Biochemistry of foods 3rd

Biochemistry of Foods Third Edition This page intentionally left blank Biochemistry of Foods Third Edition Edited by N A Michael Eskin and Fereidoon Shahidi AMSTERDAM l BOSTON l HEIDELBERG l LONDON l NEW YORK l OXFORD SAN DIEGO l SAN FRANCISCO l SINGAPORE l SYDNEY l TOKYO Academic Press is an Imprint of Elsevier l PARIS Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier 32 Jamestown Road, London NW1 7BY, UK 225 Wyman Street, Waltham, MA 02451, USA 525 B Street, Suite 1800, San Diego, CA 92101-4495, USA First edition 1971 Second edition 1990 Third edition 2013 Copyright Ó 2013 Elsevier Inc All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone +44 (0) 1865 843830; fax +44 (0) 1865 853333; email: permissions@elsevier.com Alternatively, visit the Science and Technology Books website at www.elsevierdirect.com/rights for further information Notice No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN : 978-0-12-242352-9 For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at www.elsevierdirect.com Typeset by TNQ Books and Journals Printed and bound in United States of America 12 13 14 15 10 We would like to dedicate this book to: Dr H Michael Henderson, a dear friend and colleague with whom one of us (Michael Eskin) wrote the first edition of BIOCHEMISTRY OF FOODS in 1971, who passed away in 2009 This page intentionally left blank Contents Preface List of Contributors xv xvii Part I Biochemical Changes in Raw Foods Cereals and Legumes Kequan Zhou, Margaret Slavin, Herman Lutterodt, Monica Whent, N A Michael Eskin and Liangli Yu Part I: Cereals I Introduction II Cereal Grain Structure III Cereal Grain Composition A Amyloplasts B The Starch Granule C Biosynthesis of Starch D Sucrose Starch Conversion in Developing Grains E Starch Synthesis F Starch Synthesis: Amylopectin G Protein Bodies H Origin of Protein Bodies I Classification of Plant Proteins J Prolamins K Protein Synthesis L Lipids IV Germination of Cereals A Mobilization of Cereal Starches by a-Amylase B Biosynthesis of a-Amylase during Germination C a-Amylase Activity in Germinated Cereals D Effect of Germination on Flour Quality E Treatment of Sprouted Grain: Reduction of a-Amylase F Mobilization of Proteins during Germination G Lipid Mobilization during Germination 4 6 7 10 10 11 11 12 13 14 15 16 16 16 18 18 18 19 20 V Storage of Grains A Respiration 22 22 Effect of Moisture Content Effect of Temperature 22 23 B Prolonged Storage of Grains and Flour 23 Part II: Legumes I Introduction II Legume Seed Structure III Legume Seed Composition A Proximate Composition B Protein Nitrogen Fixation Classification Protein Structure and Properties Protein Quality C Carbohydrates Overview Insoluble Carbohydrate Soluble Carbohydrate Conclusion D Lipids E Other Components of Interest Enzyme Inhibitors Lectins Lipoxygenase IV Effects of Germination A Carbohydrates B Lipids C Proteins D Vitamins and Minerals E Anti-Nutritional Factors Trypsin Inhibitor Activity Phytic Acid F Nutraceutical Components G Esthetic Food Quality V Effects of Fermentation VI Storage A Respiration, Moisture, and Temperature B Seed Aging and Food Quality C Effect on Isoflavones References 24 24 24 24 24 26 26 27 27 29 29 29 30 32 33 34 34 34 35 36 36 36 36 37 37 38 38 38 38 39 39 40 40 40 41 41 vii viii Contents Fruits and Vegetables 49 N A Michael Eskin and Ernst Hoehn I Introduction II Respiration A Fruits B Vegetables 49 50 50 52 Control of the Climacteric Rise Enzymatic Control 53 54 III Initiation of Ripening IV Biosynthesis of Ethylene A Methionine as a Precursor of Ethylene 55 57 59 The Yang Cycle, Recycling of Methionine Methionine and Ethylene Biosynthesis B Regulation of Ethylene in Ripening Fruits ACC Synthase and ACC Oxidase Cyanide Organic Acids Lipid Peroxidation: Lipoxygenase Galactose 59 59 62 62 63 63 63 65 V Color Changes A Chlorophyll Changes during Ripening B Chlorophyll Biosynthesis 65 66 66 Phase 1: Glutamate to Chlorophyll a Phase 2: The Chlorophyll Cycle 66 71 C Regulation of Chlorophyll Biosynthesis D Mechanism of Chlorophyll Degradation Chlorophyll Degradation: Processing and Storage E Carotenoids Carotenoid Changes during Ripening Carotenoid Degradation: Processing and Storage F Anthocyanins Biosynthesis of Anthocyanins Anthocyanins: Effect of Processing VI Texture A Cell Wall Cell Wall Constituents Cell Wall Degradation VII Flavor A Aroma Aldehydes, Alcohols, and Esters B Taste StarcheSugar Conversion Organic Acids VIII Storage A Cold Storage B Controlled Atmosphere Storage 71 71 73 75 80 83 84 85 87 89 89 89 92 99 99 100 103 104 105 106 107 107 C New Developments in Postharvest Storage References Meat and Fish 108 109 127 N A Michael Eskin, Michel Aliani and Fereidoon Shahidi I Introduction II The Nature of Muscle A Structure B Cytoskeleton Gap Filaments Intermediate Filaments C Connective Tissue Collagen III Contraction of Muscle A Regulation of Muscle Contraction: Troponin and Tropomyosin B Mechanism of Tropomyosin Action C ATP and the Lohmann Reaction D Fish Muscle Contraction IV Conversion of Muscle to Meat and Edible Fish A ATP and Postmortem Changes B Postmortem Metabolism of ATP C Adenosine Nucleotides and Protein Denaturation D Postmortem Glycolysis E Postmortem pH F Time-Course of Postmortem Glycolysis G Effect of Temperature on Postmortem Glycolysis: Cold Shortening H Effect of Electrical Stimulation on Postmortem Glycolysis and Tenderness I Prerigor Pressurization J Glycolytic Enzymes K Pale Soft Exudative and Dark Firm Dry Conditions PSE DFD L Postmortem Changes in Meat and Fish Proteins Water-Holding Capacity Proteomics and Water-Holding Capacity 128 129 129 130 130 131 131 131 134 135 136 136 137 138 139 141 145 146 147 149 149 151 152 152 153 153 154 154 154 156 M Postrigor Tenderness 156 N Mechanism of Postrigor Tenderization 156 Calcium-Activated Factor: The Calpain Family Calpastatin Lysosomal Proteases 157 158 159 ix Contents Proteasomes Proteomics and Meat Tenderness 159 160 O Cytoskeleton and Meat Tenderness 160 G-Filaments Intermediate Filaments P Effect of Pressurization on Tenderness High-Pressure Treatment High-Pressure Shockwaves Q Lysosomal Enzymes and Collagen Degradation V Meat Pigments A Myoglobin The Primary Structure of Myoglobins Myoglobin Changes in Raw Meat Myoglobin Changes