Gas turbine emissions

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Gas Turbine Emissions The development of clean, sustainable energy systems is one of the grand ­challenges of our time Most projections indicate that combustion-based energy conversion systems will remain the predominant approach for the majority of our energy usage Moreover, gas turbines will remain a very significant technology for many decades to come, whether for aircraft propulsion, power generation, or mechanical drive applications This book compiles the key scientific and technological knowledge associated with gas turbine emissions into a single authoritative source The book has three parts: the first part reviews major issues with gas turbine combustion, including design approaches and constraints, within the context of emissions The second part addresses fundamental issues associated with pollutant formation, modeling, and prediction The third part features case studies from manufacturers and technology developers, emphasizing the system-level and practical issues that must be addressed in developing different types of gas turbines that emit pollutants at acceptable levels Timothy C Lieuwen is professor of aerospace engineering and executive director of the Strategic Energy Institute at the Georgia Institute of Technology Lieuwen has authored one textbook, edited two books, written seven book chapters and more than 200 papers, and received three patents He chaired the Combustion and Fuels Committee of the International Gas Turbine Institute of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) He is also on the Propellants and Combustion Technical Committee of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA), and he previously served on the AIAA Air Breathing Propulsion Technical Committee He has served on a variety of major panels and committees through the National Research Council, Department of Energy, NASA, General Accounting Office, and Department of Defense Lieuwen is the editor in chief of the AIAA Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics series and is serving or has served as an associate editor of the Journal of Propulsion and Power, Combustion Science and Technology, and the Proceedings of the Combustion Institute Lieuwen is a Fellow of the ASME and received the AIAA Lawrence Sperry Award and the ASME Westinghouse Silver Medal Other recognitions include ASME best paper awards, the Sigma Xi Young Faculty Award, and the NSF CAREER award Vigor Yang is the William R T Oakes Professor and chair of the School of Aerospace Engineering at the Georgia Institute of Technology Prior to joining the faculty at Georgia Tech, he was the John L and Genevieve H McCain Chair in Engineering at the Pennsylvania State University His research interests include combustion instabilities in propulsion systems, chemically reacting flows in air-breathing and rocket engines, combustion of energetic materials, and high-pressure thermodynamics and transport Yang has supervised more than forty PhD and fifteen MS theses He is the author or coauthor of more than 300 technical papers in the areas of propulsion and combustion and has published ten comprehensive volumes on rocket and air-breathing propulsion He received the Penn State Engineering Society Premier Research Award and several publication and technical awards from AIAA, including the Air-Breathing Propulsion Award (2005), the Pendray Aerospace Literature Award (2008), and the Propellants and Combustion Award (2009) Yang was the editor in chief of the AIAA Journal of Propulsion and Power (2001–9) and is currently the editor in chief of the JANNAF Journal of Propulsion and Energetics (since 2009) and coeditor of the Cambridge Aerospace Series He is a Fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and Royal Aeronautical Society Cambridge Aerospace Series Editors: Wei Shyy and Vigor Yang J M Rolfe and K J Staples (eds.): Flight Simulation P