VALUES DELIBERATION & COLLECTIVE ACTION Community Empowerment in Rural Senegal Beniamino Cislaghi, Diane Gillespie, and Gerry Mackie Values Deliberation & Collective Action Beniamino Cislaghi • Diane Gillespie • Gerry Mackie Values Deliberation & Collective Action Community Empowerment in Rural Senegal Beniamino Cislaghi London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London, UK Gerry Mackie University of California, San Diego San Diego, California, USA Diane Gillespie University of Washington Bothell Bothell, Washington, USA ISBN 978-3-319-33755-5 ISBN 978-3-319-33756-2 DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-33756-2 (eBook) Library of Congress Control Number: 2016948400 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2016 This work is subject to copyright All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made Cover illustration: © imageBROKER / Alamy Stock Photo Printed on acid-free paper This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to the Wallace Global Fund; UNICEF Child Protection; Lowell and April Blankfort of San Diego for support; and to the University Center for Human Values at Princeton University; the Center on Global Justice at the University of California, San Diego; the University of California, San Diego Academic Senate; and the University of Washington, Bothell We especially thank Francesca Moneti of UNICEF for advancing this project in multiple ways, from inception to completion We thank Tostan, its director Molly Melching, the anonymous participants and Tostan facilitators in the three Senegalese villages we studied; project interviewers Cheikh Moussa Kane and Korka Sow; and transcriber and translator Hassana Diallo Michael Gillespie helped us intellectually and socially Authors are listed in alphabetical order They contributed equally to the work v CONTENTS Introduction Methodology Pilot Study Setting of Study Respondents Entry into the Field Data Sources Sources of Bias Mitigating Bias Field Irregularities and Their Effects on Data Collection Coding of Data Citation Format Sensitizing Concepts Schema Theory of Cultural Meanings The Capacity to Aspire Social Norms and Their Change 10 10 11 12 14 16 19 19 23 24 25 29 31 Community Values and Aspirations as the CEP Arrives Beyond the Individual Family and Community Commonly Shared Personal Values Being Lost and Finding the Right Path Honesty and Forgiveness Working Hard 41 41 41 42 42 43 44 vii viii CONTENTS Helping Each Other Being Men and Women Caring for Children Commonly Shared Aspirations Education Better Future Health Working Together Being in Public 44 45 47 48 48 49 50 51 52 Tostan’s Instructional Strategies The Local Context Experiential Learning Active Learning Through Discussion Interactive Instruction Strategies 53 53 55 56 58 Learning and Values Deliberations During the Democracy and Human Rights Sessions (DHRS), 2010 Public Deliberation Organized Diffusion Better Future Self-Understanding Working Together Why Work Together? Justice and Rights Equality Peace Changing Understandings Education Health Being Women and Men Caring for Children Ending Bad Habits, Starting Good Habits 63 64 67 68 70 73 75 77 80 84 86 86 87 92 97 98 One-and-a-Half Years After the Democracy and Human Rights Sessions, 2011 Ending Bad Habits, Starting Good Habits Tostan Instructional Strategies in 2011 103 104 106 CONTENTS ix Public Deliberation Organized Diffusion Better Future Self-Understanding Working Together Justice and Rights Changing Practices Education Health Being Women and Men Caring for Children 108 110 112 113 116 120 123 123 127 129 134 Long-Term Program Results 137 Analysis: How Values Deliberations Lead to Community Empowerment Another Sensitizing Concept The Basic Social Process Self-Sustaining Status Quo Variations Appear Community Enabling Conditions Program Enabling Conditions Program Pedagogy Unsettling Experiences Changing Self-Understandings Sustained Deliberations of Schemas Among Participants Resettling of Schemas Motivates Taking Change from Class to Community Participants’ Resettled Schemas Unsettle and Resettle the Community’s Schemas