Adaptation in Wireless Communications Edited by Mohamed Ibnkahla ADAPTIVE SIGNAL PROCESSING in WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS ADAPTATION and CROSS LAYER DESIGN in WIRELESS NETWORKS THE ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AND APPLIED SIGNAL PROCESSING SERIES Edited by Alexander Poularikas The Advanced Signal Processing Handbook: Theory and Implementation for Radar, Sonar, and Medical Imaging Real-Time Systems Stergios Stergiopoulos The Transform and Data Compression Handbook K.R Rao and P.C Yip Handbook of Multisensor Data Fusion David Hall and James Llinas Handbook of Neural Network Signal Processing Yu Hen Hu and Jenq-Neng Hwang Handbook of Antennas in Wireless Communications Lal Chand Godara Noise Reduction in Speech Applications Gillian M Davis Signal Processing Noise Vyacheslav P Tuzlukov Digital Signal Processing with Examples in MATLAB® Samuel Stearns Applications in Time-Frequency Signal Processing Antonia Papandreou-Suppappola The Digital Color Imaging Handbook Gaurav Sharma Pattern Recognition in Speech and Language Processing Wu Chou and Biing-Hwang Juang Propagation Handbook for Wireless Communication System Design Robert K Crane Nonlinear Signal and Image Processing: Theory, Methods, and Applications Kenneth E Barner and Gonzalo R Arce Smart Antennas Lal Chand Godara Mobile Internet: Enabling Technologies and Services Apostolis K Salkintzis and Alexander Poularikas Soft Computing with MATLAB® Ali Zilouchian Wireless Internet: Technologies and Applications Apostolis K Salkintzis and Alexander Poularikas Signal and Image Processing in Navigational Systems Vyacheslav P Tuzlukov Medical Image Analysis Methods Lena Costaridou MIMO System Technology for Wireless Communications George Tsoulos Signals and Systems Primer with MATLAB® Alexander Poularikas Adaptation in Wireless Communications - volume set Mohamed Ibnkahla ADAPTATION AND CROSS LAYER DESIGN IN WIRELESS NETWORKS Edited by Mohamed Ibnkahla Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4200-4603-8 (Hardcover) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint Except as permitted under U.S Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400 CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Adaptation and cross layer design in wireless networks / editor, Mohamed Ibnkahla p cm (Electrical engineering and applied signal processing series ; 21) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-4200-4603-8 (alk paper) Wireless communication systems I Ibnkahla, Mohamed II Title III Series TK5103.2.A355 2008 621.384 dc22 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com 2008025417 Contents Adaptive Optimization of CSMA/CA MAC Protocols Based on Bayesian State Estimation Alberto Lopez Toledo, Tom Vercauteren, Xiaodong Wang .1 A Survey of Medium Access Control Protocols for Wireless Local and Ad Hoc Networks Tiantong You, Hossam Hassanein, Chi-Hsiang Yeh 39 Adaptive Scheduling for Beyond 3G Cellular Networks Sameh Sorour, Shahrokh Valaee 85 Adaptive Resource Allocation in CDMA Cellular Wireless Mobile Networks under Time-Varying Traffic: A Transient Analysis-Based Approach Dusit Niyato, Ekram Hossain 121 Utility-Based Bandwidth Adaptation for Multimedia Wireless Networks Ning Lu, John Bigham, Nidal Nasser 149 An Extensive Survey and Taxonomy of MAC Protocols for Vehicular Wireless Networks Hamid Menouar, Fethi Filali, Massimiliano Lenardi 183 Network Coding for Wireless Networks Yunnan Wu 213 Adaptive Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks Hong Luo, Guohua Zhang, Yonghe Liu, Sajal K Das 263 10 Coverage and Connectivity in Wireless Sensor Networks: Lifetime Maximization Ananthram Swami, Qing Zhao 301 A Survey of Wireless Sensor Networks: Technologies, Challenges, and Future Trends Ali Alemdar, Mohamed Ibnkahla 243 vii viii Contents 11 Routing in Wireless Self-Organizing Networks Marcelo Dias de Amorim, Farid Benbadis, Mihail S Sichitiu, Aline Carneiro Viana, Yannis Viniotis 325 12 Selfishness in MANETs Younghwan Yoo, Dharma P Agrawal 355 13 Mobile-Relay Forwarding in Opportunistic Networks Giuseppe Anastasi, Marco Conti, Andrea Passarella, Luciana Pelusi 389 14 Adaptive Techniques in Wireless Networks Yuxia Lin, Vincent W.S Wong 419 15 Tunable Security Services for Wireless Networks Stefan Lindskog, Anna Brunstrom, Zoltán Faigl 451 Index 481 Preface Adaptive techniques play a key role in modern wireless communication systems The concept of adaptation is emphasized in the Adaptation in Wireless Communications Series across all layers of the wireless protocol stack, ranging from the physical layer to the application layer This book covers the concept of adaptation at the data link layer, network layer, and application layer It presents state-of-the-art adaptation techniques and methodologies including cross layer adaptation, joint signal processing, coding and networking, selfishness in mobile ad hoc networks, cooperative and opportunistic protocols, adaptation techniques for multimedia support, self-organizing routing, and tunable security services The book offers several new theoretical paradigms and analytical findings, which are supported by various simulation and experimental results, and contains more than 170 figures, 25 tables, and 650 references I would like to thank all the contributing authors for their patience and excellent work The process of editing started in June 2005 Each chapter has been blindly reviewed by at least two reviewers (more than 50% of the chapters received