Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Page i Creatine The Power Supplement Melvin H. Williams, PhD Old Dominion University Richard B. Kreider, PhD University of Memphis J. David Branch, PhD Old Dominion University www.Ebook777.com Page ii Library of Congress CataloginginPublication Data Williams, Melvin H Creatine: the power supplement / Melvin H. Williams, Richard B. Kreider, J. David Branch p. cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 073600162X 1. CreatinePhysiological effect. 2. ExercisePhysiological aspects. 3. SportsPhysiological aspects. 4. Dietary supplements. 5. Athletes. I. Kreider, Richard B., 1962 II. Branch, J. David, 1956 III. Title QP801.C8 W54 1999 61201575dc21 9921071 CIP ISBN 073600162X Copyright © 1999 by Melvin H. Williams, Richard B. Kreider, and J. David Branch All rights reserved. Except for use in a review, the reproduction or utilization of this work in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including xerography, photocopying, and recording, and in any information storage and retrieval system, is forbidden without the written permission of the publisher Acquisitions Editor: Michael S. Bahrke Managing Editor: Melinda Graham Assistant Editor: Laurie Stokoe Copyeditor: Joyce Sexton Proofreader: Kathy Bennett Indexer: Craig Brown Graphic Designers: Judy Henderson, Nancy Rasmus Graphic Artist: Judy Henderson Photo Editor: Clark Brooks Cover Designer: Jack Davis Illustrator: Kim Maxey Printer: Versa Press Human Kinetics books are available at special discounts for bulk purchase. Special editions or book excerpts can also be created to specification. For details, contact the Special Sales Manager at Human Kinetics Printed in the United States of America Web site: http://www.humankinetics.com/ United States: Human Kinetics P.O. Box 5076 Champaign, IL 618255076 18007474457 email: humank@hkusa.com Canada: Human Kinetics 475 Devonshire Road Unit 100 Windsor, ON N8Y 2L5 18004657301 (in Canada only) email: humank@hkcanada.com 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Europe: Human Kinetics, P.O. Box IW14 Leeds LS166TR, United Kingdom +44(0)113278 1708 email: humank@hkeurope.com Australia: Human Kinetics 57A Price Avenue Lower Mitcham, South Australia 5062 (08) 82771555 email: humank@hkaustralia.com New Zealand: Human Kinetics P.O. Box 105231, Auckland 1 095233462 email: humank@hknewz.com Page iii We are deeply indebted to our loved ones for their patience with and confidence in us Jeanne KrugerWilliams and Sara Kruger Wendy Kreider, Alison Kreider, Ryan Kreider and my parents Carol Branch, David Powell, and Anne Randolph Powell Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Page v Contents Preface ix Acknowledgments xi Chapter 1 Introduction Brief History Chapter Summary 11 Chapter 2 Creatine Requirements and Metabolic Functions 13 Daily Creatine Requirements 13 Dietary Sources of Creatine 14 Dietary Intake 14 Intestinal Absorption of Creatine 16 Tissue Uptake of Creatine 16 Endogenous Synthesis 17 Storage in the Body 19 Metabolic Functions 20 Other Functions of Creatine 26 Catabolism and Excretion 28 Chapter Summary 28 Chapter 3 Creatine Supplementation: Theory, Protocols, and Effects 31 Human Energy and Fatigue 32 Theoretical Ergogenic Benefits 34 Theoretical Ergolytic Effects 40 Sport Performance Implications 41 Forms of Creatine 42 Supplementation Protocols 45 Effects of Supplementation 46 Chapter Summary 61 www.Ebook777.com Page vi Chapter 4 Research Considerations With Nutritional Sports Ergogenics Experimental Research 64 Epidemiological Research 66 ResearchBased Recommendations 68 Chapter Summary 69 Chapter 5 Ergogenic Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Anaerobic Power Laboratory Studies 71 72 Field Studies 112 Chapter Summary 131 Chapter 6 Ergogenic Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Anaerobic Endurance 133 ResistanceExercise Tasks 134 LaboratoryBased Cycle Ergometer Studies 138 Running Performance 142 Swimming Performance 145 Miscellaneous Exercise Tasks 146 Performance Studies Including Biochemical Markers of Creatine Supplementation 149 Chapter Summary 152 Chapter 7 Ergogenic Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Aerobic Endurance 63 153 LaboratoryBased Cycle Ergometer Exercise 154 LaboratoryBased and FieldBased Running Exercise 159 Miscellaneous Submaximal Exercise Performance Tasks 161 Page vii Performance Studies Including Biochemical Markers Reflecting Metabolic Effects of Creatine Supplementation 163 Chapter Summary 165 Chapter 8 Creatine Supplementation: Effects on Body Mass and Composition Creatine Supplementation and Body Mass 170 Chapter Summary 194 Chapter 9 Health and Safety Aspects of Creatine Supplementation 195 Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Markers of Clinical Status 195 Medical Uses of Creatine and Phosphocreatine 203 Anecdotally Reported Side Effects 206 LongTerm Safety 213 Chapter Summary 214 Chapter 10 Legal and Ethical Issues Regarding Creatine Supplementation 167 217 Legal Aspects 218 Ethical Aspects 219 Chapter Summary 222 Bibliography 223 Index 241 About the Authors 251 Page ix Preface The two primary determinants underlying successful sport performance are genetic endowment and proper training. To succeed in a given sport at any level of competition, athletes must inherit specific physiologic, psychologic, and biomechanic traits critical to success in that sport, but they must also receive optimal physical, mental, and biomechanical training to maximize this genetic potential. Often, however, in attempts to gain a competitive edge on their opponents, athletes may resort to the use of ergogenic aids, or ergogenics—substances or treatments theoretically designed to improve sports performance beyond the effects of training. In a recent review, Smith and Perry (Annals of Pharmacotherapy, 26, 65359, 1992) indicated athletes view ergogenics as essential components for success Throughout history, athletes have used various drugs or hormones to enhance performance, most recently amphetamines, anabolic steroids, human growth hormone, and erythropoietin. However, the use of pharmacological agents to enhance performance, known as doping, has been prohibited by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and