Berlin: The Geostationary Applications Satellite M J T Smith: Aircraft Noise N X Vinh: Flight Mechanics of High-Performance Aircraft W A Mair and D L Birdsall: Aircraft Performance M J Abzug and E E Larrabee: Airplane Stability and Control M J Sidi: Spacecraft Dynamics and Control J D Anderson: A History of Aerodynamics A M Cruise, J A Bowles, C V Goodall, and T J Patrick: Principles of Space Instrument Design 10 G A Khoury (ed.): Airship Technology, Second Edition 11 J P Fielding: Introduction to Aircraft Design 12 J G Leishman: Principles of Helicopter Aerodynamics, Second Edition 13 J Katz and A Plotkin: Low-Speed Aerodynamics, Second Edition 14 M J Abzug and E E Larrabee: Airplane Stability and Control: A History of the Technologies that Made Aviation Possible, Second Edition 15 D H Hodges and G A Pierce: Introduction to Structural Dynamics and Aeroelasticity, Second Edition 16 W Fehse: Automatic Rendezvous and Docking of Spacecraft 17 R D Flack: Fundamentals of Jet Propulsion with Applications 18 E A Baskharone: Principles of Turbomachinery in Air-Breathing Engines 19 D D Knight: Numerical Methods for High-Speed Flows 20 C A Wagner, T Hüttl, and P Sagaut (eds.): Large-Eddy Simulation for Acoustics 21 D D Joseph, T Funada, and J Wang: Potential Flows of Viscous and Viscoelastic Fluids 22 W Shyy, Y Lian, H Liu, J Tang, and D Viieru: Aerodynamics of Low Reynolds Number Flyers 23 J H Saleh: Analyses for Durability and System Design Lifetime 24 B K Donaldson: Analysis of Aircraft Structures, Second Edition 25 C Segal: The Scramjet Engine: Processes and Characteristics 26 J F Doyle: Guided Explorations of the Mechanics of Solids and Structures 27 A K Kundu: Aircraft Design 28 M I Friswell, J E T Penny, S D Garvey, and A W Lees: Dynamics of Rotating Machines 29 B A Conway (ed.): Spacecraft Trajectory Optimization 30 R J Adrian and J Westerweel: Particle Image Velocimetry 31 G A Flandro, H M McMahon, and R L Roach: Basic Aerodynamics 32 H Babinsky and J K Harvey: Shock Wave–Boundary-Layer Interactions 33 C K W Tam: Computational Aeroacoustics: A Wave Number Approach 34 A Filippone: Advanced Aircraft Flight Performance 35 I Chopra and J Sirohi: Smart Structures Theory 36 W Johnson: Rotorcraft Aeromechanics 37 W Shyy, H Aono, C K Kang, and H Liu: An Introduction to Flapping Wing Aerodynamics 38 T C Lieuwen and V Yang (eds.): Gas Turbine Emissions Gas Turbine Emissions Edited by Timothy C Lieuwen Georgia Institute of Technology Vigor Yang Georgia Institute of Technology cambridge university press Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Mexico City Cambridge University Press 32 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10013-2473, USA www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521764056 © Timothy C Lieuwen and Vigor Yang 2013 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published 2013 Printed in the United States of America A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication data Lieuwen, Timothy C Gas turbine emissions / Timothy C Lieuwen, Vigor Yang pagesâ•… cm – (Cambridge aerospace series; 38) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-521-76405-6 (hardback) 1.╇ Gas-turbines – Environmental aspects.â•… 2.╇ Gas-turbines – Combustion 3.╇ Combustion gases – Environmental aspects.╇ I.╇ Yang, Vigor.â•… II.╇ Title TJ778.L524â•… 2013 621.43′3–dc23â•…â•…â•… 2012051616 ISBN 978-0-521-76405-6 Hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate Contents List of Contributors page ix Foreword by Alan H Epstein xi Preface xv Part 1  Overview and Key Issues Aero Gas Turbine Combustion: Metrics, Constraints, and System Interactions Randal G McKinney and James B Hoke Ground-Based Gas Turbine Combustion: Metrics, Constraints, and System Interactions 24 Vincent McDonell and Manfred Klein Overview of Worldwide Aircraft Regulatory Framework 81 Willard Dodds Overview of Worldwide Ground-Based Regulatory Framework 95 Manfred Klein Part 2  Fundamentals