three reviews or more), and I would like to thank the reviewers for their time and valuable contribution to the quality of this book Finally, a special thank you goes to my parents, my wife, my son, my daughter, and all my family They all have been of a great support for this project Mohamed Ibnkahla Queen’s University Kingston, Ontario, Canada ix Index Medium-sharing methods, 187 CDMA, 188 FDMA, 188 TDMA, 187–188 Medium utilization, increasing, 41 Memory, in opportunistic networks, 390, 391 Mesh networking scenario, 231 Message authentication mode (MAC), 455 Message ferrying, 401 case study, 408–410 Metropolitan area network (MAN) standards, 420 MICA sensor nodes, 259, 260 MICA2DOT nodes, 260 Micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS), advancements in, 249 Military WSNs position availability in, 339 remote sensing applications, 245 security issues, 254 Minimal cover, in WSNs, 304 Minimum contention window, 4, 44 Minimum energy with network coding, 213 routing vs network coding solutions for, 215 Minimum energy gathering algorithm (MEGA), 288 Minimum hop routing (MH), 267 Minimum total energy routing, 266–267 Minimum total transmission energy routing (MTE), 266–267 Minimum transmission energy routing, 269 Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs), 183, 329, 330 differences from WSNs, 264–265 military applications, 355 selfish attributes, 331, 355–358 Mobile base station (MBS) protocol, for WSNs, 258 Mobile controllable infrastructure, case study, 411–412 Mobile data collection, for WSNs, 258–259, 259 Mobile infrastructure, 395 Mobile Point Coordinator MAC (MPC-MAC), 55 Mobile-relay forwarding case studies, 408–414 data MULEs case study, 410–411 message ferrying, 408–410 495 mobile controllable infrastructure case study, 411–412 in opportunistic networks, 389–391 underwater sensor networks case study, 413–414 Mobile relays, 396 classification of mobility, 400 controllable, 401 forwarding architectures for opportunistic networks with, 396–399 in opportunistic networks, 399–401 as part of environment vs part of network infrastructure, 399 routing approaches based on, 391 Mobile stations (MSs) in MANETs, 355 memory, bandwidth, and battery inefficiencies, 357 preventing collusion between, 373 resource constraints, 356 Mobile telemedicine, 249 with WSNs, 245 Mobile terminals (MTs), 40 Mobile Ubiquitous LAN Extensions (MULEs), 400, 410 Mobility and choice of routing scheme, 338 in VANETs, 333 in WSONs, 328 MobySpace routing, 394 Modification attacks, 453 Modified largest weighted delay first algorithm, 111–112 Modulation-adaptive routing, in WSNs, 277–278 MORE protocol, 226 Motion control in opportunistic networks, 401–405 and speed control, 402–404 and topology control, 404–405 and trajectory control, 401–402 MPDU aggregation, 434 MPEG data, selective encryption of, 461–462 MR discovery classification of approaches, 408 discovery algorithms, 407–408 in opportunistic networks, 405–408 MR mobility, 397–398 complete knowledge, 405, 406 degrees of knowledge about, 406 496 no knowledge, 406, 407 partial knowledge, 405–407, 406 MR-triggered wake-up, 407 MSDU aggregation, 434 MULEs, 400 in mobile infrastructures, 396 Multi-Code MAC (MC MAC) protocol, 193 Multicast capacity, 221 achieving with network coding, 214 realizing with random linear coding, packet tagging, and buffering, 223 Multicast issues, in routing, 340 Multicast rate, 220 with network coding, 220 Multicasting, 51–52 and edge-wise maximum of flows, 221 problems with, 51 Multihop communication, in opportunistic networks, 397 Multihop coverage approaches, objectives, characteristics, 310, 311 area connected coverage issues, 310 point coverage issues, 309 in WSNs, 309 Multihop environments broadcasting in, 51–52 ID circulation in, 63 MAC protocols for, 46–48 MSNs as, 264 Multimedia adaptation implementation, 160 architecture, 160 continuous adaptation, 161 discrete adaptation, 160 techniques, 160 Multimedia coding techniques, 160 Multimedia wireless networks, utility-based bandwidth adaptation for, 149–151 Multinode attack-resistant and cheat-proof cooperation, 379–380 Multipath fading, 274 wideband radio solutions, 251 WSN issues, 250 Multipath routing with CSI, 274 WSN challenges, 251–252 for WSNs, 258–259 Multiple Access Collision Avoidance Protocol for Multicast Service (MACAM), 51 Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (MACA) protocol, 189 Index Multiple-GTFT, 376 Multiple input-multiple output (MIMO) technology, 434 Multipoint relay (MPR), 344 Multiradio routing, 332 Multiuser diversity, 86 MV routing protocol, 393 N NAL Reference Identification (NRI) field, 432 Naming, importance for WSONs, 335 Nash equilibrium, 375, 376 National Institute of Standards and Technology, 454 Near-far problem, 65 Neighbor monitoring, 380 Neighbor verification, 380 Neighbor’s behavior, presumption on, 376–377 Nested coding, 235, 236 with network coding, 238 Network abstraction layer (NAL), 432 Network access control, tunable, 465–467 Network allocation vector Count (NAVC), 276 Network allocation vector (NAV), 197, 276 interframe spacing in 802.11, 197 Network coding achieving minimum energy per bit with, 213 advantages over routing, 214 buffering and generations, 225 and canceling of known signals, 238–240 characterizing end-to-end throughput of, 219 computational efficiency of, 214 computing functions of input messages with, 214 concurrent links with, 239 for end-to-end multicasting, 216–227 implementation issues, 230 link-layer, 213, 227–234 and local