most other athletic governing organizations. Given the increased sophistication of drug testing, most athletes avoid the use of drugs whose detection would be grounds for disqualification Thus, athletes continue to search for effective, yet legal, ergogenics. In this regard, as all nutrients are currently legal, the use of dietary supplements marketed as nutritional ergogenics has become increasingly popular. Literally hundreds of dietary supplements, ranging from amino acids to zinc, have been marketed as effective ergogenics to physically active individuals. With several exceptions, such as carbohydrate loading, welldesigned research does not support an ergogenic effect of most dietary supplements when added to a healthy, balanced diet. Nevertheless, dietary supplement companies continue to market new products as potential ergogenics. In general, for the vast majority of these dietary supplements, the ergogenic effects have not been evaluated by welldesigned research. One major exception is creatine, the subject of numerous studies during the 1990s Creatine is a natural dietary constituent of animal foods, but it may also be synthesized from several amino acids by the liver and kidney, so it is not considered to be an essential nutrient. Most creatine is stored in the muscles as free creatine and phosphocreatine (PCr), a highenergy phosphagen important in very highintensity exercise. About two grams of creatine, normally derived equally from the diet and endogenous synthesis, is needed daily to replenish body stores. However, recent research has investigated whether creatine supplementation, increasing daily dietary intake 20–30 fold, exerts an ergogenic effect on various types of physical performance The purpose of this book is to provide a detailed analysis of the effect of creatine supplementation on exercise performance. Chapter 1 defines creatine, providing a brief historical perspective of its evolution as a potential ergogenic aid. Chapter 2 Page x covers normal human creatine requirements, including dietary intake and endogenous synthesis to maintain normal body stores, intestinal absorption and storage in the body, and metabolic functions. Chapter 3 highlights the ergogenic potential of creatine, various supplementation protocols, and the effects of such supplementation on muscle creatine stores, including a summary table indicating the effects on muscle creatine and PCr. Chapter 4 focuses on the major research considerations relative to research conducted with dietary supplements such as creatine. Chapter 5 presents data from both laboratory and field studies evaluating the effect of creatine supplementation to enhance performance in a variety of very high power exercise or sports performance tasks lasting up to 30 seconds. In a similar vein, Chapter 6 focuses on highintensity exercise or sports performance tasks ranging from 30 to 150 seconds, while Chapter 7 covers similar tasks lasting more than 150 seconds. Chapter 8 presents data evaluating the effect of creatine supplementation in attempts to either gain or lose body mass and favorably modify body composition, including both shortterm (less than two weeks) and longterm (14 days or more) supplementation protocols. Chapters 5 to 8 include numerous tables summarizing the key points of studies presented in the respective chapter. Chapter 9 covers health and safety aspects of creatine supplementation, while Chapter 10 discusses legal and ethical issues Creatine is one of the most popular dietary supplements ever marketed to a physicallyactive population. This text represents stateoftheart information regarding the ergogenic potential and health aspects of creatine supplementation. However, because creatine supplementation has been shown to increase muscular strength and endurance in a number of studies, considerable research attention is being devoted to its possible application to other areas, such as its effects on performance in other types of physical activities and its role in preventing losses of muscle and neural function during aging or with various neuromuscular diseases. Although the findings presented in this text are based on considerable research, future investigations may reveal other possible beneficial applications of creatine supplementation MELVIN H. WILLIAMS, PHD, FACSM RICHARD B. KREIDER, PHD, FACSM J. DAVID BRANCH, PHD, FACSM Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Page xi Acknowledgments We would like to express our sincere appreciation to the many athletes, students, coaches, trainers and coinvestigators at the University of Memphis and Old Dominion University who have participated in our research over the years in attempts to determine the efficacy and safety of purported ergogenic aids, including creatine supplementation. We would also like to thank our colleagues throughout the world who have contributed their knowledge to the development of this book Special thanks to the professionals at Human Kinetics for their continuing involvement in exercise science and sports medicine, particularly to Rainer Martens and Michael Bahrke for their initial encouragement to write this book and to Melinda Graham, our editor, for her patience and understanding during all phases of development. Sincere appreciation is extended to Joyce Sexton, our copy editor who helped us clarify key points in the text. Our gratitude is also extended to Laurie Stokoe, assistant editor, Judy Henderson the graphic artist, and Clark Brooks, the photo editor, for a superb job in enhancing the quality of this presentation www.Ebook777.com Page 237 Schneider, K., Hervig, L., Ensign, W.Y., Prusaczyk, W.K., and Goforth, H.W. 1998. Use of supplements by U.S. Navy Seals. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 30: S60. (abstract) Sherman, W.M., and Lamb, D.R. 1995. Proceedings of the Gatorade Sports Science Institute Conference on Nutritional Ergogenic Aids. International Journal of Sport Nutrition 5: SiiS131 Sipilä, I., Rapola, J., Simell, O., and Vannas, A. 1981. Supplementary creatine as a treatment for gyrate atrophy of the choroid and retina. New England Journal of Medicine 304:867–870 SKW Trostberg. 