Seeing Is Believing Individual, Collective, and Community Empowerment Conclusion A Selection of Findings Limitations of the Study Future Research 143 143 146 148 152 154 156 160 166 169 172 175 179 181 183 187 187 189 191 x CONTENTS Appendices Appendix 2010 Individual Interviews Appendix 2011 Individual Interviews Appendix 2011 Focus Group Focus Group Protocol 193 193 195 196 197 References 199 Index 205 LIST Fig 7.1 The basic social process OF FIGURE 147 xi 196 APPENDICES 11 Again, thinking back on the class, can you remember anything that a (opposite-sex) classmate said? (Explore no more than two.) Why you remember what was said? How did the others react to that? Did they agree or not? 12 Do men and women participate in the class the same way or in different ways? 13 Do men and women participate in the life of the village in the same way or in different ways? [S-5] As a conclusion to the interview, ask if there’s something else that that they would like to add to the interview [Greetings and thanks] APPENDIX 2011 FOCUS GROUP Note to the interviewers: The focus group is a chance for us to see how participants share memories and meanings It also allows us to check whether their memories are consistent with what they told us earlier As you know, there are strong hierarchies of age and gender We really want everyone to speak in the focus group If anyone is doing all the talking you can try to invite others to speak by asking them, for instance, “Is there someone who remembers it differently?” or “Is there someone who acted in a different way?” Focus groups in Village B and Village C will be divided by gender (male interviewer: focus group of five men; female interviewer: focus group of five women) The focus group in Village A will involve both men and women, and will be conducted by both the male and female interviewers Notes: In the first four questions please take into consideration the following three items: (a) The important consideration here is to set the norm for participation: be sure that everyone participates, even if that means calling on them, and encourage lengthy comments that explore issues in depth (b) Ask questions about people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions For example, explore whether and how they participate in class, attend class, teach their adopted learner, answer questions, take part in exercises, and things in the community To be sure we that we obtain what we want check for key words: APPENDICES (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) 197 actions (I did…); feeling (I felt…); thinking (I thought…); interactions (I told her…) (c) We want to get concrete details and move beyond rhetorical responses We are not happy with answers like “everybody is happy.” Prompt their answers by asking, for example, why education was important in the life of family, village etc FOCUS GROUP PROTOCOL [Greetings and introductions] [Explanation of research, guarantee of privacy and anonymity and request of consensus to participate] “In one of the first classes, you talked about the importance of a human being for self, community, and the world You also talked about the relationship that each of you has with the rest of the world, going from self, to family, village, neighboring villages, country, continent, and the world How would you describe these relationships as compared to when you started the program? We want to begin with you, then later your family, your village, your neighboring villages, and beyond.” We want to hear the opinion of every person here, just as in the Tostan classes We will wait to hear everyone give an answer to each question Do you have any questions before we begin? What has it been like for you to participate in the Tostan classes? What has it been like for your family to participate in the Tostan classes? What has it been like for your village to have the Tostan classes? What has it been like for your neighboring villages for your village to have the Tostan classes? We are interested in how you are thinking about human rights What human rights mean to you? Are these ideas completely alien and new, or are they consistent with the traditions in your village? How? How are the relationships among men, women, and children in the family and in the community? Note: please look for ideal moral values on how relationships should be 198 APPENDICES [Short and to everyone] Thinking all the way back to the beginning, what has been the one thing that surprised you the most? [Short and to everyone] Thinking all the way back to the beginning, what has been the one thing that was most memorable? 