155, 290 Durrani, Tehmina 235 376 index DynCorps 45 Gülen, Fethullah 302 education: ghost schools 196; madrassas 195; military influence in 196–7, 332; military schools 165–6, 189–91, 194–5 Egypt 305 Eisenhower, Dwight D 46 Elahi, Pervaiz 117–18 elections: 1970 89; 1984 referendum 103; 1985 101–2; 1988 107; 2002 general 116; 2002 presidential referendum 116; 2007 300; 2008 297; 2013 297, 301, 309 Elective Bodies Disqualification Ordinance (EBDO) 85 Erdoğan, Recep Tayyip 302, 319, 320 Ethiopia 63 Habib, Abbas 278 Haider, Moin-u-Din 170 Hale, William 162 Halliburton 45 Halpern, Manfred 13 Haq, Fazle 182 Haq, General Zia ul 31, 55, 98; death 103; development of coercive military 98–106, 286; economic liberalization 175, 280; and financial autonomy of Milbus 161–75; proposed National Security Council 60, 105; and religious elite 163 Haq, Mansoon-ul 288 Haq, Mehboobul 158 Haqqani, Hussain 73, 74, 76, 89, 111, 306 Hashmi, Riaz 218, 221 Hassan, Agha Masood 241 healthcare 244–5 Herring, Ronald 214 Hezbollah, Iran 49 Hilaly, Agha 91 Hobsbawm, Eric Holmqvist, Caroline 10 Holsti, Kalevi J 52 housing, for military 173–4, 217 housing schemes 217, 221–2, 225–7, 230–1, see also DHA Huntington, Samuel P 13, 75, 274 Hussain, Chaudhry Shujaat 117 Hussain, Imtiaz 312 Hussain, Ishrat 193, 274–6 Hussain, Malik Riaz 311 Hussain, Mushahid 99, 108, 125 Hussain, Shakir 123 Hussain, Tanveer 266–7 factionalism 80–1 Faiz Ahmed Faiz 156 Fazl-u-Rehman, Maulana 128 Feaver, Peter 58 Federal Security Force (FSF) 94–5 Feit, Edward 9, 78, 85, 124 fertilizer manufacture 17–18, 140, 141–2, 169, 269–70 feudalism 4, 87, 203; and land acquisition 211–12, 233–40 FF (Fauji Foundation) 2, 7, 21, 139–42, 141, 152–4; expansion 169–70, 186, 191–2; financial assessment 266–71, 267, 268, 269, 271; international partnerships 141–2, 316; projects 140, 267; retirement benefits 244–6 film industry 329 fishing 172–3 FOTCO 191–2 France 2, 10, 14, 43 FWO (Frontier Works Organization) 132, 136, 155, 179, 199, 273–4 Gandhi, Indira 43 Gazdar, Harris 235 Geneva Accords (1988) 105–6 Geo media group 309, 326 GHQ (Pakistan) 129–30, 161; power of 97–8, 122, 125, 158, 297–8 Gillani, Yusuf Raza 117, 307–8 Gracey, General 73 Gul, Hameed 107, 148, 198 IJI (Islami Jamhoori Ittihad) 102 India 22, 43, 73, 81, 151; military compared 109–10; negotiations with 303; as threat to Pakistan 27, 72–4, 90, 113–15, 285–6; war over East Pakistan (1971) 90–1 Indonesia 20, 133; arbitrator military 55, 56–7; economic predatoriness 19, 154; Milbus in 2, 12, 15; Provisional People’s Congress 59 377 military inc Khan, Farrukh 192, 289 Khan, Fazal Muqeem 75 Khan, Gul Hassan 94 Khan, Imran 309, 310, 320 Khan, Ishaq, President 107, 121, 176 Khan, Jamsheed Ayaz 165, 265 Khan, Liaquat Ali 80–1 Khan, Saeed Mohammad 163 Khan, Sher 268 Khan, Tariq Kamal 168–9 Khan, Umrao 213 Khan, Yahya 31, 55, 157–9, 303; succession to Ayub Khan 82, 84, 88–9 Khokhar, Riaz 303 Khuhro, Hamida 82 Khuhro, Mohammad Ayub 82 Khuhro, Nisar 179 Kiessling, Hein 303 kleptocratic distribution 16–17, 26, 49, 52–3, 272–3, 279 Kochanek, Stanley 280 KPMG 258, 260 Kux, Dennis 77 information technology 189 intelligence agencies 71, 102, 181 internal security 51, 74–6 Iqbal, Javed 312 Iran Iraq war 45, 111 ISI (Inter-Services