1998. SKW Trostberg AG announces patent enforcement action, exposes inferior products and introduces Creapure™ brand creatine products. Memorandum, 15 July Smart, N.A., McKenzie, S.G., Nix, L.M., Baldwin, S.E., Page, K., Wade, D., and Hampson, P.K. 1998. Creatine supplementation does not improve repeat sprint performance in soccer players. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 30: S140. (abstract) Smith, J.C., Stephens, D.P., Hall, E.L., Jackson, A.W., and Earnest, C.P. 1998a. Effect of oral creatine ingestion on parameters of the work ratetime relationship and time to exhaustion in highintensity cycling. European Journal of Applied Physiology 77: 360–365 Smith, S.A., Montain, S.J., Matott, R.P., Zientara, G.P., Jolesz, F.A., and Fielding, R.A. 1998b. Creatine supplementation and age influence muscle metabolism during exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology 85: 1349–1356 Snow, R.J., McKenna, M.J., Selig, S.E., Kemp, J., Stathis, C.G., and Zhao, S. 1998. Effect of creatine supplementation on sprint exercise performance and muscle metabolism. Journal of Applied Physiology 84: 1667–1673 Söderlund, K., Balsom, P.D., and Ekblom, B. 1994. Creatine supplementation and high intensity exercise: Influence on performance and muscle metabolism. Clinical Science 87 (Suppl.): 120–121 Spriet, L. 1995. Caffeine and performance. International Journal of Sports Nutrition 5: S84–S99 Stevenson, S.W., and Dudley, G.A. 1998. Creatine supplementation and resistance exercise. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 12: 278. (abstract) Stöckler, S., and Hanefeld, F. 1997. Guanidinoacetate methyltransferase deficiency: A newly recognized inborn error of creatine biosynthesis. Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift 109(3): 86–88 Stöckler, S., Hanefeld, F., and Frahm, J. 1996a. Creatine replacement therapy in guanidinoacetate methyltransferase deficiency, a novel inborn error of metabolism. Lancet 348: 789–790 Stöckler, S., Holzbach, U., Hanefeld, F., Marquardt, I., Helms, G., Requart, M., Hänicke, W., and Frahm, J. 1994. Creatine deficiency in the brain: A new, treatable inborn error of metabolism. Pediatrics Research 36: 409–413 Stöckler, S., Isbrandt, D., Hanefeld,F., Schmidt, B., and von Figura, K. 1996b. Guanidinoacetate methyltransferase deficiency: The first inborn error of creatine metabolism in man. American Journal of Human Genetics 58: 914–922 Stöckler, S., Marescau, B., De Deyn, P.P., Trijbels, J.M., and Hanefeld, F. 1997. Guanidino compounds in guanidinoacetate methyltransferase deficiency, a new inborn error of creatine synthesis. Metabolism 46: 1189–1193 Page 238 Stone, M.H., Sanborn, K., Smith, L., O'Bryant, H.S., Hoke, T., Utter, A., Johnson, R.L., Boros, R., Hruby, J., Pierce, K., Stone, M.E., and Garner, B. 1999. 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Acta Biologica et Medica Germanica 39: 771–779 Syrotuik, D.G., Bell, G.J., Burnham, R., Sim, L.L., Calvert, R.A., and MacLean, I.M. 1998. Absolute and relative strength performance following creatine monohydrate supplementation combined with periodized resistance training. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 12: 278. (abstract) Tarnopolsky, M. and Martin, J. 1999. Creatine monohydrate increases strength in patients with neuromuscular disease. Neurology 52: 854–7 Tarnopolsky, M.A., Roy, B.D., and MacDonald, J.R. 1997. A randomized, controlled trial of creatine monohydrate in patients with mitochondrial cytopathies. Muscle and Nerve 20: 1502–1509 Tarnllion, K.A., Kolkhorst, F.W., Dolgener, F.A., and Joslyn, S.J. 1997. The effect of creatine supplementation on two 700m maximal running bouts. International Journal of Sport Nutrition 7: 138–143 Tesch, P.A., Colliander, E.B., and Kaiser, P. 1986. Muscle metabolism during intense, heavyresistance exercise. 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Creatine and caffeine in anaerobic and aerobic exercise: Effects on physical performance and pharmacokinetic considerations. International Journal of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics36: 258–262 Page 239 Vandenberghe, K., Van Hecke, P., Van Leemputte, M., Vanstapel, F., and Hespel, P. 1999. Phosphocreatine Resynthesis is not affected by creatine loading. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 31: 236–242 Vandenberghe, K., Gillis, N., Van Leemputte, M., Van Hecke, P., Vanstapel, F., and Hespel, P. 1996a. Caffeine counteracts the ergogenic action of muscle creatine loading. Journal of Applied Physiology 80: 452–457 Vandenberghe, K., Goris, M., Van Hecke, P., Van Leemputte, M., Vangerven, L., and Hespel, P. 1996b. Prolonged creatine intake facilitates the effects of strength training on intermittent exercise capacity. Insider 4(3): 1–2 Vandenberghe, K., Goris, M., Van Hecke, P., Van Leemputte, M., Van Gerven, L., and Hespel, P. 1997a. 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Journal of Exercise Physiologyonline 1(3): 1–9. http://www.css.edu/users/tboone2/asep/jan13.htm Page 241 Index A Aaserud, R. 117, 118t, 121 abstracts 69 adenine nucleotides 25, 35 adenosine diphosphate (ADP) in energy metabolism 20 and energy production 2223 and hydrogen ion buffer 2426 in PCr availability 35 adenosine monophosphate (AMP) in oxidative processes 25 in PCr availability 35 adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) in creatine uptake 17 in energy metabolism 20 in oxidative processes 25 adenosine triphosphate (ATP) anaerobic glycolysis as replenishment source 133134 body stores 5054t in energy metabolism 2022 and energy production 2223 and muscle fatigue 32 in oxidative metabolism 37 in PCr availability 3435 resynthesis 36 Sadenosylmethionine 18 adverse events monitoring 67, 205206 alanine amino transferase (ALT) 200 albumin clearance 197198, 199 alcohol 217 Almada, A. 92t, 95, 200 amidinotransferase 18, 60 amino acids 4t, 18 amphetamines 2, 217 anabolic steroids 2, 218 anaerobic glycolysis 2021, 3637, 134 anaerobic glycolysis energy system cycle ergometer performance studies 138142, 150 isokinetic exercise task studies 137 isometric exercise task studies 136 isotonic exercise task studies 136137 jumping performance studies 149, 151 kayaking performance studies 149, 151152 miscellaneous exercise task studies 146149 resistanceexercise task studies 134137 running performance