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being in public, 52; better future, 49–50; education, 48–9; health, 50–1; working together, 51 expanded role, 168–9 expand to human rights for all, 175 restricted, 151 automaticity, 150, 175 autonomy-respecting program, B Bandura, Albert, 144, 145, 148, 165 Banks, James A., 161 basic social process, 146–8 community enabling conditions, 154–5 cultural compatibility, 162–3 learning to deliberate together, 163–5 participants aspire to working together, 155 program enabling conditions, 156–60 program pedagogy, 160–61 self-sustaining status quo, 148–52 variations appear, 152–4 beliefs, 14, 26, 27, 32–9, 90, 146–8, 150, 152, 153, 156, 162, 174, 176, 179, 183 bias, mitigation of, 16–18 birth certificate, 110, 120, 135, 165 Blumer, Herbert, 24 bolol, 42 C capacity to aspire, 31, 38, 39, 141, 143, 144 and expanded voice, 31 expansion of, 136, 153, 169 in the Gambia, 141 navigational capacity, 29–30, 151, 169 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2016 B.F Cislaghi, D Gillespie, G Mackie, Values Deliberation & Collective Action, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-33756-2 205 206 INDEX Centre for Research in Human Development (CRDH), 138, 140 children, caring for child protection, 1, 6, 97 commonly shared personal values, 47–8 Democracy and Human Rights Sessions (DHRS), 97–8, 133–6 cleaning of village, 51, 75, 87, 96, 117, 127, 131, 165, 171, 172, 178, 180, 182 cleanliness, 51, 87–8, 127, 167 coding categories coded, 22 of class videos, 19–20 dependability checks, 21–3 processual and topical categories, 63 of video and interview transcriptions, 20–1 collective action, 117–19, 184 commonly shared aspirations being in public, 52 better future, 49–50 education, 48–9 health, 50–1 working together, 51 commonly shared personal values being lost and finding the right path, 42–3 being men and women, 45–7 caring for children, 47–8 helping each other, 44–5 honesty and forgiveness, 43 working hard, 44 Community Empowerment Program (CEP) education, 2, 4, 5, 12, 30–1, 41, 70, 81, 104–5, 137, 141, 146, 162–4, 174, 183 Aawde, 4, Kobi, Shining Stars, 79–80, 166, 173 community enabling conditions participants esteem and desire education, 155 participants, family, friends, and community, 154–5 community human rights education programs, Community Management Committees (CMCs), 4, 79, 114, 191 community values beyond the individual, family and community, 41–2 commonly shared aspirations; being in public, 52; better future, 49–50; education, 48–9; health, 50–1; working together, 51 commonly shared personal values; being lost and finding the right path, 42–3; being men and women, 45–7; caring for children, 47–8; helping each other, 44–5; honesty and forgiveness, 43; working hard, 44 confirmation bias, 149 connectionism, 25 context cultural, 54, 164 sensitivity, 26 convention shift, 24 credibility, 38, 154, 156, 158, 159, 164 cultural compatibility, 162–3, 166 cultural meanings, 25–30, 143 D deliberative democracy tradition, 164 Democracy and Human Rights (DHR), 137 Democracy and Human Rights Sessions (DHRS), 5, 8, 12, 41 INDEX learning and values deliberations during, 63; being women and men, 92–7; better future, 68–9; caring for children, 97–8; education, 86–7; ending bad habits, starting good habits, 98–101; equality, 80–4; health, 87–91; justice and rights, 77–80; organized diffusion, 67–8; public deliberation, 64–7; self-understanding, 70–3; working together, 73–7 one-and-a-half years after; being women and men,129–33; better future, 112–13; caring for children,134–6; education, 123–7; ending bad habits, starting