and Oxygen Tension Effect of pH, Temperature, and Salt on the Formation of Metmyoglobin Endogenous Meat Enzymes and Metmyoglobin Formation B Fish Pigments C Preservation of Meat Pigments References 160 161 161 161 162 162 162 163 163 163 165 165 166 167 167 171 187 Milk N A Michael Eskin and H Douglas Goff I Introduction II Composition of Milk III Milk Constituents A Lipids Biosynthesis of Milk Fat Fatty Acid Synthesis in the Mammary Gland Synthesis of Unsaturated Fatty Acids B Milk Proteins Caseins Molecular and Structural Characteristics of Caseins Whey Proteins C Casein Micelle Casein Micelle Structure Casein Micelle Models 187 187 189 190 193 194 196 196 197 197 201 202 203 204 D Biosynthesis of Milk Proteins E Lactose References 206 207 208 Egg Components in Food Systems 215 Yoshinori Mine and Hua Zhang I Introduction II Structure and Chemical Components of Eggs 215 216 A Structure of Eggs Structure of Eggshell Structure of Egg White Structure of Egg Yolk B Chemical Composition of Eggs Chemical Composition of Eggshell Chemical Composition of Egg White Chemical Composition of Egg Yolk 216 216 216 217 219 219 220 222 225 III Biosynthesis of Eggs A Introduction to the Egg Formation Process B Biosynthesis of Eggshell and Related Biochemical Changes 225 Regulation of Eggshell Biosynthesis Biomineralization of Eggshell 225 225 C Biosynthesis of Egg Albumen D Biosynthesis of Egg Yolk Formation of Vitellogenin Synthesis of Yolk Low-Density Lipoprotein Biosynthesis of Yolk Livetins IV Changes in Egg Components Induced by Food Processing A Denaturation of Egg Proteins B Changes in Egg Proteins during Preservation Effects Effects Effects Effects of Aging on Eggs of Heat on Eggs of Freezing on Eggs of Irradiation on Eggs 225 226 227 227 227 228 228 228 228 229 230 231 233 C Changes in Egg Protein Functionality Induced by Processing 233 Effects of Dry-Heating on Gelation Effects of Heat on Foaming Effects of Heat on Emulsification 233 234 235 D Modification of Egg Protein Functionality 236 Chemical and Physical Modifications of Eggs 236 Improvement of Functional Properties of Eggs using Maillard Reactions 236 References 237 Part II Biochemistry of Food Processing Browning Reactions in Foods 245 N A Michael Eskin, Chi-Tang Ho and Fereidoon Shahidi I Introduction II Non-enzymatic Browning A Maillard Reaction 245 246 246 552 Chapter | 13 Recombinant DNA Technologies in Food additive for fattening of monogastric livestock, improving phosphorus utilization in animals fed cereal-based diets (trade name Bio-FeedÒ ) T Transglucosidase Transglucosidases (EC 2.4.1.24) transfer an a-D-glucosyl residue in a 1,4-a-D-glucan to the primary hydroxy group of glucose, free or combined in a 1,4-a-D-glucan (KEGG) The transglucosidase gene from Aspergillus niger is heterologously expressed in Trichoderma reesei strain RLP37, which has been genetically modified by deletion of several cellulase genes The expression cassette contains the DNA encoding A niger mature secreted transglucosidase protein fused to the T reesei CBHI signal peptide, for enhanced secretion This open reading frame is flanked by the promoter and terminator sequences of the T reesei cellobiohydrolase (cbhl) gene (FDA-GRN 315) Transglucosidase from A niger only acts on oligosaccharides with a low degree of polymerization (Goffin et al., 2010) This transglucosidase catalyzes both hydrolysis and transfer of a-D-glucooligosaccharides, resulting in a variety of products (Goffin et al., 2010) Transfer occurs most frequently to HO-6, producing isomaltose from D-glucose, and panose from maltose Transglucosidase can also transfer to the HO-2 or HO-3 of D-glucose to form kojibiose or nigerose, or back to HO-4 to form maltose The action on maltose produces an equimolar concentration of panose and glucose As a result of transglucosidase catalysis, malto-oligosaccharides are converted to isomaltooligosaccharides containing high proportions of glucosyl residues linked by an a-D-1,6 linkage from the nonreducing end Therefore, non-fermentable sugars including raffinose and stachyose are converted to sucrose, galactose, glucose, and fructose, which can then be fermented into alcohol (FDA-GRN 315) Therefore, the preparation is used as a processing aid in the production of isomalto-oligosaccharide syrup from starch and potable alcohol from molasses U Xylanase Xylanases (EC 3.2.1.8) hydrolyze 1,4-b-D-xylosidic linkages in the arabinoxylan backbone: (Source: sigma.com) The linear polysaccharide 1,4-b-D-xylan is a component of hemicelluloses, the main constituents of plant cell walls Arabinoxylans are highly branched xylans that are found in various cereals, and they exist in both a soluble and an insoluble form The endo-1,4-b-xylanase gene from Thermomyces lanuginosus has been transferred into a selected strain of Fusarium venenafum (trade name NOVOZYMÒ 899) as well as Aspergillus oryzae (FDA-GRN 54) The xylanase gene from T lanuginosus is under the control of the F oxysporum trypsin gene promoter and terminator The derived heterologous xylanase enzyme preparations are used in the food industry as a processing aid in baking The hydrolysis of the xylosidic linkages in an arabinoxylan backbone results in depolymerization of the arabinoxylan into smaller oligosaccharides This increases the elasticity of the gluten network, improving handling of the dough References 553 REFERENCES Agriculture and Agri-food Canada (as of April 1997, the Canadian Food Inspection Agency), 1995 Monsanto Canada Inc.’s Glyphosatetolerant soybean (Glycine max L.) 