Intelligence), Pakistan 71, 102, 305; and media 327, 330; and students in UK 331–2 Islam, Zaheer-ul 309, 312–13, 326 ISPR (Inter-Services Public Relations) 109, 111–12, 327, 328–9 Israel 2, 43–4 Jahangir, Asma 304, 329 Jalal, Ayesha 13, 24, 73, 76 Jamaat-i-Islami 128 James, Sir Morrice 92 Jamiat-ul-Ulema 128 Janowitz, Morris 13, 70 JCSC (Joint Chiefs of Staffs Committee) 71, 125 Jinnah, Mohammad Ali 73, 80 judiciary 121–2, 298–9, 304–5, 307 Junejo, Mohammad Khan 102, 105, 164 Kakar, Waheed 121 Kallu, Shamsul Rehman 107 Kamal, Tariq 312 Karachi, port of 135, 166–7, 223; DHA 231, 237, 312 Karakoram Highway 136, 155 Karamat, Jahangir 72, 112, 114 Kargil war (1999) 113, 114, 324 Kariappar, Ayesha Salma 208, 209 Karim, Abdul, land case 238–9 Kashmir 73–4, 110, 114–15, 291–2 Kasuri, Ahmed Raza 99 Kasuri, Khurseed Mehmood 303 Kayani, Ashfaq Pervez 303–5, 306–7, 308, 310–12, 320–1, 333 Kellogg, Brown & Root 45 Kerry-Lugar-Berman bill 306 Khairi, Wahab-ul 138, 184–5 Khan, Ayub 31, 55, 67, 75, 81–3, 84–9; and economy 153–4, 279–80; and Mirza 81–2; relations with civil bureaucracy 84, 85–6, 155–6 Khan, Bakhtiar 174 Lahore 219–20, 232; DHA 227–8, 229, 230 Lahore Declaration 113 land 157, 213, 223; agricultural 205–10, 233–4; cantonments 205–6, 218–19, 228; conversion of state land 218–26, 272–3; grants to military personnel 197, 204–5, 210–16, 212, 214, 219, 248; profitability 227, 229–30; and real estate development 174–5, 187, 198, 217, 218; urban 203, 216–33; and urban planning 231–2 land acquisition 17, 22, 33, 148, 170–1, 203–40; and feudalism 211–12, 233–40; forcible 223–4, 232–3, 236–7, 313–16; as kleptocracy 272–3, 281; value of 203, 212, 220–1 Land Acquisition Act (1894) 206, 210, 216 Land Reform Commission (1959) 214 land reforms 87, 92, 214–15 Lane, Frederic 3–4, 281–2 Latin America 13, 28, 51, 53–4 lawyer’s movement (2007) 297, 299, 303–4, 310, 333 378 index Linz, Juan 37 localization of politics 101–2, 115–16 Lock, Peter 10–11, 19–20, 182 Locke, John 152, 209 Lodhi, Maleeha 301 McCulloch, Lesley 19 Mamdot, Nawab Iftikhar Hussain 215 Manekshaw, 109–10 Mann, Michael 120 Manzoor, Aftab 278 Maqbool, Khaled 163, 219, 227, 292, 322 Mares, David 13 martial law 24, 115 Masood, Talat 108, 169, 285 media 42, 185, 309, 325, 329; army use of 320–1; expansion of 323–7; management of 28, 291; mistreatment of 100, 115, 120; restrictions on 325, 326–7 Mehmood, Shaukat 216 Memogate scandal 306 Milbus 1–3, 5–9, 14, 256, 283–4; concept 35–66; consequences of 16–20; consolidation of interests (1999–2005) 193–202; cost of economic inefficiency 256–82; drivers of 11–15; early economic empire (1954–77) 150–7; economic activities 5–6, 131–3, 132; individual benefits 147–9, 204–5; inefficiency of commercial operations 25, 187–8, 189, 191–3, 316; international partnerships 141–2, 199–200; and military organization 6, 137–9, 138, 277; and military professionalism 285–9; opportunity costs 274–6, 275; origins in Pakistan 22–3, 24, 32, 67–8, 150, 284–5; recent expansion 310–18; and religious extremism 293–4; sectoral expansion 162, 167, 179–80, 181–9, 191–2; structure 131–49, 132; subsidiaries 137–47, 167, 179–80, 204, 210; welfare 6, 11–12, 33, 137–47, 150–2, 241–55, see also Pakistan military military capital 15, 