and Modeling: Production and Control Particulate Formation 123 Meredith B Colket III Gaseous Aerosol Precursors 154 Richard C Miake-Lye NOx and CO Formation and Control 175 Ponnuthurai Gokulakrishnan and Michael S Klassen Emissions from Oxyfueled or High-Exhaust Gas Recirculation Turbines 209 Alberto Amato, Jerry M Seitzman, and Timothy C Lieuwen vii viii Contents Part 3  Case Studies and Specific Technologies: Pollutant Trends and Key Drivers Partially Premixed and Premixed Aero Engine Combustors 237 Christoph Hassa 10 Industrial Combustors: Conventional, Non-premixed, and Dry Low Emissions (DLN) 290 Thomas Sattelmayer, Adnan Eroglu, Michael Koenig, Werner Krebs, and Geoff Myers Index 363 354 Industrial Combustors Fuel distribution (%) Fuel/Air (ratio Fuel stage sequence Mode Overall PM1 Mode Mode Mode Mode 6.3 Local fuel/air Lean blow out fuel/air PM2 Power output PM3 PM3 PM1 PM1 PM2 PM2 PM1 Power output Figure 10.55.  General Electric DLN 2.6 combustor fuel staging sequence machine at startup and low load, which eliminated diffusion mode The result was a combustor with four manifolds: three premixed manifolds (PM) staging fuel to the five outer and the single center premixers, and a fourth premixed manifold for injecting the external quaternary fuel for dynamics abatement The first manifold fuels the center nozzle, the second manifold fuels the two outer nozzles located at the cross-fire tubes, and the third manifold fuels the remaining three outer nozzles With the elimination of the diffusion circuits, the DLN 2.6 loads and unloads differently than DLN 2.0 Additional mode changes are necessary to maintain the premixed flames within their burnable zones and so prevent combustor blowout (Figure 10.55) The liner geometry of the DLN 2.6 combustor is completely conical, rather than a cylindrical section followed by a short cone (Figure 10.53) The gas premixers have also been updated with more aerodynamic vane-like fuel injection pegs replacing the exclusively cylindrical fuel pegs used initially on the DLN 2.0 The DLN 2.6 system is capable of ppm NOx and ppm CO values at and above 50 percent load with natural gas fuel In late 1996, a higher power output version of the Frame 9FA was introduced Called the 9FA+e, the cycle for this machine increased the air and fuel flow to the combustion system by approximately 10 percent and the combustor exit temperature to over 1470°C To meet the emission requirements for this engine, an updated version of the DLN2.0, called the DLN 2+, was developed The DLN 2+ retained the basic architecture of the DLN 2.0 with adaptations for both the new requirements and to improve the operability and robustness of the existing system In comparison to the DLN2.0, the major changes are concentrated in the fuel nozzle and endcover arrangement Both the endcover and fuel nozzle were supplied with enlarged fuel passages for the increased volumetric flow of fuel, required to accommodate weaker fuel gases The DLN 2+ system introduced the “swozzle” gas premixer, a combination of the words swirler and nozzle The aerodynamics of this DLN 2+ gas premixer, and subsequent swozzles applied on the derivative DLN 10.5  Case Studies 2.6+ and 2.5H systems, was redesigned for further improvements in flame-­holding margin, reduced pressure drop, and improved diffusion flame stability (Lewis et al., 2011) The additional gains in flame-holding velocity margin resulted from cleaner aerodynamics in the premixers This was achieved via a new swirler design that incorporates fuel injection directly from the swirler surface Each swirler vane comprises a turning vane and an upstream straight section The straight section is hollow and houses the fuel manifolds plus the discrete injection holes This contrasts with the earlier DLN 2.0 design with two elements in the flow path, a swirler and pegs (later vanes) from which the gas fuel was injected Upstream of the swirler, an inlet flow conditioner