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of their normal regeneration capacity EMBO J 2, 2143e2150 Zhang, B.Y., Chen, M., Zhang, X.F., Luan, H.H., Tian, Y.C., Su, X.H., 2011 Expression of Bt-Cry3A in transgenic Populus alba  P glandulosa and its effects on target and non-target pests and the arthropod community Transgen Res 20, 523e532 Zhang, W., Wu, R., 1988 Efficient regeneration of transgenic plants from rice protoplasts and correctly regulated expression of the foreign gene in the plants Theor Appl Genet 76, 835e840 Zimmerli, B., Schlatter, J., 1991 Ethyl carbamate: analytical methodology, occurrence, formation, biological activity and risk assessment Mutat Res 259, 325e350 Index Page references followed by “f” indicate figure, and “t” indicate table A ACC, see 1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid Acetolactate decarboxylase, recombinant protein generation, 532 Acid fungal protease, recombinant protein generation, 540 Acrylamide, Stecker degradation formation, 259, 261f ADPG-pyrophosphorylase expression in wheat development, 7, 7f starch synthesis, 10 Albumen, see Egg Amadori rearrangement Maillard reaction, 248e250, 249f, 250f pigment formation, 256 1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC), ethylene synthesis, 8f, 9f, 14 Aminopeptidase, recombinant protein generation, 532 Amylase a-amylase brewing addition, 314 mashing, 297e299, 298f germination role in cereal grain biosynthesis during germination, 16e17, 17f germinated cereal activity, 18 mobilization of starches, 16 reduction treatment in sprouted grain, 18e19, 19t legume inhibitors, 35 recombinant protein generation A branching glycosyltransferase, 538e539 a-amylase, 535e536 b-amylase, 536 g-amylase, 537 maltogenic amylase, 536e537 maltotetraose-forming amylases, 538 overview, 530f, 533e539 pullulanase, 537e538 Amylopectin, synthesis, 10e11 Amyloplast, cereal grain, Anthocyanins distribution in fruits, 85t processing effects, 87e88, 88f synthesis, 85e87, 86f types and structures, 84e88, 84f Antibiotics, milk, 327e328 Ascorbic acid browning reaction oxidation, 274e276, 276f polyphenol oxidase and browning inhibition, 405e406, 406f Asparaginase, recombinant protein generation, 539 Aspartate, browning reaction inhibition, 280, 280t Aspartic protease, recombinant protein generation, 539e540 Aspergillopepsin I, see Acid fungal protease ATP, postmortem changes in meat and fish levels, 139e141 metabolism, 141e145, 142f, 143f, 145f, 146f B Bacillus thuringiensis, toxins for insect resistance crop engineering commercial crops, 510, 510te511t environmental and health impact, 509 Cry toxin mechanisms, 508e509, 509f overview, 508 Bacteriophage, cheese making challenges, 336e337 Barley, see Brewing; Cereal Barnase, sterility engineering of crops, 519 Barstar, sterility engineering of crops, 519 Bean, see Legume Beer, see Brewing Blanching, polyphenol oxidase and browning inhibition, 412 Bleaching, oilseed processing, 368 Blue-M1, 267e268, 268f Blue-M2, 267e268 Bovine serum albumin (BSA), whey protein, 201 Brewing beer production, 291 enzymes a-amylase, 314 barley brewing, 314 malting barley grain structure, 296e297, 296f, 297f barley malt analysis, 295t overview, 293e297, 294f mashing amylases, 297e299, 298f purposes, 297 overview, 291e293, 292f raw materials, 293f wort fermentation, 311e313, 312f free amino nitrogen, 308e311, 310f, 310t gravity effects on ester levels, 302t separation and beer filtration, 314e316, 315f sugar types, 299e301, 299t sugar uptake by yeast ale and lager yeast strain differences, 303e307, 305t, 306t, 307f maltose and maltotriose, 300f, 303e307 order, 300f osmotic pressure and ethanol effects, 301e303, 302f Bromoxynil, tolerance engineering in crops, 518e519 Browning reactions ascorbic acid oxidation, 274e276 carmelization acidic degradation, 270e273, 270f, 271t, 272f alkaline degradation, 273, 273f aromatic compounds, 273e274 classification for food use, 270t difructose anhydride tracers, 274 overview, 269e274 enzymatic reactions, see Laccase; Polyphenol oxidase; Tyrosinase heterocyclic compounds oxazoles, 262e263, 263f oxazolines, 262e263, 263f pyrazine, 260e262, 261f pyrroles, 262 thiazoles, 263e264 inhibition of non-enzymatic reactions aspartate, 280, 280t enzyme addition, 279 gas packing, 279 glutamate, 280, 280t moisture, 277 pH, 279 sulfite, 279 sulfur dioxide, 279, 280f temperature, 277 Maillard reaction Amadori rearrangement, 248e250, 249f, 250f antioxidant activity of products, 276e277, 277f carbonylamino reaction, 246e248, 248f lipid interactions, 264e265 lysine retention and reaction time, 252f 557 558 Browning reactions (Continued) melanoidin polymers, 265e269, 266f, 267f, 268f, 277f metal complexes, 254e256, 256f moisture, 251e253, 253f pH, 250, 251f, 252f polyphenol effects, 265 pressure effects, 254 pulsed electrical field, 254 sugars, 254, 255f temperature, 250e251, 251f ultrasonic treatment, 254 volatile aromatic formation, 260t overview, 245, 246t pigment formation alternative pathways, 256e257, 258f Amadori compounds, 256 Stecker degradation acrylamide formation, 259, 261f overview, 258e259, 260f 165 BSA, see Bovine serum albumin C CAF, see Calcium-activating factor Calcium-activating factor (CAF), meat tenderization, 157e158, 157t Calpastatin, meat tenderization, 158e159, 163f Caprenin, 379 Capric acid, seal blubber oil modification, 376t Carbohydrate, see also Starch specific sugars cereal grain, see Cereal legume composition fiber, 30e32, 31t germination effects, 36e37, 37f overview, 29e30, 29t soluble carbohydrate, 32e33, 32t starch, 30, 31t Carbon dioxide, see Supercritical carbon dioxide Carboxypeptidase, recombinant protein generation, 540e541 Carmelization acidic degradation, 270e273, 270f, 271t, 272f alkaline degradation, 273, 273f aromatic compounds, 273e274 classification for food use, 270t difructose anhydride tracers, 274 overview, 269e274 Carotenoids degradation, processing and storage effects, 76f, 83e84 lipid oxidation control, 469 ripening changes, 80e83, 81t, 82t synthesis, 75e84, 77f, 78f, 79f, 80f Casein cheese making, 324t milk as1-casein, 197, 198f as2-casein, 197e198, 198t, 199f b-casein, 198e199, 199f, 200f Index g-casein, 200 k-casein, 200e201 casein micelle function, 202e206 models, 204e206, 206f structure, 203e204, 203f overview, 197 Catechol oxidase, see Polyphenol oxidase Cathepsins, meat tenderization, 159 Cellulase cell wall degradation, 96e98, 97f, 98f recombinant protein generation, 541 Cell wall degradation cellulase, 96e98, 97f, 98f b-galactosidase, 98e99 overview, 92e99 pectic lyase, 96, 96f pectinesterase, 94e96 polygalacturonase, 93e94, 94f hemicellulose, 91 lignin, 91 pectic substances, 89e91, 90f, 91f protein, 91 synthesis, 92 texture effects in fruits and vegetables, 89e99 Cereal barley malting, see Brewing composition amyloplast, lipid, 15e16, 15t, 16t overview, 5e16 protein bodies formation, 11e12, 12f ultrastructure, 11, 11t protein classification, 12e13, 12f Osborne protein fractions in Seeds, 13t prolamins, 13e14, 13t, 14t synthesis, 14, 