good habits, 104–5; health, 127–8; justice and rights, 120–3; organized diffusion, 110–12; public deliberation, 108–10; selfunderstanding, 113–16; Tostan instructional strategies in 2011, 106–8; working together, 116–20 Dewey, John, Diop, Nafissatou J., 138, 139 dirtiness, 167 discrimination, 2, 12, 27, 55, 81, 92, 121, 123, 176 Douglas, Mary, 167 Drydyk, Jan, 184, 185 E early marriage (of females) basic social process, 146–8 decline, 122, 134, 139, 140 equal right to education, 56, 83, 104, 136 education, 31, 83–4 207 commonly shared aspirations, 48–9 Democracy and Human Rights Sessions (DHRS), 86–7 nonformal, 4, 7, 14 one-and-a-half years after DHRS, 123–7 Ellerman, David, 1, 162 empowerment, 183–6, 191, 192 collective, 154, 183–6 community, 183–5 conceptions of, 177, 184, 188 individual, 183–6 equality, 63, 78, 80–4, 104, 119, 121, 129 everyone agrees, 88, 99, 127, 149, 177 F family planning, 90–1, 149 female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C), 31–3, 37, 137–9 focus groups, 1, 6, 8, 14, 16, 18, 20, 113, 121, 126, 132–3, 177, 196–8 forgiveness, 21, 43, 77, 105, 116, 120 Fulbe (people), 27, 42, 52, 54, 58, 90, 98, 139, 141, 158 Pulaar (language), 8, 9, 11–13, 22, 42, 53, 80, 158, 162 G gender being men and women, 45–7, 92–7 biological determinism, 45 equality, 46, 83, 104, 105, 129 norm, 47, 149, 151, 177, 192 roles, 45–7, 54–6, 70, 92, 94, 170 synchronization, grounded theory, 3, 7, 20, 24 Gutierrez, Leonora Evans, 141 208 INDEX H habits (outcomes), 56, 98–101, 104–5, 169, 180 Habyarimana, James, 192 harmful social practices, 3, 67, 99 Hart, Caroline Sarojini, 31 health commonly shared aspirations, 50–1 one-and-a-half years after DHRS, 127–8 honesty, 21, 41, 43, 77, 105, 116, 150 human agency, 144 human rights, 2, 77–80, 99, 100, 138, 153, 162, 166, 172–5, 178, 180, 187–91, 197 See also Democracy and Human Rights Sessions (DHRS) localization of, 173 hygiene, 4, 5, 88–9, 138–40 I Ibrahim, Solava, 183, 184 Imams, 11, 80, 81, 85, 158 individual interviews 2010, 193–4 2011, 195–6 informants, 139 Innocenti Research Centre, Institute for Development at the University of Sussex, 185 Institutional Review Boards (IRBs), instructional strategies active learning through discussion, 56–8 adopt-a-learner, 112 discussion, 41, 58–62, 64, 65, 78, 80, 91, 92, 108, 168, 173 experiential learning, 55 interactive, 58–62 local context, 53–5 modeling—rehearsal—role enactment, 164–5 program pedagogy, 160–1 Pulaar (language of instruction), 54, 158–9 questions (classroom), 55, 59–61, 97, 103, 161–3, 168 interactive instruction strategies, 58–62 Interagency Gender Working Group, interviews, 13–14, 18 J justice and rights Democracy and Human Rights Sessions (DHRS), 77–80 one-and-a-half years after DHRS, 120–3 K Kaolack, 7, 9–11, 130 knowledge to action, 165–6 changing self-understandings, 169–71 community’s schemas, 179–81 sustained deliberations, 172–9 unsettling experiences, 166–9 L learning active, 56–8 experiential, 55, 162 observational, 144, 165, 181 Lizardo, Omar, 167 local values, 5, 21, 31, 43, 77, 146, 153, 162, 166, 172, 176 long-term program, 137–42 M Mackie, Gerry, 24 marriage, 83–4 Merry, Sally Engel, 2, 162 INDEX methodology, 7–9 citation format, 23 coding of data, 19–23 data sources, 12–14 entry into field, 11 field irregularities and data collection effects, 19 findings, 191–2 future research, 191–2 limitations, 189–91 mitigating bias, 16–18 pilot study, respondents, 10–11 sensitizing concept, 24–5, 143–5; capacity to aspire, 29–31; cultural meanings, schema theory of, 25–8; social norms and their change, 31–9 setting of study, 10 sources of bias, 14–16 video camera, 12, 190 videotapes, 8, 12, 19–22, 53, 163, 164 modeling—rehearsal—role enactment, 164–5 multi-purpose program, 159–60 N National Action Plan, 138 NGO, 2, 3, 138, 152, 157 collaborates with local authorities, 158 good reputation, 157 invited by communities, 157–8 O organized diffusion, 63, 110–12, 171, 182–4 adopt a learner, 67, 108, 110, 112, 171 village-to-village diffusion, 111 209 P peace, 12, 46, 63, 84–6, 88, 123 Pornpitakpan, 156 prenatal doctor visits, 90 Primary School Head, 