improves the character of the flow entering the premixer, while an integral outer shroud located downstream eliminates any potential flow disturbances after the point of fuel injection The nozzle-tip geometry and the improvements in diffusion flame stability allow the use of a diffusion flame on every nozzle This eliminates the lean-lean mode of the DLN 2.0 and resulted in the simplified staging methodology The diffusion gas circuit eliminated in the DLN 2.6 was reintroduced on the DLN 2+ and 2.5H to cope with weaker fuels 10.5.4.3  Siemens DLN Combustor The Siemens SGT6–5000F engine utilizes a can-annular combustion system The lean-premixed technology of Siemens employed in can-annular combustors in the E and F class originates from joint engine development programs between MHI and Westinghouse Electric Corp (now part of Siemens Energy Inc.) The original lean, premixed system is called the dry low NOx (DLN) combustor and was predominantly developed by MHI in the 1980s (Aoyama et al., 1991) and early 1990s (Matsuzaki et  al., 1984) Subsequent work by Westinghouse and then Siemens extended this technology to an ultralow NOx (ULN) design for application to SGT6–5000F, SGT6–3000E, and W501D5 engines A later step was the further extension and scaling for application to SGT5/6–8000H engines The DLN combustor consists of a central, non-premixed pilot zone with a pilot cone to provide stabilization and a number of partially premixed, main nozzles surrounding the central pilot The pilot nozzle has a moderate to high swirl number (0.8 to >1.2), thereby creating a recirculation zone, while the main nozzles have a low swirl number (>0.4) As a result, the pilot flame is compact and intense while the main flame zone consists of a group of “long, lazy flames.” As a result, the pilot flame, utilizing less than 10 percent of the air and fuel, stabilizes the partially premixed main flames at a lower swirl number than would otherwise be possible, enabling a longer main flame with a large distribution of time lags This distribution of time lags results in a flame less susceptible to coherent interaction with acoustic waves and, therefore, less likely to exhibit high thermo-acoustic amplitudes Figure 10.56 shows a schematic drawing of the DLN system The main nozzles are attached to the support housing and are divided into two groups, an “A” and a “B” stage, with every other nozzle belonging to the same stage This staging was designed to enable operation during startup and loading in 355 356 Industrial Combustors Table 10.1.  DLN staging as a function of engine load Load range Stages active Ignition to 30% load 30 to 50% load 50% to 100% load Pilot, A stage Pilot, A + B stage Pilot, A, B + C stage Support housing Pilot C-stage Transition Basket Figure 10.56.  Siemens DLN system for can-annular combustors combination with the pilot nozzle The typical loading sequence for the DLN combustor is shown in Table 10.1 The fuel is injected through four holes on the side of each of the main nozzles, called rockets, just downstream of the main swirlers, through eight holes at the end of the pilot nozzle, and through approximately thirty holes in the C stage ring The C stage fuel injection has a number of impacts on the combustion system One key feature of the C stage fuel injection is that it is well premixed with the incoming airflow Therefore, the combustor can be tuned for combustor dynamics by shifting fuel between the main nozzles and the C stage without any NOx penalty The liner and transition piece were initially cooled using air in plate-fin and “MT-fin” geometries, respectively These cooling systems consisted of two layers of metal with the inner, thicker layer having a series of parallel cooling channels machined into it In the case of the liner, the cooling air exited directly at the end of the channels and the inner and outer layers were only connected at the start of the channel There are a series of four of these panels with increasingly larger diameters so that the cooling air exiting the first set of cooling channels forms a thin layer of shield air at the start of the second panel and so on Photographs of the DLN support housing and pilot nozzle are shown in Figure 10.57 For the transition piece, the two layers are bonded together and each channel is fed independently by an inlet hole and the cooling air from this channel exited 10.5  Case Studies Figure 10.57.  