mixing-aware routing, 230–234 minimum energy solution, 215 mixing in the air, 238–240, 239 multicast capacity with, 214 multicasting and edge-wise maximum of flows with, 221 with nested coding, 238 optimization formulations, 221–223 output pacing problem, 225–226 497 Index packet tagging and, 224–225 physical-layer, 234–240 random linear coding applications, 224 as recent generalization of routing, 213 reducing number of steps with, 239 resource efficiency of, 214 robustness of, 214, 227 throughput comparisons, 233 unicasting and max-flow-min-cut with, 219–221 for wireless networks, 213–216 Network-coding-based routing, 393 Network-coding efficiency, 393 Network layer, 160 in communication stacks, 458 Network layer services adjustable authentication, 473–474 and AES-based security configurations, 471 and defined security levels, 469 IPsec/IKE adaptive security, 468–470 IPsec modulation, 468 and key/MAC sizes in bits, 471 summary, 475 tunable, 458, 467 Network partitioning, due to energy efficiency problems, 271 Network protocols, for WSNs, 258–259 Network requirements, for VANETs, 208 Network status (NeSt) module, 256 Network throughput, 456 with increasing traffic load, 425 increasing with network coding, 214 under various frame aggregation schemes, 446 New call admission, 169–170 New call arrival, 169 pseudocode for utility maximization algorithm, 171 New call blocking probabilities, 124, 139 for best-effort data calls, 144 for CBR data calls, 143 for voice calls, 143 Nine-node grid network, 232 Node-initiated message ferrying, 409 Node mobility, in vehicular wireless networks, 187 Node reachability, in WSONs, 338 Noisy measurements, and DCF estimation algorithm accuracy, 32 Nominal capacity, 134 Non-adaptive bandwidth allocation scheme, 174 Non-real-time traffic, 154, 157–158, 159 degradable utility functions, 163 traffic characteristics, 173 upgradable utility functions, 164 Noninnovative packets, 225 Nonpersistent CSMA, 44 Nonsaturated network conditions, optimized DCF protocol results under, 27–32 Nonzero cross correlations, 65 Normalized power, 142 allocation to each service class, 142 transient behavior resulting from adjustment of, 141 Normalized saturation throughput, Normalized transmission rate, for best-effort data calls, 144 Nuglets, in PPM/PTM, 369, 370 Number of competing terminals, accuracy of estimation and network performance, 32 approximate MAP estimator, 18–19 Bayesian estimation of, 6–20 deterministic sequential Monte Carlo estimators, 15–19 evolution with exponential terminal arrival, 30 evolution with step form of arrival, 29 observed probability of collision, 26–27 predictive distribution based on SMC samples, 23 problem formulation, 6–7 sequential Monte Carlo estimation, 7–15 simulation results, 24–29 and total network throughput, 26 with very noisy measurements, 32 Number of ongoing calls, evolution of, 134 O OFDMA as prospective multiple-access scheme in beyond 3G cellular networks, 87–88 TTI structure, 88 Omnidirectional CTS (OCTS), 205 Ongoing calls, average number of, 138 Online SMC estimator, 13–15 algorithm, 17–18 498 Open System Interconnection (OSI) layers, 160 data link and physical layers of IEEE 802.11 standard, 196 Opportunistic networks absence of continuous paths in, 390 access through gateway nodes via multihop communication, 397 architecture for energy-efficient data collection in, 400 classification of route control approaches, 401 clusters or regions in, 397 contact time adjustment in, 404 coordination between MRs, 398 coordination between nodes, 397 data collection and delivery in, 398–399 design issues, 397–399 as extension of legacy MANET concept, 389 forwarding architectures for, 396–399 infrastructure-based, 395–396 infrastructure-less, 392–394 mobile-relay forwarding in, 389–391 mobile relays in, 399–401 motion control in, 401–405 MR designation issues, 398 MR mobility in, 397 MR speed issues, 398 MR trajectory issues, 398 node mobility issues, 397 number of MRs in, 398 on-the-fly computation of routes in, 390 power management and MR discovery in, 398, 405–407 reducing contention in, 404 relevant case studies, 408–414 routing approaches in, 391–392 routing based on fixed infrastructure, 395–396 speed control in, 402–404 system architecture, 396 trade-offs between performance and knowledge requirement, 391 Opportunistic routing, 347–348 Optimized Link-State Routing (OLSR) protocol, 341, 344 Ordinary differential equation (ODE), use in transient analysis of CTMC, 128 Index Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM), 87, 200 ORTS packets, directional antenna-based protocols using, 206 Output pacing, 223, 225–226 Overhead issues for WSONs, 340 in MANETs, 380 problems with selfishness prevention protocols, 360 reducing through adaptive frame aggregation, 420 reduction of routing, 372 and security trade-offs with performance, 456 in selfishness prevention protocols, 382 and system degradation, 43 trade-off with security services, 462 with TWOACK protocol, 364 P Packet delivery rate degrading through passive attacks, 356 against selfish MS ratio, 357 Packet exchange with directional antennas, 204 in MACAW, 190 routing vs network coding solutions, 215 Packet Purse Model (PPM), 369 Packet tagging, 223, 224–225 Packet Trade Model (PTM), 369 Packet types, in IEEE 802.11, 470 Pair-wise ID Countdown (PIDC), 51 Parallel PRB allocation scheme, 105–106 Parameter set concept (PSC), 432 Partial aggregation, 290 in routing schemes supporting data fusion, 282 Partial-dissemination