15f starch granule, 6e7, 6t sucrose conversion, 7e10, 8f, 9f germination a-amylase role biosynthesis during germination, 16e17, 17f germinated cereal activity, 18 mobilization of starches, 16 reduction treatment in sprouted grain, 18e19, 19t flour quality effects, 18 lipid mobilization, 8f, 20e22 protein mobilization, 19e20, 20f, 21t production, 4, 4f starch biosynthesis ADPG-pyrophosphorylase, 7, 7f, 10 ADPG-starch synthetase, 10 amylopectin, 10e11 starch synthase, sucrose-UDP-glucosyltransferase, 8e10, 8f, 9f storage prolonged storage, 23e24 respiration modulation moisture, 22e23, 22f temperature, 23, 23f structure of grain, 4e5 Cheese cultures classification of lactic acid cultures, 331e332, 333t functions, 331, 332t management bacteriophage challenges, 336e337 handling, 336 natural cultures, 335 starter cultures, 335e336 secondary cultures, 332e335 milk antibiotics, 327e328 coagulation acid coagulation), 330e331 enzymatic coagulation, 328e330 composition considerations, 320e323, 322t, 323t mastitis and quality, 328 microorganisms gas formers, 325e326 lactic acid bacteria, 325 natural fermentation, 323e327, 325f pathogens, 326e327 psychotrophic bacteria, 325 production calcium control, 338 flavor control, 339e340 moisture control, 337 overview, 319e320, 320f, 321f pH control, 337e338, 338t texture control, 338e339 ripening acceleration attenuated starter cultures, 346 enzyme-modified cheese, 345e346 genetically modified lactic acid bacteria, 347 high-pressure processing, 345 non-starter adjunct cultures, 347 overview, 344e347 temperature, 345 citric acid catabolism, 340e341 lactic acid catabolism, 340e341 lactose metabolism, 340e341 lipid catabolism, 341 proteolysis amino acid catabolism, 344 lactic acid bacteria, 343e344 plasmin, 342e343 rennet activity, 342 Chlorophyll degradation pathways, 71e75, 71f, 72f, 73f processing and storage effects, 73e75, 74f lipid oxidation, 449e450, 449f synthesis genes, 67t overview, 68f 559 Index Phase 1, 66e70, 70f Phase 2, 71 regulation, 71 Chymosin, recombinant protein generation, 542 Cinnamic acid, derivatives as polyphenol oxidase substrates, 394e395 Citric acid cheese ripening and catabolism, 340e341 polyphenol oxidase and browning inhibition, 404 Climacteric rise, control in vegetables, 53e54 Collagen, muscle composition, 131e134 degradation by lysosomal enzymes, 162 structure, 132f texture effects fish, 133e134, 133f meat, 132e133, 132f Cow’s milk, see Milk Cry toxin, see Bacillus thuringiensis Cyanide, ethylene regulation in ripening, 62 Cyclodextrin glucanotransferase, recombinant protein generation, 541e542 D Dairy, see Cheese; Milk; Yogurt Dark firm dry (DFD), causes in meat, 154 Degumming, oilseed processing and phospholipid removal, 365e366 DFD, see Dark firm dry Dimethyl disulfide (DMDS), milk off-flavor, 488e489 Dimethylsulfide (DMS), milk off-flavor, 492e493 Dimethyltrisulfide (DMTS), milk off-flavor, 492e493 DMDS, see Dimethyl disulfide DMS, see Dimethylsulfide DMTS, see Dimethyltrisulfide DNA, structure, 504e506, 505f Docosahexaenoic acid, see Omega-3 fatty acids Drip loss, meat, 154e156, 155t E EGCG, see Epigallocatechin gallate Egg composition shell, 219e220 vitamins and minerals, 224t white, 220e222, 221t yolk, 222e225, 222t, 223t formation overview, 225 shell mineralization, 225e226 regulation, 225 white, 226e227 yolk livitens, 228 low-density lipoprotein, 227 vitellogenin, 227 functional properties in food systems, 216t preservation and processing effects aging, 229e230 freezing effects vitelline membrane, 232 white, 232e233 whole egg mixture, 232 yolk gelation, 232 heat effects dry-heating effects on gelation, 229f, 233e234 emulsification, 235e236 foaming, 234e235 pasteurization, 231 white, 230e231 yolk, 230 irradiation effects, 233 protein denaturation, 228, 229f protein functionality modifications, 236e237 structure overview, 216e218, 217f shell, 216, 217f white, 216 yolk, 217e218, 218f Eicosapentaenoic acid, see Omega-3 fatty acids EMC, see Enzyme-modified cheese 5-Enolpyruvyl shikimate 3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS), transgenesis for herbicide tolerance, 514e516, 516t Enzyme-modified cheese (EMC), ripening, 345e346 Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), omega-3 fatty acid conjugates, 380e381 EPSPS, see 5-Enolpyruvyl shikimate 3phosphate synthase Ethyl carbamate, yeast engineering for reduction in fermentation, 528e529 Ethylene, ripening biosynthesis methionine metabolism, 59e61 overview, 57e65 Yang cycle and methionine recycling, 59, 60f composition of climacteric and nonclimacteric fruits, 58t initiation of ripening, 55e57, 58f regulation 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acidmetabolizing enzymes, 59e61, 60f cyanide, 63 organic acids, 63 lipoxygenase, 63e64 galactose, 65 F FAN, see Free amino nitrogen Fat, see Lipid Fermentation beer, see Brewing dairy, see Cheese; Yogurt legumes and effects on composition, 39e40 polyphenol oxidase in tea fermentation, 400e401, 401t yeast engineering ethyl carbamate reduction, 528e529 hydrogen sulfide reduction, 524f, 525e527 malolactic fermentation, 529e531, 529f Fiber, legume composition, 30e32, 31t Fish, see Muscle Flour, see Cereal Free amino nitrogen (FAN), wort, 308e311, 310f, 310t Free radicals, see Lipid oxidation Freezing, egg effects vitelline membrane, 232 white, 232e233 whole egg mixture, 232 yolk gelation, 232 Fruits anthocyanins distribution in fruits, 85t processing effects, 87e88, 88f synthesis, 85e87, 86f types and structures, 84e88, 84f carotenoids degradation, processing and storage effects, 76f, 83e84 ripening changes, 80e83, 81t, 82t synthesis, 75e84, 77f, 78f, 79f, 80f cell wall degradation b-galactosidase, 98e99 cellulase, 96e98, 97f, 98f overview, 92e99 pectic lyase, 96, 96f pectinesterase, 94e96 polygalacturonase, 93e94, 94f hemicellulose, 91 lignin, 91 pectic substances, 89e91, 90f, 91f protein, 91 synthesis, 92 texture effects, 89e99 color changes in ripening, 66t ethylene and ripening biosynthesis methionine metabolism, 59e61 overview, 57e65 Yang cycle and methionine recycling, 59, 60f composition of climacteric and nonclimacteric fruits, 58t initiation of ripening, 55e57, 58f regulation 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acidmetabolizing enzymes, 59e61, 60f cyanide, 63 galactose, 