216–17, 279; predatory style 2–3, 8, 18–19, 160, 201–2 military coups, first (1958) 22, 77–8, 82, 83 military fraternity 6–7, 8–9, 15, 167, 286; cronies of 15, 18, 26–7, 123, 197; influence of 129–30; retired officers 8–9, 140–1, 147–8, 243–4 Military Intelligence (MI), Pakistan 71 military, internal economy 2, 7–8, 9, 21–2, 62; costs of 33–4; development of 150–7; and financial autonomy 12–13, 23–4, 65–6, 86, 128–9, 161–75; land acquisition 17, 129, 148, 204–16 military, in politics 2, 4–5, 22–3, 34 military professionalism 20, 34, 41–2, 47; arbitrator military 55–6; effect of Milbus on 285–9; and warlord type 63–4 military, types of, ruler-military 49–54 Mir, Hamid 326 Mirza, Iskandar 81–2, 84 MLC (Department of Military Land and Cantonment) 131–2, 205 MMA (Pakistan religious party) 116, 117, 126 MoD, Pakistan, and Milbus 131–3 Mohammad, Ghulam 81 money-laundering 182 monopolies 53, 277–8 Moore, Raymond 75, 152–3, 274 Mora, Frank O 48, 147 Movement for Restoration of Democracy (MRD) 99 MPRI 45–6 MQM (Muhajir Qaumi Movement) 102, 117, 299, 317 Mujeeb-u-Rehman, Sheikh 31 Mullen, Mike, US Admiral 306 Mulvenon, James 11, 20, 49 Muñoz, Heraldo 300 Musa, Muhammad 213 Musharraf, Gen Pervez 55, 73, 194, 291; and democracy 21, 27; and DHA 17–18; and India 114–15; and media 28, 115, 120, 291, 324; and NSC 23, 60, 194; and political parties 116–18; property 222, 225–6; resignation 297, 298–301, 303; and Sharif 112–13, 193; and Supreme Court 298–9 Muslim League 31, 80–1 379 military inc Myanmar 2, 3, 14, 53 Nandi, Ashis Naqvi, Tanveer 108–9 Nasser, Gamal Abdel 47 National Accountability Bureau (NAB) 117, 186, 288, 312, 321–2 National Reconstruction Bureau (NRB) 108–9 national security 27, 38, 96; Milbus and 15, 285–6; and political policy 284, 289, 291 National Security Councils 58 National Security Workshop 332–3 nationalism, discourse of 328, 333–4 Nehru, Jawaharlal 43 Nixon, Richard, US President 90, 91 NLC (National Logistic Cell) 132, 134–5, 135, 166–7, 223, 322–3; government contracts 179, 199–200, 277–8 Noon, Sir Feroz Khan 82 Nordlinger, Eric 69–70 North West Frontier Province (NWFP), as ‘martial race’ 68–9 NRO (National Reconciliation Ordinance) 299–300, 307 NSC (National Security Council) 24, 31, 60, 105; formation (2004) 23, 124, 125–7, 194, 286–7 nuclear programme 103 O’Donnell, Guillermo 37, 275–6 officer cadre 1, 11–12, 287–8; employment for 171, 243–6, 247, 248, 289–90; privileges and benefits 173–4, 310–11; retired officers 8–9, 22, 180, 196–7; welfare of 156–7, 251 officers, senior: land 213, 214, 215–16, 220–1; powers of 164–5, 199, 200; privileges 175, 186–7, 188–9, 229, 286–8; and professionalism 286, 287 oil and gas sector 170, 191–2 Okara farms, Punjab 207–9, 210, 224, 314–15 Olson, Mancur 26, 53 OYAK 7, 133, 175 PAF (Pakistan Air Force) 68, 70, 171–2, 222 Pakistan 20–8, 76–7, 284–5; democracy in 21, 27–9, 67, 290; ethnic and sectarian divisions 74, 252–3; government expenditure 190; and India (as external threat) 27, 72–4, 90, 113–15, 285–6; military-led governance 297–8; National Security Council 58; politics of 289–92, 308; transition to civilian rule 301–2 Pakistan military 55, 57, 68–74, 160, 277, 303–4; coercive phase (1977–88) 98–106; consolidation of power (1999–2005) 