approaches, 337 Partial knowledge of MR mobility, 406 in opportunistic networks, 405–407 Passive acknowledgment, 363 Passive attacks, in MANETs, 356, 357 Passive inference, 229 Path computation, in WSONs, 334 Path flows, 219 in WSNs, 306 Index Pathrater routing protocol, 358 PCF interframe space (PIFS), 198, 421 PCOM routing protocol, 367–368 Peer-to-peer networks, selfishness in, 356–357 PeerNet, 342, 345 PEGASIS routing protocol, 286 Percentage-based authentication, 462 Performance with network coding, 215 trade-offs with security, 452, 453 Performance measures for adaptive resource allocation, 138 average number of ongoing calls, 138 average transmission rate, 139 new call blocking and handoff call dropping probabilities, 139 and security configurations, 456–457 Periodic traffic pattern, 132 Periodic wake-up, 408 Persistent CSMA, 44 PGP routing protocol, 381 Physical layer, 160 in IEEE 802.11 standards, 419 WSON broadcasting at, 327 Physical layer broadcast, in WSONs, 328 Physical Layer Convergence Procedure (PLCP), 436 Physical-layer network coding, 213, 234 mixing at modulator/channel coder, 234–238 Physical resource blocks (PRBs), 88 allocating for channel-dependent direct prioritized assignment algorithm, 114 granularity of, 88 prioritized assignment, 114 Physical states, 217 PIFA routing protocol, 356, 374 Point coordination function (PCF), 421–423 complexity and robustness comparison with DCF, 422 Point coverage issues in multihop WSNs, 309 with single-hop coverage, 305–306 Poisson distribution, 131 Position adaptive (PA) routing, 279 Position availability, and choice of routing scheme, 339 Position-based routing, 274 499 Posterior distribution, 8, 10–12, 14 derivation of, 32–34 Power consumption of composite graphs, 218 Light-weight solution advantages, 365 trade-offs with security, 452 Power control MAC protocols, 53–54 Power management in opportunistic networks, 405–408 speed control and, 402 Power-saving MAC protocols, 52–53 Power spectral density (PSD), 91 POWMAC, 55 PPM routing protocol, 369–370 Precision agriculture, WSN applications, 249 Presumption on neighbor’s behavior, 376–377 Pretty Good Privacy (PGP), 381 Preventing range, 49 Priced priority forwarding, 373 Prior distributions, and SMC estimations, 10–11 Priority-based route control, in opportunistic networks, 402 Priority forwarding routing protocol, 372–373 Prisoner’s dilemma, 377 Privacy issues, for future WSNs, 257 Proactive Cooperation Mechanism (PCOM), 367–368 Proactive routing protocols, 348 for WSONs, 341 Processing power, WSN issues, 257 Programming abstraction, for future WSNs, 257 Promiscuous listening, 363, 365, 382 critical limitations of, 358 need for alternative to, 385 overhearing illustration, 359 in SORI protocol, 362 unreliability in MANETs, 361 Properly weighted samples, PROPHET protocol, 393 Proportional fair scheduling algorithm, 104–105 parallel PRB allocation scheme, 105–106 performance and drawbacks, 107 serial PRB allocation scheme, 106 serial PRB allocation scheme with per-slot update, 106–107 Protective security services, 452–453 500 Protocol-Independent Fairness Algorithm (PIFA), 356 See also PIFA routing protocol Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM), 340 PTM routing protocol, 369–370 Q Q-learning, 152 QoS MAC protocols, 55 supporting absolute priority, 56–57 supporting controllable priority, 58 supporting relative priority, 57–58 Quality-of-service (QoS), 122 achieving through adaptive cross-layer scheduling, 103 and bandwidth utilization, 150 and HCCA/EDCA, 422–424 issues for VANETs, 195 problems with CSMA/CA, 420 support in vehicular wireless networks, 185 tiered WSN requirements, 259 and tunable security services, 469 WSN challenges, 265, 302 Quasi-birth and death (QBD) process, 134 Query processing, in sensor networks, 281, 290 Queue arrival and delay-controlled scheduling algorithm, 108–109 Queue left-over and delay-controlled scheduling algorithm, 109–110 Queue size and delay-controlled scheduling algorithm, 107–108 Queuing analytical model for transient analysis, 134 transition matrix, 134–137 Queuing delay, fairness solution based on, 60–62 R Radio irregularity model (RIM), 250–251 Random back-off periods, in WSNs, 255 Random linear coding, 223, 224 with buffering, 225 Randomization method, 138 Rao-Blackwellization, 13 Rate adaptation (RA) scheduling, 89, 95 Index comparison between RA scheduling algorithms, 100–101 formulation with minimum rate constraints, 96–97 formulation with proportional rate constraints, 97 heuristic scheduling algorithm, 97–100 joint scheduling algorithm based on equal subchannel power allocation, 98–100 LP based subchannel allocation greedy bit loading algorithm, 97–98 max-min formulation, 95–96 modified joint scheduling algorithm based on equal subchannel power allocation, 100 problem formulation, 95–97 Rate-based borrowing scheme (RBBS), 151, 174, 175 Rate limitation, in Fellowship routing protocol, 368 Rational players, 375 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), 87 Reactive routing protocols, 348 for WSONs, 341–342 Real-time traffic, 154 Realizable graphs, for wireless networks, 217–219 Receive busy tone, 68 Receiver-assisted link adaptation, 444 Receiver-initiated channel hopping (RICH), 66 Reception reports, 229 Regular nodes, 391, 396 ReInForm, 295–296 Relative priority, MAC protocols supporting, 57–58 Reliability, and choice of routing schemes, 339–340 Reliability analysis, 125 Remote sensing for habitat and ecological monitoring, 249 military WSN