65 lipoxygenase, 63e64 organic acids, 63 respiration, 50e55, 52f, 52t storage cold storage, 107 controlled atmosphere storage, 107e109, 108f 560 Fruits (Continued) prospects, 38e39 taste starch conversion to sugar, 104e105, 104f organic acids, ripening, and changes, 105, 106f volatile aromatics aldehydes, alcohols, and esters amino acid precursors, 100e101, 100f fatty acid precursors, 101e103, 102f, 103f overview, 99e103, 99f G Galactose, ethylene modulation in ripening, 16e17 b-Galactosidase, cell wall degradation, 98e99 Gap filaments, muscle overview, 130e131, 130f tenderness effects, 160e161 Gas packing, browning reaction inhibition, 279 Genetically modified crops Bacillus thuringiensis toxins for insect resistance commercial crops, 510e511, 510te511t Cry toxin mechanisms, 508e509, 509f environmental and health impact, 509 overview, 508 DNA structure, 504e506, 505f expression regulation, 507 food utilization, 507e508 herbicide tolerance engineering bromoxynil tolerance, 518e519 glufosinate tolerance mechanism of action, 517 phosphinothricin acetyltransferase transgenesis, 514e516 glyphosate tolerance 5-enolpyruvyl shikimate 3-phosphate synthase transgenesis, 514e516, 516t glyphosate oxidoreductase transgenesis, 516e517 mechanism of action, 512e514, 513f overview, 512e519 high-lysine corn, 523e524, 524f pathogen-derived resistance to viruses commercial crops papaya, 521 plum, 522 potato, 521e522 summer squash, 519f, 521 mechanism of resistance, 520e521 safety, 522e523 sterility engineering barnase, 519 barstar, 519 transformation approaches, 506e507 Genetically modified microorganisms classification, 524e531 DNA structure, 504e506, 505f enzyme and protein production for food industry acetolactate decarboxylase, 532 Index acid fungal protease, 540 aminopeptidase, 532e533 amylase A branching glycosyltransferase, 538e539 a-amylase, 535e536 b-amylase, 536 g-amylase, 537 maltogenic amylase, 536e537 maltotetraose-forming amylases, 538 overview, 530f, 533e539 pullulanase, 537e538 asparaginase, 539 aspartic protease, 539e540 carboxypeptidase, 540e541 cellulase, 541 chymosin, 542 cyclodextrin glucanotransferase, 541e542 glucose oxidase, 542e543 glycerophospholipid cholesterol acyltransferase, 543e544 hexose oxidase, 544e545 ice structuring protein, 545 laccase, 545e546 overview, 531e552 pectin lyase, 551 pectinesterase, 550e551 phospholipase A1, 546e547 phospholipase A2, 547e548 phospholipase C, 548 phytase, 551e552 transglucosidase, 552 triacylglycerol lipase, 549e550 xylanase, 552 lactic acid bacteria, 347 regulation, 520t yeast modification for fermentation ethyl carbamate reduction, 528e529 hydrogen sulfide reduction, 524f, 525e527 malolactic fermentation, 529e531, 529f Germination cereal grain a-amylase role biosynthesis during germination, 16e17, 17f germinated cereal activity, 18 mobilization of starches, 16 reduction treatment in sprouted grain, 18e19, 19t flour quality effects, 18 lipid mobilization, 8f, 20e22 protein mobilization, 19e20, 20f, 21t legume composition effects carbohydrate, 29e33, 33f lipid, 36e37 phytic acid, 38 protein, 37 trypsin inhibitor activity, 38 vitamins and minerals, 37e38 Glucose oxidase, recombinant protein generation, 542e543 Glufosinate mechanism of action, 517 phosphinothricin acetyltransferase transgenesis for herbicide tolerance, 517e518 Glutamate, browning reaction inhibition, 280, 280t Glycerophospholipid cholesterol acyltransferase, recombinant protein generation, 543e544 Glycogen, degradation in meat and fish, 146e147, 148t Glycolysis, postmortem changes in meat and fish electrical stimulation studies, 151e152 enzymes, 152e153 overview, 146e147, 147f temperature effects, 149e151 time course, 149, 150f Glycyl-dipeptides, polyphenol oxidase and browning inhibition, 407e408 Glyphosate mechanism of action, 512e514, 513f tolerance engineering in crops 5-enolpyruvyl shikimate 3-phosphate synthase transgenesis, 514e516, 516t glyphosate oxidoreductase transgenesis, 516e517 Grain, see Brewing; Cereal H HAT, see Hydrogen atom transfer Heat treatment browning reaction inhibition, 408e409, 408f, 410f, 411 egg effects dry-heating effects on gelation, 229f, 233e234 emulsification, 235e236 foaming, 234e235 pasteurization, 231 white, 230e231 yolk, 230 lipid oxidation, 452e454, 454t milk off-flavor induction, 490e493, 491t, 494t, 495f Heme, lipid oxidation, 447e448, 449f Hemicellulose, cell wall in fruits and vegetables, 91 Herbicide tolerance engineering see specific herbicides Hexose oxidase, recombinant protein generation, 544e545 HHP, see High hydrostatic pressure High hydrostatic pressure (HHP), polyphenol oxidase and browning inhibition, 409 High-lysine corn, 523e524, 524f Hydrodynamic pressure wave, meat tenderization, 162 Hydrogen atom transfer (HAT), lipid oxidation control, 469 Hydrogen sulfide milk off-flavor, 492 yeast engineering for reduction in fermentation, 524f, 525e527 Hydrogenation, oilseed processing, 370 561 Index I Ice structuring protein, recombinant protein generation, 545 Inosine, formation in meat and fish, 142f, 146f Intermediate filaments, muscle overview, 131 tenderness effects, 161 Invertase, expression in wheat development, 8e9, 8f, 9f Irradiation browning reaction inhibition, 409e410, 412 egg effects, 233 lipid oxidation ultraviolet light, 450e451, 450t visible light, 451e452, 451t, 453t polyphenol oxidase and browning inhibition gamma radiation, 409e410 ultraviolet radiation, 265, 481 L LAB, see Lactic acid bacteria Laccase browning reaction, 397e398 recombinant protein generation, 545e546 a-Lactalbumin, whey protein, 201, 202f Lactic acid, cheese ripening and catabolism, 340e341 Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) cheese ripening attenuated starter cultures, 346 genetic modification, 347 milk composition, 325 yogurt probiotic benefits, 349e350 starter cultures, 348e349 Lactoferritin, whey protein, 201 b-Lactoglobulin, whey protein, 201, 202f Lactose cheese ripening and metabolism, 340e341 milk, 207e208, 208f Lectins, legume composition, 35 Legume aesthetic food quality, 39 a-amylase inhibitors, 35 carbohydrate composition fiber, 30e32, 31t overview, 29e30, 29t soluble carbohydrate, 32e33, 32t starch, 30, 31t fermentation effects on composition, 39e40 germination effects on composition carbohydrate, 23 lipid, 36e37 