studies 142, 144, 151 swimming performance studies 145146, 151 anaerobic performance 31, 33 anaerobic threshold 138, 158 ANCOVA 85, 115 Andrews, R. 73, 74t, 128, 204, 206 androgenic steroids 2 androstenedione 218 anecdotal side effects 206213 antidrug measures 217 antioxidants, categories 4t arginine 18, 186 AriasMendosa, F. 203 Armour, S. 206 aspartate amino transferase (AST) 200 Associated Press 207, 208, 220, 221, 222 athletes creatine supplementation 7, 9 daily requirements 1314 oxidative muscle fibers in 31 shortterm supplementation 179180, 180183 athletic governing bodies, positions of 207, 214 ATPPCr energy system about 2022, 71 cycle ergometer performance studies 98111, 129 effect of different forms on cycle ergometer performance 109 effect of different forms on isotonic performance 88 effect of different forms on jumping performance 112, 115 effect of different forms on sprint running performance 120122 isokinetic force production studies 9096 isokinetic strength and endurance studies 129 isometric strength and endurance studies 7378, 128 isotonic strength and endurance studies 7888, 129 jumping performance studies 112116, 130 leg sled test studies 128 miscellaneous exercise tasks studies 126128 performance studies including biochemical markers 128, 131 running exercise studies 159 skating performance studies 126 sprint running performance studies 116121, 130 swimming performance studies 121126, 131 throwing performance studies 128 B Bailey, R. 218 Balsom, P body mass studies 172t, 179, 193 cycle ergometer performance 98, 100t, 110 Page 242 daily requirements 13 ergogenic benefits 3435 field studies 129 history of creatine 3 markers of clinical status 197 metabolic effects 164 running exercise 159, 160t side effects 206 supplementation effects 49, 50t Bangsbo 3738 Barnes, W.S. 104t, 109, 172t, 180 Barnett, C. 104t, 109, 156t, 158, 163, 177t, 180 BBCK isoenzyme 22 Bechtel, P.J body mass studies 172t isotonic performance 78, 83t, 86 jumping performance 112, 113t miscellaneous task performance 126, 127t, 128 running performance 118t, 121 Becque, M.D. 78, 79t, 172t, 187 Beis, I. 3, 21, 23, 24, 25 Bermon, S. 74t, 77, 83t, 87, 177t, 190 Bessman, S.P. 27, 38 beta 2 receptor stimulation 17 biochemical markers, studies including 128130, 149151, 163164 bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) 169 biosynthesis, effect on 59 Birch, R. 36, 99, 100t, 129 Blei, M.L. 23 blood pressure 202 blood volume 201202 bodybuilders 10 body composition about 167170 in longterm supplementation 188, 189 studies showing increase in 38, 172177t studies showing no significant changes 177178t body fat about 167168 measurement 169 body mass about 167169 creatine supplementation overview 170171 increasing 3840, 42t longterm creatine supplementation 184191 possible ergolytic effects of supplementation 192194 resistance training increase of 185 shortterm creatine supplementation 171, 179184 studies showing increase in 172177t studies showing no significant changes 177175t supplementation during weight loss 191192 body stores 1920, 4749, 5558 Bogdanis, G.C. 35 Boicelli, C.A. 31 Bolotte, C.P. 208 bones, stress on 212 boron 186 Bosco, C isokinetic performance 151 jumping performance 112, 113t, 149 miscellaneous exercise tasks 146, 148t running performance 142, 143t, 159, 160t Branch, J.D. 11, 110, 206 Brannon, T.A. 37 Brees, A.J. 93t, 96 Burke, L.M cycle ergometer performance 104t, 109 ergogenic benefits 36 isokinetic performance 151 swimming performance 123t, 125, 131, 145, 147t C caffeine 57, 139, 217, 220221 carbohydrate byproducts 3, 4t carbohydrate loading 3, 31 carbohydrates categories 4t in creatine uptake 17, 179, 192 energy involvement of 2 supplementation with 5556 cardiac disease 204205 cardioprotective agents 26, 204205 Casey, A. 35, 49, 50t, 61, 95, 99, 100t catabolism 28 cellular concentrations 16 central nervous system 26 Cerretelli, P. 25 Chang, D.T. 17, 46 Chanutin, A. 16, 28, 197 chemical synthesis 42 Chetlin, R. 104t, 111 Chevreul, Michel Eugène 6 cholesterol 202 Christie, Linford 7 chromium 186 citrate synthase (CS) 37 Clark, J.F body mass studies 170 body storage 19 ergogenic benefits 36, 38, 40 forms of creatine 43 human energy and fatigue 32 medical uses 204 metabolic functions 2022, 2526 side effects 209 supplementation effects 55, 57 tissue uptake of creatine 16, 17 Clark, K. 220 college athletes, creatine supplementation 9 commercial creatine supplements 4344 conferences 64 ConstantinTeodosiu, D. 204 Page 243 Conway, M.A. 2627, 32, 204 Cooke, W.H. 104t, 109, 172t, 180 Costley, C.D. 9 Cowan, D.A. 217218 cramping 209, 210211 creatine commercial supplements 4344 daily requirements 1314 deficiency effects 196 dietary sources 14, 15t effects of different forms 88, 109, 112, 115, 119120 forms 4245 history 3, 11 intestinal absorption 16 IOC classification 219 medical uses 203206 miscellaneous functions 2627 and myocardial metabolism 2627 as osmotically active substance 17, 38, 170 as popular dietary supplement 8 synthesis 15 f, 17, 18 tissue uptake 1617, 57 creatine biosynthesis 18 creatine citrate 43 creatine control theory 2526 creatine kinase (CK) and creatine supplementation 200 discovery of 6 in energy metabolism 21 and energy production 2224 and myocardial metabolism 2627 in PCr resynthesis 36 in tissue oxygen uptake 25 creatine loading 4546, 57 creatine monohydrate 4344, 45, 186, 187188 creatine phosphate shuttle concept 2324, 25 creatine supplementation See also longterm creatine supplementation; shortterm creatine supplementation body stores and muscle concentrations 4749, 5558 with carbohydrate 5556 carbohydrate loading comparison 220 cessation 59 effect on highintensity exercise 41f enhanced training 38 with exercise 5657 fatigue prevention 3940 increased body mass 3840 increased PCr resynthesis 3536 intestinal absorption and plasma levels 4647 investigations of 31 oxidative metabolism 3738 PCr availability 3435 performance studies including biochemical markers 149151 protocols 4546 recommendations 222 reduced muscle acidity 3637, 42t research 7 sport performance enhancement examples 42t theoretical ergogenic benefits 34 creatine synthesis deficiencies 203 creatinine 6, 13, 2728, 58, 59, 197198 creatinine clearance 197198, 199 Crim, M.C. 28, 197 crossover