applications, 245 Replay attacks, 453 wireless network vulnerability to, 453 Reputation-based routing protocols, 357, 382 CI-DSR, 368 CineMA, 362–363 CONFIDANT, 359 context-aware inference method, 358–359 CORE routing protocol, 360 501 Index Fellowship, 368–369 Friends and Foes, 361 integrated detection, 367 Light-weight solution, 365 Pathrater, 358 PCOM, 367–368 reputation index table, 365–366 RIW, 364 Robust Reputation System, 360–361 for selfishness prevention, 358 Smart selfish MSs, 366–367 SORI, 361–362 TWOACK, 363–364 watchdog, 358 Reputation index table, 365–366 Reputation indexing window, 364 Request to Send (RTS) packet, 44, 422 Reservation ALOHA (R-ALOHA), 200 Reservation cycles (RCs), in FPRP, 192 Reservation frame (RF), in FPRP, 191 Reservation lag time (RLT), 51 Reservation slot (RS), in FPRP, 191, 192 Residual energy information (REI), of sensor nodes, 256 Resource availability, 150 increasing with local mixing, 229 Resource consumption, in opportunistic networks, 390 Resource usage, revenue model for, 152 Restoration, in Fellowship protocol, 368–369 RIW routing protocol, 364 Robust reputation system, 360–361 Rockwell WINS seismic sensor node, 310 Route discovery, 370 Routing See also Adaptive routing; WSON routing protocols advantages of network coding over, 214 defined, 326 design challenges for WSNs, 265–266 energy-aware, 266–273 environment factors, 339 forwarding processes in, 337 identification processes in, 335–336 intermittence of connectivity factors, 338 and location services, 336–337 medium behavior factors, 338 mobility factors, 338 multicast and broadcast issues, 340 parameters impacting, 337–340 position availability factors, 339 reliability factors, 339–340 role in opportunistic networks, 390 and shortest paths computations, 230–231 vs network coding, 213 in wireless self-organizing networks, 325–327, 335–337 in wireless sensor networks, 264–265 Routing advertisement (RADV) packets, 279 Routing-driven routing schemes, 282, 283 directed diffusion and greedy incremental tree, 284–285 LEACH, 285–286 PEGASIS, 286 tree based, 283 Routing protocols, 326 See also WSON routing protocols for selfishness prevention, 358–385 Routing tables, 326 RR-ALOHA, 200 FIs propagation within TH cluster in, 201 RTS collision, 435, 437 RTS/CTS access, to DCF protocol, S S-ALOHA protocol, 188–189 s-t cuts, 219 s-t flow polyhedron, 220 s-t flows, 220 Safety applications, 207, 208 Safety message transmission, 206, 207 Saturation throughput, 425, 426, 438 for A-MPDU, 442 for A-MSDU, 441 for A-MSDU under different numbers of stations, 445 for bidirectional data transfer, 444 and collision probabilities, 21–22 Scalability with mobile relays, 391 in routing schemes supporting data fusion, 282 in wireless mesh networks, 332 Scheduling See also Adaptive scheduling defined, 86 Secret key connection, 463 Secure and Objective Reputation-Based Incentive Scheme (SORI), 361–362 Secure Efficient Ad hoc Distance Vector (SEAD), 357 Secure Message Transmission (SMT), 381 502 Secure Routing Protocol (SRP), 357 Security configurations AES-based, 471 in IEEE 802.15.4, 455 partial order, 455 tunable, 458 Security-enhanced routing protocol, 380 Security issues in MANETs, 357 with MANETs, 356 tunable security services, 451–477 in wireless self-organizing networks, 328–329 for WSNs, 254–255, 257 Security messages (SECMs), 359 Security metrics, 454–456 Security services, 452–454 See also Tunable security services Security systems, WSN applications, 245 Selective security, for TLS, 464–465 Selfish Link and Behavior Adaptation to Produce Cooperation (SLAC), 378 Selfishness discerning from accidental packet drops, 359 in MANETs, 355, 356 packet delivery rate against selfish MS ratio, 357 Selfishness prevention AD-MIX protocol for, 380–381 commercial transaction concept for, 369 cooperative game approach, 377–378 credit-payment method routing protocols for, 369–375 game theory routing protocols for, 375–380 PGP protocol for, 381 reputation-based routing protocols for, 358–369 SMT protocol for, 381 summary of schemes, 383–384 token-based protocols for, 380 and trust for a specific work, 382 Trust Graph protocol for, 381–382 Sensing range, 47 vs communication range, 315, 317 Sensor networks See also Wireless sensor networks communication architecture in, 264 network coding in, 227 query processing in, 281 Index Sensor Protocols for Information via Negotiation (SPIN), 294, 348, 349 Sensor-to-sink communication, in WSNs, 348 Sensory data, data fusion for, 281–282 Sequential Monte Carlo estimation, accuracy and ease of implementation, adaptive optimization of DCF based on, 20–24 algorithm, 8–9 conditional posterior distributions, 11–12 deterministic SMC estimators, 15–19 number of competing terminals, 7–10 online SMC estimator, 13–15 performance, 20, 22 prior distributions, 10–11 simple resampling scheme, with unknown static parameters, 12–13 Serial PRB allocation scheme, 106 with per-slot update, 106–107 Server utilization, and security services, 457 Service class, 151, 154, 170 and handoff dropping probability, 175 normalized power allocation to each, 142 Service models, for adaptive resource allocation, 131–132 Shared Wireless Infostation Model (SWIM) protocol, 395 Short interframe space (SIFS), 198, 421 Shortest path tree (SPT), 348 in coding-driven routing schemes, 286 Side knowledge, 236, 237 Signal decay, and distance in WSNs, 304 Signal-to-interference-and-noise ratio (SINR), 89 avoiding links with low, 345 effects of multipath fading on, 274 Significant