phytic acid, 38 protein, 37 trypsin inhibitor activity, 38 vitamins and minerals, 37e38 isoflavones, 38e39, 39f lectins, 35 lipid composition, 34, 34t lipoxygenase, 36 production, 24, 24t protease inhibitors, 34e35 protein amino acid composition, 28t classification, 27 nitrogen fixation, 26e29 quality, 29 structure and properties, 27e29 proximate composition, 24e25, 26t Seed structure, 24, 25f storage aging and food quality, 40e41 isoflavone composition, 41 respiration, moisture, and temperature, 40, 41t Lentil, see Legume Lignin, cell wall in fruits and vegetables, 91 Lipid cereal grain composition, 15e16, 15t, 16t mobilization in germination, 8f, 20e22 cheese ripening and catabolism, 341 egg yolk, 222e225, 222t, 223t legumes composition, 34, 34t germination effects, 36e37 Maillard reaction interactions, 264e265 milk composition, 187e189, 189t, 190t, 191f off-flavors, see Milk synthesis overview, 193e194 saturated fatty acids, 194e196 unsaturated fatty acids, 196, 196f oilseed, see Oilseed processing Lipid oxidation control antioxidants classification, 468e472 structures, 470f carotenoids, 469 chain terminators, 471 decomposition of radicals, 471 environmental modification, 471e472 hydrogen atom transfer, 469 metal chelators and complexors, 468 direct effects membrane degradation, 457 sensory characteristics of food, 456e457, 456f, 457t free radical chain reaction initiation, 421 propagation and branching, 421e425, 422f, 423f termination, 425e426, 426f, 428f, 429f, 430f initiation and catalysts chlorophyll, 449e450, 449f heat, 452e454, 454t heme, 447e448, 449f light ultraviolet, 450e451, 450t visible, 451e452, 451t, 453t lipoxygenase, 446, 447t metals, 444e445 moisture, 454e455, 454f oxygen, 455e456 preformed radicals, 444, 444t xanthine oxidase, 447 kinetics, 437e438 milk off-flavors, 485 multiple reaction pathways addition, 431 cyclization, 432e433 disproportionation, 435 hydrogen abstraction, 432 overview, 431e435, 431f scission, 434e435 progression, 435e437, 436f protein oxidation mediation lipid aldehyde reactions, 462e466 lipid epoxide reactions, 461e462 lipid free radical reactions, 459e460, 459f lipid hydroperoxide reactions, 460e461, 460f overview, 458e468, 459f protein effects, 466e468, 467t substrates cis versus trans isomers, 441 comparison of free fatty acids, esters, and triacylglycerols, 438e440, 440f, 440t conjugation effects, 441 phospholipids antioxidant effects, 441e442, 442f mixed effects, 442 pro-oxidant effects, 441 types, 420e421 unsaturation effects, 438, 440t surface effects, 442e443, 443t Lipoprotein lipase (LPL), milk, 482e484 Lipoxygenase (LOX) characteristics in plants, 446, 447t ethylene modulation in ripening, 12f, 16 legume composition, 36 Livitens, egg synthesis, 228 Lobster, polyphenol oxidase in browning, 401e403, 403t Lohmann reaction, muscle contraction, 136 LOX, see Lipoxygenase LPL, see Lipoprotein lipase Lysine high-lysine corn, 523e524, 524f retention and reaction time in Maillard reaction, 252f M Maillard reaction browning reaction Amadori rearrangement, 248e250, 249f, 256f, 257f antioxidant activity of products, 276e277, 277f carbonylamino reaction, 246e248, 248f lipid interactions, 264e265 lysine retention and reaction time, 252f melanoidin polymers, 265e269, 266f, 267f, 268f, 277f 562 Maillard reaction (Continued) metal complexes, 254e256, 256f moisture, 251e253, 253f pH, 250, 251f, 252f polyphenol effects, 286 pressure effects, 254 pulsed electrical field, 254 sugars, 254, 255f temperature, 250e251, 251f ultrasonic treatment, 254 volatile aromatic formation, 260t egg protein modification, 236e237 overview, 246e256 Maize, see Cereal Malate dehydrogenase, vegetable respiration, 54e55 Malting barley grain structure, 296e297, 296f, 297f barley malt analysis, 295t overview, 293e297, 294f Maltose, see Brewing Maltotriose, see Brewing Mashing amylases, 297e299, 298f purposes, 297 temperature, 297f Mastitis, cheese quality, 328 Meat, see Muscle 1-MCP, see 1-Methylcyclopropene Melanoidin polymers, Maillard reaction, 265e269, 266f, 267f, 268f, 277f Methionine ethylene synthesis methionine metabolism, 59e61 Yang cycle and methionine recycling, 59, 60f oxidation by singlet oxygen, 488f 1-Methylcyclopropene (1-MCP), plant storage utilization, 108 Milk composition overview, 187e189, 189t trends by cow breed, 188t fermentation products, see Cheese, see also Yogurt lactose, 207e208, 208f lipid composition, 190e196, 190t, 191f, 192t, 198f synthesis overview, 193e194 saturated fatty acids, 194e196 unsaturated fatty acids, 196, 196f off-flavors fishy off-flavors, 485e486, 487f heat-induced off-flavors, 490e493, 491t, 494t, 495f light-induced off-flavors, 486e490, 487f, 488f, 489f lipolyzed flavors free fatty acid determination, 481e482 lipases, 482e484 origins, 480e496, 480f Index sensory properties of free fatty acids, 482 microbial generation, 484 non-thermal processing in formation, 493e496 overview, 479, 480t oxidized off-flavors, 485, 486t proteolysis, 484 protein casein as1-casein, 197, 198f as2-casein, 197e198, 198t, 199f b-casein, 198e199, 199f, 200f g-casein, 200 k-casein, 200e201 overview, 197 casein micelle function, 202e206 structure, 203e204, 203f models, 204e206, 206f synthesis, 206e207, 207f whey proteins bovine serum albumin, 201 a-lactalbumin, 201, 202f b-lactoglobulin, 201, 202f lactoferritin, 201 Minerals egg composition, 224t legume germination effects, 37e38 lipid oxidation promotion by metals, 444e445 Moisture browning reaction inhibition, 277 Maillard reaction effects, 251e253, 253f cereal grain respiration modulation in storage, 22e23, 22f cheese making control, 337 legume storage, 40, 41t lipid oxidation effects, 454e455, 454f Muscle collagen composition, 131e134 degradation by lysosomal enzymes, 162 structure, 132f texture effects fish, 133e134, 133f meat, 132e133, 132f consumption trends in United States, 128t contraction energetics, 134e138 fish muscle, 137e138, 138f, 140f Lohmann reaction, 136 tropomyosin mechanism of action, 135f, 136, 137f regulation, 135e136 troponin, 135e136 cytoskeleton gap filaments overview, 130e131, 130f tenderness effects, 160e161 intermediate filaments overview, 131 tenderness effects, 161 dark firm dry meat causes, 154 definition, 128 pale soft exudative meat causes, 153e154 pigments fish, 167 meat, see