design 65 Crowder, T. 79t, 172t, 181 cycle ergometer performance 98111, 129, 138142, 150, 154158, 163164 D da Costa, Ronaldo 68 daily requirements 1314 Dawson, B body mass studies 172t, 179, 180 cycle ergometer performance 100t, 105t, 106, 110, 111, 130 ergogenic benefits 36 dehydration 207, 209210, 211 dehydroepiandrosterone 218 Delange, J. 49 diarrhea 208 dietary fat, energy involvement of 2 dietary gelatin 18 Dietary Health and Education Act 218 dietary intake 14 dietary sources 14, 15t, dietary strategies 3 dietary supplement industry 10, 63 dietary supplements 186, 218 diPrampero, P.E. 25 Dixon, O. 207 doping legislation, in IOC 2, 217218, 220 dosages 4546, 181 doubleblind protocol 65 drafting rule 37 drug bans 2 drug nutrients 5t dualenergy xray absorptiometry (DEXA) 169 Duarte, J. 8, 11 Duchenne muscular dystrophy 205 Dudley, G.A. 75t, 77, 83t, 87 E Earnest, C.P body mass studies 183, 185, 190 cycle ergometer performance 100101t, 106, 130 isokinetic performance 151 isotonic performance 78, 79t markers of clinical status 197, 202 running performance 142, 143t, 144 Ekblom, B. 3, 55, 219 electrolyte balance 209 electrolyte status 201202 endogenous creatine synthesis 13, 1718, 197 Page 244 endurance and isokinetic strength 129 and isometric strength 7378, 128 and isotonic strength 7889, 129 energy and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) 20, 2223 and adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) 20 and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) 2022, 2223 and carbohydrates 2 and creatine kinase (CK) 21, 2224 and fatigue 3234 and minerals 2 and phosphocreatine (PCr) 2224 Engelhardt, M aerobic performance 153 body mass studies 172t, 181 cycle ergometer performance 154155, 156t ergogenic benefits 37 markers of clinical status 197, 198, 200, 201 metabolic effects 163 Ensign, W.Y. 177t, 182 epidemiological research 6668 ergogenic potential See also theoretical ergogenic benefits of caffeine and alcohol 57, 217 cycle ergometer studies reporting effects 98, 107, 109 cycle ergometer studies reporting no effects 109110, 110111 of gelatin 7 isokinetic force production studies reporting effects 9095 isokinetic force production studies reporting no effects 9598 isometric strength studies reporting effects 7377 isometric strength studies reporting no effects 7778 isotonic strength studies reporting effects 7886 isotonic strength studies reporting mixed effects 8687 isotonic strength studies reporting no effects 8788 jumping performance studies reporting effects 112 jumping performance studies reporting mixed effects 115 jumping performance studies reporting no effects 115116 and muscle creatine levels 6061 nutritional supplement major categories 45t sprint performance studies reporting effects 117, 120 sprint performance studies reporting mixed effects 120 sprint performance studies reporting no effects 120121 swimming performance studies reporting effects 122 swimming performance studies reporting no effects 122, 125 ergogenics, history 2 ergolytic effects 40, 171, 192194 essential fat 167 essential nutrients 45t, 218 ethical aspects 219222 excretion 2728, 59 exercise intensity and duration 20, 2122, 23 reasons for 1 supplementation with 5657 exercise capacity, and creatine deficiency 196 exerciseinduced fatigue 32 experimental research 6466 F fasting 18 fasttwitch fibers, CK activity 23 fat. See body fat; dietary fat fatfree mass (FFM) about 167168 in longterm supplementation 186, 187, 188, 189190 measurement 169 resistance training increase of 185 in shortterm supplementation 184 in supplementation 38 fatigue and creatine deficiency 196 and energy 3234 and hydrogen ions 25 prevention with supplementation 3940 reducing 38 Febbraio, M.A. 50t, 138, 139140t, 141, 150, 196 Ferraro, S. 204 field studies on jumping performance 112 leg sled tests 128 of miscellaneous exercise tasks 126 of running performance 144, 159161 of skating performance 126 of sprint running performance 116 of swimming performance 131 of throwing performance 128 fish cooking effects 45 as creatine source 14, 15t fluid retention 210211 Fogelholm, M. 38 Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 67, 207, 221 foods, creatine content in 15t Foster, Greg 194 Francaux, M. 172t, 189, 197198, 199, 213 free creatine (FCr) 34, 43, 4849, 170 Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Page 245 G gammaglutamy1 transaminase 200 gas 208 gastrointestinal distress 208211 gelatin 7, 18 genetic traits 1, 2 Gilliam, J.D. 93t, 97 glucose polymers 3 glucose replenishment 3 glycine 7, 17, 18 glycogen 31, 3234, 5054t glycolytic energy system. See anaerobic glycolysis energy system Godly, A. 156t, 158, 177t, 182 Gola, H. 195, 206, 207, 211, 213 Goldberg, P.G body mass studies 172t isotonic performance 78, 83t, 86 jumping performance 112, 113t miscellaneous task performance 126, 127t, 128 running performance 118t, 121 Gonzalez de Suso, J.M. 49, 55, 105t, 110 Gordon, A. 50t, 204 Graham, T. 220 Green, A.L body mass studies 173t, 179 ergogenic benefits 36 supplementation effects 46, 47, 51t, 55, 56, 57 tissue uptake of creatine 16 Greenhaff, P.L anaerobic performance 31 body mass studies 173t, 180 catabolism and excretion 28 cycle ergometer performance 101t, 106 dietary intake 14 ergogenic benefits 34, 3536, 38 ethical aspects 220 human energy and fatigue 33 isokinetic performance 90, 91t, 95, 98, 127 isometric performance 128 legal aspects 219 markers of clinical status 197 metabolic effects 21 supplementation effects 47, 49, 51t, 55, 57, 5961 tissue uptake of creatine 16, 17 Grindstaff, P body mass studies 178t, 182183 isokinetic performance 90,91t, 92t, 97 swimming performance 123t, 122, 145, 147t Grunewald, K. 218 guanidinoacetic acid 18 GuerreroOntiveros, M.L. 196 Gunnell, Sally 7 gyrate atrophy 185, 203204 H Hainline, B. 217 HamiltonWard, K. 83t, 87, 93t, 97, 177t, 181 Hanefeld, F. 26, 203, 213 Harris, R.C anaerobic performance 31 ergogenic benefits 34, 36 markers of clinical status 197, 201 storage in body 19 supplementation effects 47, 49, 51t, 55, 56, 58 supplementation protocols 45 Haughland, R.B. 17, 46 Häussinger, D. 38, 191 Hawley, J.A. 34 heart, creatine storage in 2627 heart disease 204205 heart failure 207 heat exhaustion 207 heat intolerance 209 Hellmich, N. 