nodes, and position availability, 339 Simple bit loading, with RA heuristic scheduling algorithm, 98 Single-hop coverage area coverage issues, 307–308 asymptotic results, 308–309 barrier coverage and path problems, 306 point coverage issues with, 305–306 in WSNs, 305 SLAC routing protocol, 378 Slepian-Wolf distributed source coding, 287 Slow-down factor, 134 Smart selfish MSs, 366–367 503 Index SmartMesh-XT node, 260 SMT routing protocol, 381 Soft Reservation Multiple Access with Priority Assignment (SRMA/PA) protocol, 192 SOLA protocol, 473 SORI routing protocol, 361–362 Sound Surveillance System (SOSUS), 244 Source coding LEGA approach, 288–289 MEGA approach, 288 Sparse mobile ad hoc networks data gathering in, 411 data MULEs in, 410 energy-efficient data collection from, 411 message ferrying in, 408 Spatial TDMA (STDMA), 67 Species-at-risk monitoring, 247–248 Speed control absence strategy, 403 communication-based, 403–404 in opportunistic networks, 402–404 stop and communicate strategy, 403 SPIN protocols, 294–295, 357 Spoofing attacks detective security services for, 453 failure to selfishness prevention to address, 385 in MANETs, 360–361 Sprite routing protocol, 371 Starvation prevention issues, 42 for MAC protocols, 58 Steady-state performance, 124 time to reach, 123 Stop-and-wait protocols, 399 Subchannels, assignment with queue left-over and delay-controlled algorithm, 109 Successful transmission, probability of, Super-position coding technique, 234 SWIM project, 400 Symmetric geographic forwarding (SGF), 251 Synchronization among nodes, 225 in vehicular wireless networks, 185–186 System degradation, factors contributing to, 43 System performance measure, 122 System utilization, 456 maximizing, 122 T TBRPF routing protocol, 357 TDMA-based protocols, collision-free, 66–67 Temporally-Ordered Algorithm (TORA) protocol, 341 Temporary bandwidth allocation, 169 Temporary CR Requests (TCRs), 368 Terminodes, 345 Throughput-oriented TPC protocols, 54 Time-aware bandwidth allocation scheme, 153 Time-dependent system behavior, 123 Time division multiple access (TDMA), 187–188 Time format, collision-free MAC protocol, 69 Time shifts, 240 Time synchronization problems with VANETs, 208 with WSNs, 253–254 Time to detection, in WSNs, 302 Time To Live (TTL), 343 Time to reach steady state, 123 Time-varying properties, 86 of WSNs, 273 Time-varying traffic, adaptive resource allocation in CDMA networks under, 121–124 TinyOS, 245, 257 TLS ciphersuites ranking by security strength, 454, 466 total estimated latency high-end devices, 467 low-end devices, 467 Token-based protocol, for selfishness prevention, 380 Topology control, in opportunistic networks, 404–405 Total available power (PA), in WSN routing, 267 Trade-offs between accuracy and simplicity of utility functions, 158–159 accuracy of monitoring and network lifetime, 308 between admitted new calls and handoff calls, 170 energy saving vs discovery ratio in opportunistic networks, 407 504 between security, performance, power consumption, 452 for WSN applications, 246 Traffic class, 159 Traffic flow analysis, with WSNs, 245 Traffic models for adaptive resource allocation, 131–132 for utility maximization simulation, 173–174 Traffic weight, fairness based on, 62–63 Trajectory control, in opportunistic networks, 401–402, 412 Transient analysis, 121–124, 137–138 application to optimize CAC parameters, 139–140 applications of, 125–126 and continuous-time Markov chain (CTMC), 126–127 of CTMC, 127–130 of Markov processes, 126–130 methodology and modeling assumptions, 130–134 performance measures, 138–139 queuing analytical model for, 134 transition matrix, 134–137 uniformization approach, 130 Transient behavior, 122 from adjustment of normalized power, 141 fluctuation in, 123 Transient performance, 124 Transition diagram, of Markov chain, 135 Transmission collision with directional BTMA, 205 due to hidden/exposed terminal problems, 186 high probability in MANETs and VANETs, 187 reductions with RR-ALOHA, 201 Transmission failure probability, due to error, 438 Transmission range, 49 and topology control in opportunistic networks, 404 Transmission rate, for elastic and inelastic service, 122 Transmission rate adaptation, call admission control and, 133–134 Transmission time intervals (TTIs), 87 Transmit busy tone, 67–68 Transmit power, 401 Index Transport layer, 160 in communication stacks, 458 Transport layer services ciphersuites, 466 selective security for, 464–465 summary, 475 tunable, 457, 464 tunable network access control in IEEE 802.11i, 465–467 Tribe, 342 Trust, for specific work, 382 Trust Graph routing protocol, 381–382 Truthful multicast routing protocol, 373 Tunable network access control, in IEEE 802.11i, 465–467 Tunable packet protection in IEEE 802.11, 470–473 TS function for, 472 Tunable security model (TSM), 470 Tunable security services adjustable authentication, 473–474 application layer services, 461–464 categorization of, 457–460 data link layer services, 470–474 decision process, 460 dynamic authentication for highperformance network applications, 462–464 environment and application descriptors, 459–460 general scope of, 457–458 IPsec/IKE adaptive security, 468–470 IPsec modulation, 468 network layer services, 467–470 performance metrics, 456–457 protection hierarchy, 461 role of end users, 459, 463, 469, 471 security configurations, 458 security metrics, 454–456 selective encryption of MPEG data, 461 selective security for TLS, 464–465 suitability for implementation, 