Myoglobin preservation, 167e170, 168f, 170f postmortem changes in conversion to meat and edible fish ATP levels, 139e141 metabolism, 141e145, 142f, 143f, 145f, 146f glycogen degradation, 146e147, 148t glycolysis electrical stimulation studies, 151e152 enzymes, 152e153 overview, 146e147, 147f temperature effects, 149e151 time course, 149, 150f overview, 137e138, 144f pH changes, 147e149, 149f, 150t, 151f, 158f protein denaturation and adenosine nucleotides, 145e146, 146f water holding capacity changes, 154e156, 155t stages, 138e139 tenderness, 156 structure, 129e130, 129f tenderization hydrodynamic pressure wave, 162 mechanisms calcium-activating factor, 157e158, 157t calpastatin, 158e159 cathepsins, 159 proteasome, 159e160 proteomics studies, 160 prerigor pressurization, 152e153, 161e162 Myoglobin fish, 167 meat pigmentation, 162e170 postmortem changes fresh meat, 163e165, 165t, 165f oxygen tension effects, 165 pH, temperature, and salt effects on metmyoglobin formation, 165e166 redox reactions, 166e167, 167f preservation in meat, 167e170, 168f, 170f structure, 163, 163f, 164t, 166f N Neobee, 379 Nitrogen fixation, legumes, 26e29 O Oat, see Cereal Oilseed processing bleaching, 368 563 Index degumming for phospholipid removal, 365e366 hydrogenation, 370 lipid modification health promotion and disease risk reduction, 379e380 low-calorie lipids, 379 omega-3 fatty acids borage oil modification, 375t epigallocatechin gallate conjugates, 380e381 primrose oil modification, 375t production from marine and algal oils, 377e378, 378t seal blubber oil modification with capric acid, 376t synthesis, 373f prospects, 380e381 specialty lipid production, 373e374, 379 types of lipids and fatty acids, 370e381 overview, 363e370 refining, 366e367 winterization, 369e370 Omega-3 fatty acids borage oil modification, 375t epigallocatechin gallate conjugates, 380e381 primrose oil modification, 375t production from marine and algal oils, 377e378, 378t seal blubber oil modification with capric acid, 376t synthesis, 373f Oxazoles, browning reactions, 262e263, 263f Oxazolines, browning reactions, 262e263, 263f P Pale soft exudative (PSE), causes in meat, 153e154 Pasteurization, eggs, 231 PAT, see Phosphinothricin acetyltransferase Pathogen-derived resistance (PDR), virus resistance in crops commercial crops papaya, 521 plum, 522 potato, 521e522 summer squash, 521 mechanism of resistance, 520e521 safety, 522e523 PDR, see Pathogen-derived resistance Pea, see Legume Pectic lyase cell wall degradation, 96, 96f recombinant protein generation, 551 Pectinesterase cell wall degradation, 94e96 recombinant protein generation, 550e551 PEF, see Pulsed electric field PET, see Polyethylene terephthalate PFK, see Phosphofructokinase PG, see Polygalacturonase pH browning reaction inhibition, 279 cheese making control, 337e338, 338t Maillard reaction, 250, 251f, 252f metmyoglobin formation effects, 165e166 postmortem changes in meat and fish, 147e149, 149f, 150t, 151f, 158f Phosphinothricin acetyltransferase (PAT), transgenesis for herbicide tolerance, 517e518 Phosphofructokinase (PFK), vegetable respiration, 55, 56f Phospholipase A1, recombinant protein generation, 546e547 Phospholipase A2, recombinant protein generation, 547e548 Phospholipase C, recombinant protein generation, 548 Phospholipid, see Lipid Phytase, recombinant protein generation, 551e552 Phytic acid, legume germination effects, 37e38 Plasmin, cheese ripening, 342e343 Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), milk offflavor, 489e490 Polygalacturonase (PG), cell wall degradation, 93e94, 94f Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) catalytic mechanism, 389e391, 390f function in plants, 391e392, 392t, 393f history of study, 387e388 inhibition of browning reactions anaerobic conditions, 403e404 blanching, 412 chemical inhibitors, 404e408, 406f heat treatment, 408e409, 408f, 410f, 411 high hydrostatic pressure, 409 irradiation, 409e410, 412 prospects, 411e412 pulsed electric field, 410e411 supercritical carbon dioxide, 411e412 lobster browning, 401e403, 403t plant differences, 399t reaction specificity, 398e399 shrimp browning, 401e403, 402f, 403t structure, 388e389, 389f substrates cinnamic acid derivatives, 394e395 flavonoids, 395e397, 397f phenolic acids, 394 simple phenols, 394 tea fermentation, 400e401, 401t PPO, see Polyphenol oxidase Prerigor pressurization, meat tenderization, 152e153, 161e162 Probiotics, yogurt benefits, 349e350 Prolamins, cereal grain, 13e14, 13t, 14t Proteasome, meat tenderization, 159e160 Protein cell wall in fruits and vegetables, 91 cereal grain classification, 12e13, 12f mobilization in germination, 19e20, 20f, 21t Osborne protein fractions in Seeds, 13t prolamins, 13e14, 13t, 14t synthesis, 14, 15f cheese ripening and proteolysis amino acid catabolism, 344 lactic acid bacteria, 343e344 plasmin, 342e343 rennet activity, 342 egg denaturation, 228, 229f heating effects dry-heating effects on gelation, 229f, 233e234 emulsification, 235e236 foaming, 234e235 pasteurization, 231 white, 230e231 yolk, 230 modifications, 236e237 yolk composition, 222e225, 222t, 223t legumes amino acid composition, 28t classification, 27 nitrogen fixation, 26e29 quality, 29 structure and properties, 27e29 milk casein as1-casein, 197, 198f as2-casein, 197e198, 198t, 199f b-casein, 198e199, 199f, 200f g-casein, 200 k-casein, 200e201 overview, 197 casein micelle function, 202e206 models, 204e206, 206f structure, 203e204, 203f synthesis, 206e207, 207f whey proteins bovine serum albumin, 201 a-lactalbumin, 201, 202f b-lactoglobulin, 201, 202f lactoferritin, 201 oxidation mediation by lipid oxidation lipid aldehyde reactions, 462e466 lipid epoxide reactions, 461e462 lipid free radical reactions, 459e460, 459f lipid hydroperoxide reactions, 460e461, 460f overview, 458e468, 459f protein effects, 466e468, 467t postmortem changes in meat and fish denaturation and adenosine nucleotides, 145e146, 146f water holding capacity, 154e156, 155t Protein body, cereal grain formation, 11e12, 12f ultrastructure, 11, 11t PSE, see Pale soft exudative 564 Pullulanase, recombinant protein generation, 537e538 Pulse, see Legume Pulsed electric field (PEF) Maillard reaction effects, 254 polyphenol oxidase and browning inhibition, 410e411 Pyrazine, browning reactions, 260e262, 