Siemens DLN fuel nozzle for can-annular combustors Figure 10.58.  Siemens DLN liner for can-annular combustors through an exit hole The combination of the inlet hole and exit hole serves to regulate the cooling airflow to the channel As the system evolved, the liner was changed to have a rear side convectively cooled panel, coated with a thick thermal barrier coating In addition, the current liner has an array of resonators mounted toward the aft end of the liner that serve to damp out high-frequency combustor acoustic modes in the kHz range Figure 10.58 shows pictures of the DLN baskets with a plate-fin cooled liner and with a rear side cooled liner and resonators, respectively Improvements to the transition cooling arrangement have been more subtle and involved optimization of the cooling channel arrangement and transition shape to minimize heat transfer coefficients and maximize the mechanical robustness of the design Design modifications and optimization of the liner, transition, and seals of these components have eliminated more than 50 percent of the cooling and leakage air from the original design, enabling lower NOx and/or higher turbine inlet temperatures at the same NOx levels 10.5.4.4  Siemens ULN Combustor The ULN combustor was developed to meet the single-digit NOx emissions requirements for F-class engines It is also used to maintain emissions at below 25 ppm levels with increased firing temperatures The basic architecture of the ULN system is the same as the DLN system, with a pilot nozzle, two main stages, and a C stage However, in the ULN system the fuel is injected through the swirler vanes instead of through the sidewalls of the fuel nozzles In addition, the ULN system has a two-stage 357 358 Industrial Combustors Table 10.2.  ULN fuel staging as a function of engine load Load range Stages active Ignition to sync speed Synchronization to 25% load 25 to 45% load 45% to base load Pilot, A stage Pilot, A + D stage (premix pilot) Pilot, A, B + D stage Pilot, A, B, C + D stage Figure 10.59.  Siemens ULN nozzle and support housing for can-annular combustors pilot nozzle, with both a premixed and a diffusion pilot stage The premixed pilot also injects the fuel through the swirler vanes The fuel staging strategy for the ULN combustion system is shown in Table 10.2 The diffusion pilot stage is used predominantly for ignition and loading of the engine and the premixed pilot is used predominantly at higher loads to control NOx emissions to single-digit levels Figure 10.59 shows pictures of the premixed pilot nozzle and support housing The key advantage of the ULN system over the DLN system is that it allows the fuel to be precisely placed within the premixing passage, allowing for an optimum fuel profile in terms of circumferential mixing and radial profile This radial profile is tailored to ensure that the optimum pattern is achieved, not only in terms of NOx levels, but also in relation to combustion dynamics, flashback, and lean stability Since the position of the injection holes, far more than the momentum of the fuel jets, determines the mixing pattern in the ULN system, this system has the additional advantage that it is less sensitive to changes in fuel temperature and Wobbe Index than the DLN system In addition, the main stages are arranged in an AA-BB pattern, meaning that two adjacent nozzles belong to the same stage This evolution in the design results in reduced CO emission level at loads when only the A-stage is active (below 30 percent load), reducing the startup emissions from the engine, as shown in Figure 10.60 The ULN combustion system was first demonstrated in a trial operation run at Renaissance power plant in Michigan in 2004 (Bland et al., 2004) and subsequently was introduced to the market in 2008 at the Idaho Power, Evander Andrews project (Johnson et al., 2008) CO, corrected normalized to peak 10.6  Nomenclature 15 ppm design ppm design 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% Gas turbine load Figure 10.60.  