476 survey of available, 461–474 transport layer services, 464–467 TS function for adaptive authentication, 464 tunable network access control in IEEE 802.11i, 465–467 tunable packet protection in IEEE 802.11, 470–473 505 Index tuning process, 459 for wireless networks, 451–452 Tunable services concept, 451 Two-hop (TH) clusters, 201 TWOACK routing protocol, 363–364 PGP similarities to, 381 Type-Based Multiple Access (TBMA) protocol, for WSNs, 252 U Ultra-wideband (UWB) sensor networks, 279 Underwater sensor networks, case study, 413–414 Unicast capacity, 219 Unicasting, and theory of network coding, 219–221 Unidirectional data transfer, simulation results for, 441–443 Unidirectional MAC, 439 Unidirectional RTS/CTS access scheme, 436 Uniformization method, 130, 138 Unpredictability, in WSONs, 328 Update period, and bandwidth constraints, 337 Upgradable utility functions, 164–165 User authentication, insurmountable WSN problems, 254 User mobility, 150 User splitting, scheduling based on contention feedback with, 116 Utility-based bandwidth adaptation and bandwidth degrades, 162–163 and bandwidth upgrades, 163–165 multimedia adaptation implementation in wireless networks, 160–161 multimedia traffic model, 153–159 for multimedia wireless networks, 149–151 numerical results, 174–178 previous work on, 151–153 problem formulation, 161–165 proposed utility-maximization algorithm, 166–172 simulation modeling, 172–174 Utility-based multimedia traffic model, 153, 158–159 adaptive real-time traffic in, 154–156 hard real-time traffic in, 157 non-real-time traffic in, 157–158 problem formulation, 154 and utility functions, 154 Utility functions for adaptive real-time traffic, 155 defined, 154 for hard real-time traffic, 157 for non-real-time traffic, 157–158 problem formulation for multimedia traffic, 154–158 quantization using equal utility interval, 159 tradeoffs between accuracy and simplicity, 158–159 Utility maximization algorithm call departure pseudocode, 172 handoff call arrival pseudocode, 171–172 new call arrival pseudocode, 171 notation, 167 Utility-maximization algorithm, proposed, 166 V VANETs See also Vehicular wireless networks and ADHOC MAC, 200–201 bandwidth reservation problems with, 185 candidate MAC protocols for, 196–207 centralized and ad hoc mode uses, 196 characteristics of, 194–195 directional antenna-based MAC protocols for, 201–206 high speed of, 195, 209 miscellaneous MAC solutions and improvements for, 206–207 nonlimitation of energy and storage resources in, 195 nonrandom node mobility in, 185 QoS support issues, 195 qualitative comparison of MAC protocols for, 207–209 safety applications, 184 as specific instance of MANETs, 194–195 topology changes in, 195 toward IEEE 802.11 physical layer for, 199 transmission ranges and communication lifetimes, 284 vehicle mobility issues, 195–196 Variability, in WSON nodes, 338 Vehicle mobility, issues for VANETs, 195–196 506 Vehicle movement prediction, 209 Vehicle-to-Vehicle Communication (V2VC), 194 Vehicular wireless networks, 183, 332–333 See also VANETs bandwidth efficiency in, 185 characteristics and issues for MAC protocols, 194–196 environment sensitivity in, 339 error-prone shared broadcast channel in, 186–187 low latency and reliability requirements, 199 MAC protocols for, 183–184, 194–207 MANET MAC protocols and, 187–194 mobility constraints, 333 node mobility in, 187 QoS support in, 185 synchronization in, 185–186 Video coding layer (VCL), 432 Virtual contact space, in MobySpace routing, 394 Virtual home region (VHR), 345 Virtual sense mechanism, 45, 48 packet transmissions with, 49 Viterbi algorithm, 18 Voice calls, 140 new call blocking and handoff call dropping probabilities for, 143 normalized power allocated to, 141–142 W Watchdog routing protocol, 358 PGP similarities to, 381 Water conservation, WSN applications, 249 Weight update formula, 14, 35 derivation of, 34–35 WiFi, 196 Wildlife tracking, 400 opportunistic networks in, 390 Willingness to pay routing protocol, 373 Wired networks, communication geometry in, 327 Wireless access, improving with adaptive scheduling, 85 Wireless Access in Vehicular Environments (WAVE), 199 Wireless communications, WSN challenges, 250–251 Index Wireless local networks (WLANs) CSMA/CA protocol for, 44–45 MAC protocols for, 39–41, 43–46 Wireless mesh networks, 331–332 Wireless networks adaptive techniques in, 419–446 tunable security services for, 451–452 two types of, 40 Wireless self-organizing networks (WSONs), 326 See also WSON routing protocols addressing scheme-based routing protocols, 340–341 characteristics, 328–329 classes of, 329–333 classification of routing protocols, 340–343, 341 communication geometry, 327 data-centric routing in, 329 disruption-tolerant networks (DTNs), 333–334 distributed nature of, 334 dynamic-network management in, 334 easy path computation in, 334 energy constraints, 329 expensive routing in, 328 flexibility in route selection, 334 forwarding strategy as basis of routing protocol classification, 342–343 heterogeneity in, 329 localized computation in, 334 location service-based routing protocol classification, 341–342 low control message overhead in, 334 manageable complexity in, 334 MANETs, 329 physical layer broadcast in, 328 potentially high mobility, 328 proactive routing protocols for, 341 routing in, 325–327, 335–337 routing protocol examples, 343–349 scalability in, 334 security vulnerability in, 328–329 spontaneous topologies in, 326, 335, 344 technical requirements, 334–335 