261f Pyridoline, meat texture effects, 133, 133f Pyrophosphatase, expression in wheat development, 7, 7f Pyrroles, browning reactions, 262 R Radiation, see Irradiation Raffinose, legume content, 32e33, 32t Rennet activity, cheese ripening, 342 Respiration cereal grain storage modulation moisture, 22e23, 22f temperature, 23, 23f legume storage, moisture, and temperature effects, 40, 41t vegetables climacteric rise control, 53e54 malate dehydrogenase, 54e55 overview, 50e55, 53f phosphofructokinase, 55, 56f Riboflavin, photosensitization, 486e488, 488f Rigor mortis, fish muscle, 137e138, 138f, 140f Ripening, see Cheese; Fruits; Vegetables S Salatrim, 379 SDH, see Succinate dehydrogenase Shell, see Eggs Shrimp, polyphenol oxidase in browning, 401e403, 402f, 403t Sodium polyphosphate a-amylase reduction in sprouted grain, 18e19, 19t polyphenol oxidase and browning inhibition, 406 Soybean, see Legume Starch, see also Carbohydrate cereal grain biosynthesis ADPG-pyrophosphorylase, 7, 7f, 10 ADPG-starch synthetase, 10 amylopectin, 10e11 starch synthase, sucrose-UDP-glucosyltransferase, 8e10, 8f, 9f granule, 6e7, 6t mobilization in germination, 16 sucrose conversion, 7e10, 8f, 9f fruit conversion to sugar, 104e105, 104f legume composition, 30, 31t Stecker degradation acrylamide formation, 259, 261f overview, 258e259, 260f Index Sterility, crop engineering barnase, 519 barstar, 519 Storage cereal grains prolonged storage, 23e24 respiration modulation moisture, 22e23, 22f temperature, 23, 23f fruits and vegetables cold storage, 107 controlled atmosphere storage, 107e109, 108f prospects, 38e39 legumes aging and food quality, 40e41 isoflavone composition, 41 respiration, moisture, and temperature, 40, 41t Styachyose, legume content, 32e33, 32t Succinate dehydrogenase (SDH), meat tenderness prediction, 160 Sucrose legume content, 32e33, 32t starch conversion in cereals, 7e10, 8f, 9f Sucrose-UDP-glucosyltransferase expression in wheat development, 8e9, 8f, 9f starch synthesis, 10 Sulfite, browning reaction inhibition, 279 Sulfur dioxide, browning reaction inhibition, 279, 280f Supercritical carbon dioxide, polyphenol oxidase and browning inhibition, 411e412 T Tea, polyphenol oxidase in fermentation, 400e401, 401t Tenderization, see Muscle tenderness, 156 Thiazoles, browning reactions, 263e264 TIA, see Trypsin inhibitor activity Transglucosidase, recombinant protein generation, 552 Triacylglyceride, see Lipid Triacylglycerol lipase, recombinant protein generation, 549e550 Trimethylamine oxide, milk off-flavor, 485e486 Tropomyosin mechanism of action, 135f, 136, 137f muscle contraction regulation, 135e136 Troponin, muscle contraction regulation, 135e136 Trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA), legume germination effects, 37e38 Tyrosinase, browning reaction initiation, 387e388, 397e398 U Ultrasonic treatment, Maillard reaction promotion, 254 Ultraviolet light, see Irradiation V Vegetables anthocyanins processing effects, 87e88, 88f synthesis, 85e87, 86f types and structures, 84e88, 84f carotenoids degradation, processing and storage effects, 76f, 83e84 ripening changes, 80e83, 81t, 82t synthesis, 75e84, 77f, 78f, 79f, 80f cell wall degradation cellulase, 96e98, 97f, 98f b-galactosidase, 98e99 overview, 92e99 pectic lyase, 96, 96f pectinesterase, 94e96 polygalacturonase, 93e94, 94f hemicellulose, 91 lignin, 91 pectic substances, 89e91, 90f, 91f protein, 91 synthesis, 92 texture effects, 89e99 chlorophyll biosynthesis genes, 67t overview, 68f Phase 1, 66e70, 70f Phase 2, 71 regulation, 71 degradation pathways, 71e75, 71f, 72f, 73f processing and storage effects, 73e75, 74f ethylene and ripening biosynthesis methionine metabolism, 59e61 overview, 57e65 Yang cycle and methionine recycling, 59, 60f initiation of ripening, 55e57, 58f genetic engineering, see Genetically modified crops respiration climacteric rise control, 53e54 malate dehydrogenase, 54e55 overview, 50e55, 53f phosphofructokinase, 55, 56f storage cold storage, 107 controlled atmosphere storage, 107e109, 108f prospects, 38e39 Vitamins egg composition, 224t legume germination effects, 37e38 vitamin C, see Ascorbic acid Vitellogenin, synthesis, 227 W Water, see Moisture Wheat, see Cereal 565 Index Whey proteins cheese making, 324t types bovine serum albumin, 201 a-lactalbumin, 201, 202f b-lactoglobulin, 201, 202f lactoferritin, 201 Winterization, oilseed processing, 369e370 Wort fermentation, 311e313, 312f free amino nitrogen, 308e311, 310f, 310t gravity effects on ester levels, 302t separation and beer filtration, 314e316, 315f sugar types, 299e301, 299t sugar uptake by yeast order, 300f maltose and maltotriose, 300f, 303e307 osmotic pressure and ethanol effects, 301e303, 302f ale and lager yeast strain differences, 303e307, 305t, 306t, 307f X Xanthine oxidase, lipid oxidation, 447 Xylanase, recombinant protein generation, 552 Y Yang cycle, methionine recycling, 59, 60f Yeast, see Brewing; Fermentation; Genetically modified microorganisms Yogurt cultures classification of lactic acid cultures, 331, 332t functions, 331, 332t management bacteriophage challenges, 336e337 handling, 336 natural cultures, 335 starter cultures, 335e336 secondary cultures, 332e335 starter cultures, 348e349 flavor components, 351 milk antibiotics, 327e328 coagulation acid coagulation, 330e331 enzymatic coagulation, 328e330 composition considerations, 320e323, 322t, 323t mastitis and quality, 328 microorganisms gas formers, 325e326 lactic acid bacteria, 325 natural fermentation, 323e327, 325f pathogens, 326e327 psychotrophic bacteria, 325 probiotic benefits, 349e350 production overview, 319e320, 320f, 348 Yolk, see Egg This page intentionally left blank ... Components of Eggs 215 216 A Structure of Eggs Structure of Eggshell Structure of Egg White Structure of Egg Yolk B Chemical Composition of Eggs Chemical Composition of Eggshell Chemical Composition of. .. Microbial Generated Off-Flavors Proteolyzed Off-Flavors C D E F G Oxidized Off-Flavors Fishy Off-Flavors Light-Induced Off-Flavors Heat-Induced Off-Flavors Non-Thermal Processing and Off-Flavor Formation... Changes 225 Regulation of Eggshell Biosynthesis Biomineralization of Eggshell 225 225 C Biosynthesis of Egg Albumen D Biosynthesis of Egg Yolk Formation of Vitellogenin Synthesis of Yolk Low-Density