ULN CO-emissions versus load 10.5.4.5  Siemens PCS Combustor The ULN technology was also scaled up by a factor of ~1.2 to the Siemens H class engines This stage of the combustion system evolution is called the platform combustion system (PCS), since it is sized to be applicable to a wide range of Siemens engines The basic technology behind the PCS system is similar to the ULN system, with many parameters optimized for the higher firing temperature of the H class engines and to further improve the manufacturability, starting reliability, and robustness of the system The main focus of Siemens with respect to the aerodynamic design was to optimize the swirl number, swirl profile, and mixing profile of the PCS system to achieve the required combustion firing temperature and NOx emissions levels while avoiding combustion dynamics throughout the entire engine-operating regime Based on the experience with the ULN combustors, the thermal design was optimized from the beginning, as were the combustor and transition seals This system was first demonstrated in 2007 at the E.ON Irsching power plant near Ingolstadt, Germany (Gruschka et al., 2008) 10.6  Nomenclature a Da f f g g LHVvol s s1 st T U Woi m2/s MJ/m3 m/s m/s K MJ/m3 thermal diffusivity Damköhler number mixture fraction average mixture fraction variance of the fuel mixture fraction pdf standard deviation of the mixture fraction pdf volumetric lower heating value normalized standard deviation laminar flame speed turbulent flame speed temperature unmixedness parameter Wobbe index 359 360 Industrial Combustors Greek ϕ γ ρ τ kg/m3 s equivalence ratio mole fraction Density characteristic time Subscripts Air Chem Fuel Mix Products Reactants Unmixed air chemical fuel turbulent mixing of fuel and air combustion products reactants, mixture of fuel and air entirely unmixed flow state of fuel and air Abbreviations HAP pdf UHC VOC hazardous air pollutants probability density function unburned hydrocarbons volatile organic compounds References Aoyama, K et al (1991) “Development of a Dry Low NOx Combustor for a 120MW Gas Turbine.” Proceedings of the ASME/IGTI TurboExpo, Paper ASME 91-GT-297 Bailey, J C., Intile, J., Fric, T F., Tolpadi, A K., Nirmalan, N V., and Bunker, R S (2002) “Experimental and Numerical Study of Heat Transfer in a Gas Turbine Combustor Liner.” Proceedings of the ASME/IGTI TurboExpo, Paper 2002-GT-3018 Bland, R., Ryan, W., Abou-Jaoude, K., Bandatu, R., Haris, A., and Rising, B (2004) “Siemens W501F Gas Turbine: Ultra Low NOx Combustion System Development.” Proceedings of the Power-Gen International Bradley, D (1992) “How Fast Can We Burn?” Twenty-fourth Symposium (International) on Combustion, 247–62 Davis, B (1996) “Dry Low-NOx Combustion Systems for GE Heavy-Duty Gas Turbines.” Proceedings of the ASME/IGTI TurboExpo, Paper 96-GT-27 Dean, A M., and Bozzelli, J W (2000) “Combustion Chemistry of Nitrogen,” in Gas-Phase Combustion Chemistry, Gardiner W C ed., Springer-Verlag Döbbeling, K., Pacholleck, J., and Hoffs, A (2007) “Combining Operational Flexibility with Clean, Reliable Power Generation in the Alstom Gas Turbine GT13E2.” Proceedings of the Power-Gen Asia Conference Eroglu, A., Döbbeling, K., Joos, F., and Brunner, P (2001) “Vortex Generators in Lean-Premix Combustion.” Transactions of the ASME, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 123: 41–9 Eroglu, A., Flohr, P., Brunner, P., and