unpredictability in, 328 VANETs, 332–333 wireless mesh networks (WMNs), 331–332 WSNs, 330–331 Wireless sensor networks (WSNs), 243–244, 330–331 Index ad hoc deployment challenges, 265 adaptive routing in, 263–264 aggregation model-aware routing structure, 290 alleviation of bandwidth constraints, 244 application-specific number of nodes in, 244 applications, 245–259, 302 approximate distributed source coding, 287–288 area connected coverage, 310 area coverage issues, 307–308 art gallery problem, 307 barrier coverage and path problems, 306 battery issues, 250, 254, 255 battery life vs data acquisition rate, 246 bounded distance forwarding (BDF) for, 251 centralized data fusion approach, 253 channel state information, 274 civilian applications, 245–246 classical ecology station with, 247 coding-driven routing schemes, 286–289 combined MTE and MMBCR routing, 268–270 communication architecture, 264 communication range challenges, 265 computation capabilities, 265 conditional max-min battery capacity routing in, 268–269 cooperative nature of, 331 cost-aware dynamic routing, 279–280 coverage and connectivity in, 301–303 coverage-based information retrieval, 310–315 critical subregions, 313, 318 cross-layer adaptation for, 255–256 CSI-based routing, 274–276 data fusion classification of routing schemes, 282–283 data gathering schedule in, 291 definition of coverage, 304–305 delay latency of data gathering, 265 desirable characteristics of coverage algorithms, 305 detectability and passage time in, 306 differences from MANETs, 264–265 directed diffusion and greedy incremental tree, 284–285 distributed signal processing with, 253–254 507 distributed source coding with SlepianWolf scheme, 287 duty cycling, 250 ecology station example, 248 energy-aware multipath routing, 271–273 energy-aware routing in, 264, 266–273 environment awareness in, 339 forward distance parameter, 251 FPGAs as alternative to microprocessors, 257 fusion-aware routing, 280–294 fusion benefit/disadvantage in, 292 fusion-driven routing schemes, 289–292 future trends, 255–259 hardware implementation, 259–260 hierarchical routing in, 270–271 historical development, 244–245 ID-less nodes in, 254 information-aware routing, 294–296 inherent redundancy of, 330 integrated circuits issues, 250 interference-aware routing, 276 joint-adaptive routing and modulation, 278–279 joint design of scheduling and routing, 315–319 LEACH routing protocol, 285–286 LEGA source coding with explicit side information, 288–289 link-aware routing in, 273–280 lithium batteries for, 250 local signal processing needs, 253 max-min battery capacity routing, 267–268 max-min zPmin routing in, 269–270 maximum battery capacity routing in, 267 MEGA source coding with explicit side information, 288 MEMS/CMOS/VLSI/processing power issues, 257 military applications, 245 minimum total energy routing in, 266–267 miscellaneous techniques for extending network lifetime, 259 mobile base station (MBS) protocol for, 258 mobile data collection (MDC) for, 258–259 modulation-adaptive routing, 277–278 multihop coverage, 309–310 multipath routing issues, 251–252 network protocols for, 251, 258–259 node features comparisons, 260 508 node leakage currents, 250 nodes as aggregation points, 253 numerical preference analysis, 318 on-board sensor data gathering, 244 operation and management restrictions, 330 optimizing over transmission and fusion costs, 292–294 PEGASIS routing protocol, 286 point coverage issues, 305–306, 309 programming abstraction for, 257 quality-of-service challenges, 265, 302 radio irregularity model (RIM) proposal, 250 reconfiguration advantages, 246 redundancy and fault tolerance, 265, 286 ReInForm protocol, 295–296 rendezvous-based solutions, 259 resource constraints, 264 routing design challenges, 265–266 routing-driven routing schemes, 283–286 routing in, 264–265 routing sensory data with fusion, 281–282 security issues, 254–255, 257 sensing models, 303–304 signal decay with distance, 304 single-hop coverage problems, 305–309 software tools for, 257 suboptimal approach to routingscheduling design, 317–318, 318 symmetrical geographic forwarding (SGF) for, 251 Index technological challenges, 249–255 time synchronization with, 253–254 time to detection and accuracy of localization, 302 trade-off between accuracy and network lifetime, 308 trade-off between resources and channel integrity, 258 transmission media challenges, 265 wireless communication challenges, 250–251 WLAN MAC protocols, classification scheme, 71 WSON routing protocols, 343 See also Routing; Wireless self-organizing networks cross-layer routing, 345–346 data-centric approaches, 348–349 DHT-based routing, 344–345 encounter-based routing, 346–347 epidemic routing, 347 Internet-inspired, 343–344 opportunistic routing, 347–348 Z Zebranet project, 400 Zero aggregation, 290 Zero-dissemination approaches, 336 Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP), 342 ... trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Library of Congress Cataloging -in- Publication Data Adaptation and cross layer design in wireless networks. . .Adaptation in Wireless Communications Edited by Mohamed Ibnkahla ADAPTIVE SIGNAL PROCESSING in WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS ADAPTATION and CROSS LAYER DESIGN in WIRELESS NETWORKS THE... concept of adaptation at the data link layer, network layer, and application layer It presents state-of-the-art adaptation techniques and methodologies including cross layer adaptation, joint signal