206, 207, 211 herbal products 218 highdensitylipoproteins (HDL) 202 highintensity exercise and energy metabolism 2122, 23 and energy restoration 3536 and fatigue 32 and glycogen 31 and glycolytic energy system 148t and oxidative phosphorylation 162t supplementation's effect on 41 f Hirvonen, J. 34, 116 historical background 3, 611 Hoberman, H.D. 13 Hochachka, P.W. 24 Horn, M. 204 Hultman, E body mass studies 184 ergogenic benefits 31, 34, 36 ethical aspects 220 human energy and fatigue 33 markers of clinical status 196 metabolic functions 20 side effects 210 supplementation effects 46, 48, 49, 52t, 55, 58,59 supplementation protocols 45 human growth hormone 217 Hunt, J. 211, 212 Hunter, A. 3 Huntington's disease 205 hydrogen ion buffer 2426 hydrostatic drag 193 hydrostatic weighing 169 hypertriglyceridemia 202 hypoxanthine, as skeletal muscle marker 25 I infants 26 Ingwall, J.S. 27, 38, 168 inorganic phosphate (Pi) in energy metabolism 20 in oxidative processes 24 www.Ebook777.com Page 246 insulin 16 International Cycling Federation 218 International Olympic Committee caffeine allowed by 220221 creatine classification 219 dietary supplements prohibited by 218 doping legislation 2, 217218, 220 ethical standards 219220 internet address, for adverse events monitoring 67 intestinal absorption 1516, 4647, 208 Irving, R.A. 28, 197 ischemia 26, 204 isokinetic exercise 9194t, 135t, 137 isokinetic force production 9097 isokinetic performance 149151 isokinetic strength, and endurance 129 isometric exercise 7475t, 135t, 136, 165 isometric strength, and endurance 7378, 128 isotonic exercise 7982t, 135t, 136137 isotonic strength, and endurance 7889, 129 J Jacobs, I. 138, 139t, 180 Janssen, G.M. 28, 195 Javierre, C. 119t, 120 Jenkins, D.G. 78, 79t, 173t, 186 Johnson, K.D. 91t, 98 Johnson, R. 10 joints, stress on 212 Jones, A.M. 101t, 106, 127t jumping performance 112116, 130, 146, 149, 150151 Juhn, M. 11, 215 K Kaira, P.A. 197 Kamber, M. 101t, 107, 130 Kargotich, S. 28, 197 Katz, A. 35 kayaking performance 149, 151, 164 Kelly, V.G. 78, 79t, 173t, 186 KentBraun, J.A. 205 Khanna, N.K. 203 kidneys ailments 11 creatine synthesis 18 epidemiological research example 6667 renal function 197199 kilogram, as mass measurement unit 167 Kirksey, K.B. 102t, 108, 114t, 115, 173t, 188 Knehans, A. 78, 79t, 173t, 188189 Kraemer, W.J. 3839, 170 Kreider, R body mass studies 173t, 174t, 185187, 191 cycle ergometer performance 100105t, 108111 forms of creatine 43, 44 history of creatine 7 isokinetic performance 93t, 97 isotonic performance 80t, 84 longterm safety 213 markers of clinical status 195, 197, 199, 200, 201,202 other functions of creatine 27 side effects 206, 207, 208209, 210, 211, 212 Kreis, R. 47 Kuehl, K. 197 Kurosawa, Y. 52t, 73, 74t, 135t, 136, 165, 200201 L laboratory studies of cycle ergometer performance 98112, 138142, 154158 of isokinetic force production 9098 of isometric strength and endurance 7378 of isotonic strength and endurance 7889 of running exercise 15161 of running performance 142, 144 lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) 200 lactic acid accumulation 36 See also muscle acidity Lamb, D.R. 64 Larson, D.E. 80t, 85, 143t, 144, 177t, 191 Lawson, E. 202 lean body mass (LBM) about 168 in longterm supplementation 186, 187, 188, 189, 190191 in shortterm supplementation 171, 181 Ledford, A. 104t, 110 Leenders, N. 122, 123t, 124t 125, 131, 145, 147t Lefavi, R.G. 118t, 119t, 120, 121, 127t, 128 legal aspects 218219 leg sled tests 128 Lemon, P. 49, 52t, 73, 74t, 196 Liebig, Justus von 6 ligaments, stress on 212 lipid profiles 202203 lipids 4t Lipton, P. 205 liver, creatine synthesis 18 liver enzymes 200201 Ljungqvist, Arne 220 Loike, J.D. 55 Long, D. 28, 197 longterm creatine supplementation effects 191 research showing beneficial effect 185190 research showing no beneficial effects 190191 longterm safety 212213 lowdensity lipoproteins (LDL) 202 M Ma, T.M. 21, 23, 25, 26 McCully, K.K. 36 McGwire, Mark 8 McNaughton, L.R body mass studies 174t, 181 isokinetic performance 151 Page 247 metabolic effects 165 miscellaneous exercise tasks 146, 148t, 149 submaximal exercise performance tasks 161, 162t Madan, B.R. 205 Maganaris, C.N. 59,73,75t, 135t, 136,174t, 183 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 169 Mahler, M. 25 Marchesi, G. 206 markers of clinical status blood pressure 202 blood volume 201202 electrolytes 201202 endogenous creatine synthesis 196 lipid profiles 202203 liver enzymes 200201 muscle enzymes 200201 renal function 197199 mass, measurement of 167 Mathews, R.T. 205 Maughan, R.J body mass studies 174t, 183 ergogenic benefits 36 ethical aspects 220221 isometric performance 73, 75t legal aspects 219 resistanceexercise tasks 135t, 136 supplementation effects 58 MBCK isoenzyme 22 meat cooking effects 45 as creatine source 14, 15t, 42 mechanical edge 12 media attention 207 medical uses 203206 Melton, C. 202 mental development, in infants 26 mental strength 1 metaanalysis 69 metabolic functions creatine kinase and energy production 2224 energy metabolism 2022 oxidative processes 2426 methionine 18 methylguanidineacetic acid. See creatine methyltransferase 18, 60 Michaelis, J. 47, 82t, 104t, 109, 176t MiCK isoenzyme 23, 26 micronized creatine 43, 47 Mihic, S. 129, 172t, 196, 200, 201, 202 Mihoces, G. 7, 8, 9, 11, 206207 Miller, R.G. 33, 206 minerals categories 5t energy involvement of 2 miscellaneous exercise tasks 126128, 146149 Miszko, T.A. 114t, 115, 119t, 120, 130, 178t, 182, 193 mitochondria 2223 mitochondrial cytopathies 26, 205 MMCK isoenzyme 2223, 25 Mohan, C. 38 Mujika, I body mass studies 174t, 181, 194 ergogenic benefits 35, 36 isokinetic performance 151 metabolic functions 25 running performance 161 swimming performance 124t, 125, 131, 145, 147t multiple sclerosis 205 muscle cramps 209, 210211 creatine content 16, 17, 1920, 4749, 5054t, 5558 creatine levels and ergogenic effects 6061 energy transduction in cells 22 injury 211212 types in various athletes 31 muscle acidity 3637, 41, 42t muscle atrophy and creatine deficiency 196 reduction of 185, 205206 muscle biopsy technique 3, 7 muscle dystrophies 205 muscle enzymes 200201 muscle fiber atrophy reversal 185 muscle glycogen 3, 31 muscle hypertrophy, accelerating 38 muscle mass 170 Myburgh, K.H. 