Hellat, J (2009) “Combustor Design for Low Emissions and Long Lifetime Requirements.” Proceedings of the ASME/IGTI TurboExpo, Paper GT2009–59540 Gruschka, U et al (2008) “ULN System for the New SGT5–8000H Gas Turbine: Design and High Pressure Rig Test Results.” Proceedings of the ASME/IGTI TurboExpo, Paper No GT2008–51208 References Hall, J M., Thatcher, R T., Koshevets, S., Thomas, L L., and Jones R M (2011) “Development and Field Validation of a Large-Frame Gas Turbine Power Train for Steel Mill Gases.” Proceedings of the ASME/IGTI TurboExpo, Paper GT2011–45923 Johnson, C et al (2008) “Ultra Low NOx Combustion Technology.” Proceedings of the Power-Gen International Joos, F., Brunner, P., Schulte-Werning, B., Syed, K., and Eroglu, A (1996) “Development of the Sequential Combustion System for the ABB GT24/GT26 Gas Turbine Family.” Proceedings of the ASME/IGTI TurboExpo, Paper 1996-GT-315 Kalb, J R., and Sattelmayer, T (2006) “Lean Blowout Limit and NOx Production of a Premixed Sub-ppm NOx Burner with Periodic Recirculation of Combustion Products.” Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 128: 247–54 Kenyon, M., and Fluck, M (2005) “Using Non Standard Fuels in the ALSTOM GT11N2 Gas Turbine.” Proceedings of the Power-Gen International Krebs, W., Walz, G., Judith, H., and Hoffmann, S (1999) “Detailed Analysis of the Thermal Wall Heat Transfer in Annular Combustors.” Proceedings of the ASME/IGTI TurboExpo, Paper 99-GT-134 Lewis, S., Thomas, S R., Joseph Citeno, J., and Natarajan, J (2011) “F-Class DLN Technology Advancements: DLN2.6+.” Proceedings of the ASME/IGTI TurboExpo, Paper GT2011–45373 Lovett, J A., and Abuaf, N (1992) “Emissions and Stability Characteristics of Flameholders for Lean-Premixed Combustion.” Proceedings of the ASME/IGTI TurboExpo, Paper 92-GT-120 Lovett, J A., and Mick, W (1995) “Development of a Swirl and Bluff-Body Stabilized Burner for Low-NOx, Lean-Premixed Combustion.” Proceedings of theASME/IGTI TurboExpo, Paper 95-GT-168 Matsuzaki, H et al (1984) “Investigation of Combustion Structure Inside Low NOx Combustors for a 1500C-class Gas Turbine.” Transactions of the ASME, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbine and Power 106: 795–800 Payrhuber, K., Jones, R M., Scholz, M H (2008) “Gas Turbine Flexibility with Carbon Constrained Fuels.” Proceedings of the ASME/IGTI TurboExpo, Paper GT2008–50556 Reiss, F., Griffin, T., and Reyser K (2002) “The ALSTOM GT13E2 Medium Btu Gas Turbine.” Proceedings of the ASME/IGTI TurboExpo, Paper GT 2002 30108 Sattelmayer, T., Felchlin, M P., Haumann, J., Hellat, J., Styner, D (1992) “Second Generation Low-Emission Combustors for ABB Gas Turbines: Burner Development and Tests at Atmospheric Pressure.” Transactions of the ASME, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbine and Power 114(1): 118–25 Sattelmayer, T., Polifke, W., Winkler, D., and Döbbeling, K (1998) “NOx-Abatement Potential of Lean-Premixed GT-Combustors.” Transactions of the ASME, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbine and Power 120: 48–59 Senior, P., Lutum, E., Polifke, W., and Sattelmayer, T (1993) “Combustion Technology of the ABB GT13E2 Annular Combustor.” Proceedings of the Twentieth CIMAC Conference, Paper G22 Streb, H., and Prade, B (2001) “Advanced Burner Development for the Vx4.3A Gas Turbines.” Proceedings of ASME IGTI TurboExpo, Paper 2001-GT-0077 Thomas, L L., Simons, D W., Popovic, P., Romoser, C E., Vandale, D D., and Citeno, J V (2011) “E-Class DLN Technology Advancements, DLN1+.” Proceedings of the ASME/ IGTI TurboExpo, Paper GT2011–45944 Vandervort, C L (2000) “9 ppm NOx / CO Combustion System for ‘F’ Class Industrial Gas Turbines.” Proceedings of the ASME/IGTI TurboExpo, Paper 2000-GT-0086 361 Index absorption chilling, 33 acoustically excited vortex, 56 aero gas turbines emission impact, 81–3 peaking applications, 30, 58 weight constraints, 85 air separation unit, 75 air toxics, 96 alternative fuels, 64 