112–24; early influence 80–3; evolution as military class 124–30, 286, 290; hegemony 291–2, 319–27, 324; hierarchical organization 70–2, 127, 287–8; image management 328–34, 331; likelihood of coup d’état 301–2, 323–4; as nation-builder 75–6, 151, 154; in politics and governance 76–80, 121–2, 162, 309–10; relations with civilian politics (1988–99) 106–12, 176–93; rise to power 83–9, 286–7; secondary role 74–6; view of ineptitude of politicians 108–10, 162–3, 330, 333, see also Milbus Pakistan National Alliance (PNA) 98 Pakistan Penal Code, amended 100 Pakistan Procurement Regulatory Authority (PPRA) 312–13 Pakistan Rangers 132, 172–3, 225, 317–18 Panama Papers leak 322 parent-guardian military type 58–62, 125; in Pakistan 97–8, 180, 195–6, 201 Parliament (Pakistan): inquiry (2005) 7, 29; presidential power to dissolve 104–5 Pasha, Mustafa Kamal 69, 210–11 Pasha, Shuja 306 peasants, landless 233–40, 314–15 PEMRA (Media Regulatory Authority) 324–5 pensions 242–3, 242, 250, 251; regional distribution 249–55, 251, 252 Perlmutter, Amos 46, 50, 54–5, 68 PIDC (Pakistan Industrial Development Corporation) 87, 153, 280 PIDE (Pakistan Institute of Development Economics) 242–3 380 index Pirzada, Abdul Hafeez 95 PML-N (Pakistan Muslim LeagueNawaz) 116, 120, 301, 322 PML-Q (Pakistan Muslim League-Quaide-Azam) 110, 116, 117–19, 301 PN (Pakistan Navy) 68, 70, 236–7; Bahria Foundation 21, 137, 139, 146–7, 184–5; schools 165–6, 190–1, 194–5 political opposition, Pakistan 25, 27, 29, 98–9; neutralized 98–103, 201 political parties 47; coercion by military 117–20; weakness in Pakistan 67, 95, 110–12 political pluralism 38–9 political-military relations 26, 27, 284, 308 PPP (Pakistan People’s Party) 88, 89, 95, 159 private military enterprises (PMEs) 44–6 privatization: economic 7, 163, 281; of security 16, 183 property, private 209 PSO 191–2 Punjab 80–1, 127, 194, 205, 317–18; dominance of welfare 249–55; as ‘martial race’ 68–9 Punjab University 196–7 Qadeer, Mohammad 235 Qadir, Saeed 135, 166 Qadri, Maulana Tahirul 309 Qazi, Lt Gen 171 Qureshi, Khursheed Zaman 237 Qureshi, Moeen 26, 123 Qureshi, Rashid 109 Qureshi, Shah Mehmood 176 Rafsanjani, Hashmi 49, 144–5 Rahman, Tariq 165 railways 166–7, 277 Rawalpindi Conspiracy 156 Razzak, Mohammad 313 Reagan, Ronald, US President 106 regimental funds, secret 164 Rehman, Mujeeb-ur 88, 89, 159 Rehman, Shahid-ur 124, 281 Rehman, Sherry 25 religious extremism 74; and Milbus 293–4 religious ideology: and nationalist identity 333–4; PNA and 98; PPP and 91, 96; Zia’s use of 102, 104 religious right, links with military 100–1, 128, 163 resources, national, distribution 52, 61–2 Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA) 286 Riaz, Malik 184 Rice, Condoleezza 299 Rizvi, Fahim Haider 247 Rizvi, Hassan-Askari 24, 157, 170 Rizvi, Majida 110 roads 179, 186, 199; highway tolls 200–1 Robinson, William 13 ruler-military relationship 49–54 rumour 323 Russia 12, 14, 49 Saleem, Farrukh 269 Salik, Sadiq 90 SCO (Special Communications Organization) 132, 136, 160 Securities & Exchange Commission 186, 275–6 Sehgal, Ikran 183, 220–1, 231, 288 Sethi, Najam 164, 291 SF (Shaheen Foundation) 21, 144–6, 145, 168; expansion of interests 171–2, 185–6, 187, 317; financial assessment 271–2 