49, 52t, 157t, 158, 163 myofibrillar CK 2223, 25 myosin synthesis 27 N National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) 68 National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) 208, 213 needle biopsy technique 3, 7 Nelson, A. 138, 139t, 150, 157t, 158, 163 nervous system 26 neuromuscular deficiencies 196 neuromuscular disease 26, 205 Newsholme, E.A. 3, 21, 23, 24, 25 nonessential nutrients 5t nonresponders 60 Noonan, B. 126, 127t Noonan, D. 80t, 8586, 114t, 118t, 174t, 188 nuclear magnetic resonance techniques 7 nutrients with anabolic properties 186 energy involvement of 23 engineered metabolic byproducts of essential 5t interaction with creatine 187 megadoses of essential 45t nonessential 5t Page 248 nutritional strategies 3 nutritional supplements, major categories 45t O Odland, L.M. 53t, 105t, 111, 130 O'Donnell, J. 206207 Olympic athletes 7 Olympic ideal 219220 omnivorous individuals dietary intake 14 dietary sources 14 Ưưpik, V. 11, 135t, 137, 149, 174t, 191192, 201, 210 orthinine 186 orthopedic rehabilitation 205206 osmotic activity 17, 38, 170 oxidative metabolism 2021, 23, 3738, 42t oxidative muscle fibers 31 oxidative phosphorylation and creatine kinase (CK) 23 cycle ergometer performance studies 154158, 163164 isometric exercise studies 162 kayaking performance studies 164 metabolic effects studies 163164 running exercise studies 159 running performance studies 164 submaximal exercise performance task studies 161 oxidative processes 2426 P Padilla, S. 25, 35 Pauletto, P. 204 Pearson, D.R. 80t, 85, 175t peerreviewed studies 6869 Peeters, B.M. 80t, 175t, 187188, 202 performance enhancement 217 peripheral nervous system 26 Peyrebrune, M.C. 36, 122, 123t, 124t, 125, 131, 146, 147t pH levels 25 Phosphagain™ 43, 97, 185 Phosphagain 2® 185, 199 Phosphagain HP™ 108 phosphagen energy system. See ATPPCR energy system Phosphagen HP™ 87, 113, 185186, 199 phosphocreatine (PCr) about 43 anaerobic utilization 3234 in ATP generation 2122 availability 3435, 42t and body mass 170 body stores 4849, 5054t, 55 in cardioprotective therapy 204 and cessation of supplementation 196 discovery 6 in energy production 2224 and heart disease 204205 increased resynthesis 3536, 42t, 57 intramuscular injections 185 medical uses 203206 in muscle fibers 31 muscle total creatine as 17 and myocardial metabolism 2627 in oxidative processes 2426 phosphofructinase 36 physical development, in infants 26 physical power 12 physiokinesitherapy 185 phytochemicals 5 Pirola, V. 185, 206 placebo protocol 65, 6768 plant extracts (phytochemicals) 5 plasma ammonia, as skeletal muscle marker 25 plasma creatine 16 plasma levels 4647, 192 plasma volume 201202 Plisk, S.S. 7, 44, 197, 206, 207, 208, 213 Podewils, L.J. 210211 Poortmans, J.R. 58, 172t, 189, 197198, 199, 213 position statements 11, 207, 209, 213 Prat, J.A. 49, 55 Prevost, M.C. 102103t, 108, 138, 139t, 150, 178t, 180 Pritchard, N.R. 197 professional athletes 89 professional organizations, positions of 207, 209 protein categories 4t energy involvement of 2 protein synthesis 27, 184, 191 Pulido, S.M. 205 purity, validation of 44 Q quality assurance 4445, 208 R Radda, G.K. 17, 23 Ransom, J. 200 Rasmussen, C. 201, 211 Rawson, E.S. 75t, 77, 94t, 97, 175t, 179 recombinant erythropoietin 217 recombinant human growth hormone 217 Redondo, D.R. 119t, 120, 178t, 182 renal excretion 28 renal function 195198 See also under kidneys repeatedmeasures design 65 research epidemiological 6668 experimental 6466 researchbased recommendations 6869 resistance exercise 10, 134136, 183, 185 responders 60 retrospective research techniques 6667 ribonucleic acid (RNA) 39 Page 249 Rossiter, H.B. 36, 53t, 163, 162t Ruden, T.M. 53t, 105t, 111 running performance 116121, 130, 142144, 151, 159161, 164 S safety, in long term 212213 Sahlin, K. 20, 21, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36 Saks, V.A. 24, 25, 26, 43, 204, 213 sarcosine 42 Saris, W.H.M. 38 Satolli,F. 206 Savabi, F. 27 Schaufelberger, M. 204 Schneider, D.A. 103t, 140t, 141, 150 Schneider, K. 9 serum creatine levels 197, 199 serum creatinine levels 197198, 199 Sherman, W.M. 64 shortterm creatine supplementation effects 184 with physically active individuals 179180 with recreational athletes 179180 with resistancetrained individuals 183 with sedentary subjects 171, 179 with trained athletes 180183 side effects, anecdotal 206212 Sipilä, I. 7, 183, 197, 200203, 204205, 213 skating performance 126 skeletal muscle CK activity 2223 creatine concentration 16 creatine content 1920 creatinine generated in 28 metabolism 204205 skinfold measurement 169 SKW Trostberg 10 slowtwitch fibers 23 Smart, N.A. 119t, 121, 175t, 181, 193194 Smith, J.C. 138, 139t, 154, 156t, 157t, 158 Smith, S.A. 57, 135t, 136137 Snow, R.J. 105t, 111, 130, 174t, 180 Söderlund, K. 36 Special Nutritionals Adverse Event Monitoring System 67, 207 sport performance, implications 4041, 42t, Spriet, L. 57, 220 sprint running performance 116121, 130 Stevenson, S.W. 75t, 77, 83t, 87 stimulants 217 Stöckier, S. 26, 203, 213 stomach upset 208 Stone, M.H body mass studies 175t, 187 cycle ergometer performance 105t, 110 isotonic performance 81t, 85 jumping performance 112, 113t, 114t longterm safety 213 storage, in body 1920 storage fat 167 Stout, J.R body mass studies 178t, 188 isotonic performance 78, 82t, 83t, 87 jumping performance 113t, 114t, 115, 1208 running performance 118119t Strauss, G. 811, 206207, 209, 212 Stroud, M.A. 37, 153, 160t, 161, 164, 175t, 180 Strumia, E. 43, 204 studies conditions 66 of cycle ergometer performance 98111, 129, 138, 150, 154158, 163164 including biochemical markers 128130, 149151 of isokinetic exercise tasks 137 of isokinetic force production 9096 of isokinetic strength and endurance 129 of isometric exercise tasks 136, 164 of isometric strength and endurance 7378, 128 of isotonic exercise tasks 136137 of isotonic strength and endurance 7889, 129 of jumping and running performance 151 of jumping performance 112116, 130, 149, 151 of kayaking performance 149, 151, 164 leg sled tests 128 of metabolic effects 163164 methodologies 72, 133134, 153 of miscellaneous exercise tasks 126, 146149 peerreviewed 6869 of resistanceexercise tasks 134136 of running performance 142144, 159161, 164 of skating