138 problem-posing approach, 163 program enabling conditions, 156–7 collaborates with local authorities, 158 facilitator, 158 multi-purpose program, 159–60 NGO; good reputation, 157; invited by communities, 157–8 program pedagogy, 160–1 public deliberation, 21, 63–7, 103, 108–10, 163, 179 public sphere, expanded, 52, 58, 105, 109–10, 146, 148, 154, 180–1 public role, 73, 75, 98, 106, 154 class enacts, 179–180 pedagogy, 70 teacher as, 72 Q Quinn, Naomi, 25–7, 30 R Ray, Debraj, 30 reciprocity, 44, 45, 75, 120 researcher, 7, 11, 14–17, 24, 28, 59, 134, 139, 189 S sanction, 17, 36–7, 107, 149 schema theory, 24–30, 39, 143 schools, state, 4, 80, 127 attendance in, 107, 108, 125, 130, 155, 161, 176 building of, 89, 104, 112, 131, 135 supplies for, 44, 98, 104, 131, 134–6 210 INDEX seeing is believing, 43, 145, 154, 156, 181–3 others see participants, 182 outsiders see the village, 183 public visibility of changes, 182 self-efficacy, 144, 145, 154, 161, 182 personal efficacy, 145, 180, 182 self-schemas, 28, 144 self-sustaining status quo, 146 automaticity, 150 dissonance reduction, 149 meaningful variation, lack of, 148–9 narrow public sphere, 151–2 restricted aspirations, 151 serves useful purposes, 150–1 social approval and disapproval, 149–50 Senegal, 27, 33, 137–8 Kaffrine and Kaolack regions, 9–10 sensitizing concepts, 24–5, 143–5 capacity to aspire, 29–31 cultural meanings, schema theory of, 25–8 self-efficacy, 144–5 social norms and their change, 31–9 social influence, 36 social norms, 31–3, 143, 146, 148, 186, 192 changing deeply entrenched schemas, 37–9 changing shared beliefs, 33–5 approval and disapproval, 32, 37, 146, 149–50, 176 norm of silence, 38, 47, 58, 132 particular social norms, 44, 89, 94, 133, 143, 146, 148, 152, 156 reference group, 28, 32, 36, 37, 39, 175, 177–8 social expectations an evaluations, 146, 150, 153 Sternins, 34, 35 Strauss, Claudia, 25–7, 30 sustained deliberations aspirations, 175 better future for all, 172 class, 177 human rights, localization of, 173 participants, 178–9 reconsideration of past experiences, 174 schemas motivates, resettling of, 175–6 values and practices, consonance of, 176–7 T testimony, 32, 34, 35, 143, 144, 159, 171, 182 Tostan Community Empowerment Program, 1, 8, 146 traditional community, 74, 169 transcription/translation, 18 Tufts, James, U UNICEF, 3, 25, 137–40 United Nations, unity, 1, 21, 117, 119, 120 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 79 V values-based education, 3, 96 values deliberations basic social process, 146–8; community enabling conditions, 154–6; cultural compatibility, 162–3; learning to deliberate together, 163–5; participants aspire to working together, 155; program enabling conditions, 156–60; program pedagogy, 160–1; INDEX self-sustaining status quo, 148–52; variations appear, 152–4 during Democracy and Human Rights Sessions (DHRS), 63; being women and men, 92–7; better future, 68–9; caring for children, 97–8; education, 86–7; equality, 80–4; health, 87–91; justice and rights, 77–80; organized diffusion, 67–8; public deliberation, 64–7; self-understanding, 70–3; working together, 73–7 knowledge to action, 165–6; changing self-understandings, 211 169–71; community’s schemas, 179–81; sustained deliberations, 172–9; unsettling experiences, 166–9 visioning process, 24, 29, 160, 168 voice, equal for all, 104, 153, 161, 163, 167–8 in public meetings, 56, 105 gained in classroom, 68, 96, 98 W working together, 51, 73–7, 106–8 unity and caring, 21, 105, 117, 118, 159 World Bank, 31 .. .Values Deliberation & Collective Action Beniamino Cislaghi • Diane Gillespie • Gerry Mackie Values Deliberation & Collective Action Community Empowerment in Rural... Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2016 B.F Cislaghi, D Gillespie, G Mackie, Values Deliberation & Collective Action, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-33756-2_1 B.F CISLAGHI, D GILLESPIE AND G MACKIE... ways in which its values deliberations contribute to the enhancement or adoption of beneficial individual and social practices Because the likely mechanisms of change are values deliberations which