Shaffee, Tariq 178 Shafqat, Saeed 76–7, 82, 91, 92, 304, 305 Shaheen Air International 187, 271, 272 Shaheen Airport Services 172, 272 Shahzad, Saleem 326, 330 Shareef, Raheel 307, 309, 315, 320–3, 326, 328 Sharia law, imposition of 98, 100 Sharif, Mian Nawaz 26, 103, 128, 178; and AWT 258–9; and Musharraf 112–13, 121, 193, 259, 300–1; overthrow of 107, 111, 112, 193; as prime minister 121–2, 280, 309; relations with military 176, 181, 193, 321 Sharif, Shahbaz 121, 178, 179, 314 Shaukat, Nadeem 216 Shehryar, Irfan 287–8 Siddiqui, Brig A R 73 Sierra Leone 63 381 military inc Sindh 69, 74, 170; land acquisition 233, 236–7, 314; land grants 157, 223–4; welfare 250, 252 Singer, P.W 10 smuggling 177–8 social media 330–1; mobile phones 323 Societies Registration Act (1860) 143, 257 Somoza, General 52 Soomro, Elahi Buksh 176 South Africa 2, 10, 14, 43 Sri Lanka 47–8 state-corporatism 42–3 state(s) 36–9; failing 62–3; overdeveloped 78–9; predatory 3, 290 Stepan, Alfred 13, 274 Strategic Plans Division 332 students 99, 331–2 sugar production 186, 266–7 Suharto 56, 59–60, 154 Sukarno 56 Sultan, Shaukat 166, 209, 222 Sweden 12 Tabba, Razzak 109, 178 taxation: land 217, 228; of Milbus subsidiaries 139, 144, 181 technocrats, partnerships with 60, 279 Tellis, Dr Ashley 110 terrorism: anti-terror operations 317; prosecutions 304 Thailand, Milbus in Thal canal 237–8 Tilly, Charles 12, 36, 37 Tiwana, S.M 313 totalitarianism 3, 49–50 TPI (Tehreek-e-Insaaf) 309 Trade Mark Act (1940) 185 Transparency International Pakistan 312–13 travel industry 187, 188–9 Turkey 12, 55–6, 57, 175, 325; economic predatoriness 19, 154; July 2016 mutiny 302, 310, 319–20; Milbus in 2, 14, 129; military hegemony 20, 162, 292; as model for Pakistan 99–100, 122–3, 125–6, 133; National Security Council 58, 60 Uganda 52 United Kingdom 10, 43, 76; as colonial power 205–6, 208; Milbus in 2, 14 United Nations 91 United States 43, 45, 58, 105–6; arms sales 10, 106, 111; foreign assistance act 306–7; foreign security agenda 13–14, 18, 28; Milbus in 2, 14, 16, 44–6; policy on Pakistan 21, 90–1, 292, 293, 299; relations with Pakistan military 76–7, 83 Varan Transport Company 148, 198–9 WAPDA 191–2, 288 warlord type 62–4 Waseem, Mohammad 77, 116, 118 water resources 197, 213, 215–16, 237–8, 314 welfare 6, 11–12, 33, 137–47, 150–2, 241–55; for individuals 248–9; political geography of 249–55, 250, 251, 252, 254; post-retirement benefits 243–6, 247, 248 Wintrobe, Ronald 16 Yong, Tan Tai 69 Yusuf, Huma 326 Zaida, S 313 Zaidi, Akbar 234 Zaman, Zahid 151, 249 Zamora, Kevin Casas 162 Zardari, Asif Ali 121, 185–6, 301, 305, 320 Zia, Tauqeer 222 Zia ul Haq, General see Haq Ziauddin, Muhammad 306 Ziring, Lawrence 89 382 .. .Military Inc Military Inc Inside Pakistan’s Military Economy SECOND EDITION Ayesha Siddiqa First published 2007 by Pluto Press... Civil military relations framework 35; A typology of civil– military relations 39; The civil military partnership type 41; The authoritarian–political military partnership type 46; The ruler military. .. arbitrator military type 54; The parentguardian military type 58; The warlord type 62 Chapter 2 The Pakistan Military: The Development of Praetorianism, 1947–7767 The military institution 68; The military s