performance 126 of sprint running performance 116121, 130 of submaximal exercise performance tasks 161163 of swimming performance 121126, 131, 145146, 151 of throwing performance 128 subcutaneous fat 167 submaximal exercise performance tasks 161163 supplementation. See creatine supplementation; longterm creatine supplementation; shortterm creatine supplementation Swedberg, K. 204 swimming performance 121126, 131, 145146, 147148t, 151, 193 SyllumRapoport, I. 16 Syrotuik, D.G. 83t T Tampa Bay Buccaneers position paper 11 Tarnopolsky, M.A. 27, 75t, 76, 155, 156t, 164, 205 Terrillion, K.A. 143t, 144, 151, 178t, 182 Tesch, P.A. 33 Page 250 Theodoru, A.S. 103t, 108, 175t, 178t theoretical ergogenic benefits enhanced training 38 fatigue prevention 3940 increased body mass 3840 increased PCr resynthesis 3536 oxidative metabolism 3738 PCr availability 3435 reduced muscle acidity 3637 theoretical ergolytic effects 40 Thompson, C.H. 53t, 55, 146, 148t, 163, 162t, 178t, 190 Thorensen, E. 119t, 121, 130 throwing performance 128 tissue oxygen uptake (VO2) 25 tissue uptake 1617 total body creatine content (TCr) 19, 4849, 55, 170, 196 total body fat 167 training, enhancement 38, 42t training, going beyond 2 treadmill tests 142, 143, 151, 159, 164 tumor growth inhibition 206 U underwater weighing 169 urea clearance 197198, 199 urinary creatine levels 197198, 199 urinary creatinine levels 197198, 199 urine, creatine content 4748 USA Today 207, 209 V validation of performance tests 65 vanadium 186 Vanakoski, J. 140t, 141, 150, 157t, 158, 163164 Vandenberghe, K body mass studies 129, 176t, 180, 189, 191 ergogenic benefits 38 isokinetic performance 90, 91t, 92t, 95, 98, 150 isometric performance 75t, 77 markers of clinical status 196, 197, 198 other functions of creatine 27 supplementation effects 49, 5354t, 57, 95 van Deursen, J. 22, 23, 25 van Leemputte, M. 77 VannasSulonen, K. 200, 201, 202, 204, 205, 213 vegans creatine synthesis 18 dietary intake 14 vegetarians creatine muscle concentrations 19 dietary intake 14 plasma concentrations 49 ventricular arrhythmias 26 VenturaClapier, R. 24 very low density lipoproteins (VLDL) 202 Viru, M. 38, 143t, 144, 157, 158t, 176t, 179 visceral fat 167 vitamins 2, 4t Volek, J.S body mass studies 170, 176t, 183, 191 ergogenic benefits 3839 isotonic performance 82t, 86, 129 supplementation effects 49, 54t tissue uptake of creatine 16 Vukovich, M.D. 47, 82t, 104t, 109, 176t W Wadler, G. 217 Walker, J.B catabolism and excretion 28 daily requirements 13 dietary sources 14 endogenous synthesis 17, 18 ergogenic benefits 36, 39 metabolic functions 22, 23, 25 other functions of creatine 26, 27 supplementation effects 48, 59 Wallimann, T. 196 Warber, J.P 82t, 86, 180 water, energy involvement of 2 water retention 184 website, for adverse events monitoring 67 weight lifters 10 weight loss, supplementation during 191192 Whipp, B.J. 25 Whittinham, T.S. 205 Williams, M.H. 7, 11, 206, 217, 218, 220 Wilson, D.F. 32 Wood, K.K. 83t, 178t, 190 Wyss, M. 205 Y Yates, J.W. 156t, 158, 177t, 182 Z Zatchetka, Rob 9, 11 Zehnder, M. 54t Ziegenfuss, T body mass studies 170, 177t, 184, 191 cycle ergometer performance 104t, 109 isokinetic performance 92t, 95 markers of clinical status 198 other functions of creatine 26 side effects 210 Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Page 251 About the Authors Melvin Williams, PhD, is Eminent Scholar Emeritus in the Department of Exercise Science, Physical Education, and Recreation at Old Dominion University. He has conducted research on various ergogenic aids for over 30 years and has published numerous original research studies and review articles Author of The Ergogenics Edge (Human Kinetics, 1998), Dr. Williams also wrote the definitive college text, Nutrition for Fitness and Sport, now in its fifth edition. He is also the founding editor of the International Journal of Sport Nutrition. Dr. Williams is a Fellow of the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) and a member of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance. Dr. Williams lives in Norfolk, Virginia Richard B. Kreider, PhD, is associate professor, assistant department chair, and director of the Exercise and Sport Nutrition Laboratory in the Department of Human Movement Sciences and Education at the University of Memphis. He has focused his research efforts on ergogenic aids and human physical performance and has conducted numerous studies on creatine supplementation Editor of the popular reference, Overtraining in Sport (Human Kinetics, 1998), Dr. Kreider has published more than 100 research articles and abstracts in scientific journals. He is a Fellow of the ACSM and the research digest editor for the International Journal of Sport Nutrition. Dr. Kreider lives in Bartlett, Tennessee J. David Branch, PhD, is assistant professor of exercise science at Old Dominion University. He has conducted several studies involving ergogenic aids, including the effects of creatine supplementation on women Since 1980 Dr. Branch has been supervisor of Bicycle Ergometer Graded Exercise Testing for the South Carolina State Law Enforcement Health/Fitness Screening Program. He has also served as codirector of a fitness and cardiac rehabilitation center Dr. Branch is a Fellow of the ACSM and has been widely published. He lives in Norfolk, Virginia www.Ebook777.com ... are exposed to sophisticated training regimens to enhance their physical power, mental strength, and mechanical edge Physical power represents the physiological ability to produce energy, or power, specific to the needs of a given sport—be it the explosive power of weight lifting or ... amphetamines. Anabolic/androgenic steroids were used primarily to increase physical power by increasing muscle mass, whereas amphetamines increased mental strength, and resultant physical power, by stimulating the central and sympathetic nervous systems. However, as drug use in sport increased, causing several deaths in ... ResearchBased Recommendations 68 Chapter Summary 69 Chapter 5 Ergogenic Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Anaerobic Power Laboratory Studies 71 72 Field Studies 112 Chapter Summary 131 Chapter 6 Ergogenic Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Anaerobic Endurance