ammonia slip, 39 anaerobic digestion, 72 annular combustors architecture, 60 premixed, 339 single stage, 339 two stage, 346 autoignition, 54, 245 biofuel, 65 bioreactor, 71 bitumen, 65 bottoming cycles, 37 can annular combustor architecture, 59 cap and liner assembly, 325 dual fuel standard nozzle assembly, 324 carbon dioxide capture and storage, 99, 212, 214 capture vs transport/storage, 215 emission issues, 213 impurity issues, 214 specifications, 214 emissions, 83 carbon monoxide emissions, 5, 41, 222, 226, 303 formation effect of pressure, 195, 196 NOx vs CO divergence, 31, 89, 98 fuel-air ratio effect, 181 non-premixed flame, 307 oxidation, 180 carbonic acid corrosion, 214 chlorofluorocarbons, 97 clean coal technology See integrated gasification combined cycle climate change, 96 coal gasification, 35, 73 coalbed methane, 68 cogeneration challenges, 34 cogeneration vs separate production, 115 district energy systems, 34 importance, 33 combined heat and power See cogeneration combustion instabilities conditions, 56 fuel staging, 14 heat release oscillations, 55 hydrodynamic instabilities, 56 combustor architecture can, 59 can annular, 59 full annular, 60 blowoff, 50 characteristics, combustion regime staged vs non-staged, 44 design priorities, 238 design requirements, 83, 292 dry low NOx, 36 See lean premixed combustion emissions See emissions carbon monoxide See carbon monoxide exhaust gas recirculation, 217 lean premixed vs RQL, 248 nitrogen oxides See nitrogen oxides oxyfuel combustion, 225 partial premixing, 278 particulate matter See particulate matter prevaporization, 242 exit temperature profile, 18 flame stabilization, 298 flashback, 51, 246 363 364 Index combustor (cont.) boundary layer, 52 core flow, 51 vortex breakdown, 54 fuel flexibility, 291 fuel staged, 13, 248 approaches, 61 combustion efficiency, 14 combustion instability, 14 fuel coking, 14 heat load, 13 lean premixed, 310 mixing issues, 302 part load, 318 methods, 318 fuel switching to individual burners, 320 longitudinal fuel staging, 322 piloted premixed flame, 318 piloting by adjacent burners, 321 soot emissions, 13 stability risk, 13 fuel-air mixing See fuel-air mixing heat release and burnout, 300 liner cooling, 18, 21 emissions, 22 designs, 21–2 fatigue cracks, 21 heat loads convection, 21 radiation, 20 non-premixed See non-premixed combustor operating limits, 6–8, 291 premixed, 237, See premixed combustors lean premixed combustion pressure losses, 4, 282 rich quench lean, 8–13 advanced designs, 11 challenges, 12–13 liner durability, 12 smoke control, 12 designs, emission challenges, 9–10 fuel-air ratio lapse, safety, 292 stability, 243, 279, 292 turbulence production, 300 variable geometry, 252 condensation nucleus counter, 126 critical velocity gradient, 52 cross-fire tubes, 59 crude oil, 64 Damkohler number, 50, 302 diesel fuel, 64 differential mobility analysis, 126 district energy systems, 34, 43 dual fuel capability See backup fuels electrostatic separator, 126 emission policies Canada, 105 European countries, 106 other countries, 109 United States, 102 emission trading scheme, 108 emissions, 29, 57, 82 air pollutants, 97 air toxics, 96 carbon monoxide See carbon monoxide measurements, 100 nitric oxides See nitrogen oxides particulate matter, 82, See particulate matter SOx, 82, 97, See gaseous aerosol precursors, species, SOx unburned hydrocarbons, 82 effect of power, emerging issues, 91 impact, 37 limits, 89 low vs high altitude, 82 measurement, 87 policy considerations, 100 reduction, 39 national activities, 95 valuation, 114 energy efficient engine program, 248 enhanced coal bed methane recovery, 213 enhanced oil recovery, 213, 214 environmental assessment, 110 EPA SPECIATE database, 162 exhaust gas recirculation applications, 209 carbon dioxide capture, 213 chemical kinetics effect, 211 CO emissions, 222 combustion impact, 210 combustor considerations, 216 emission requirements, 213 molecular oxygen, 213 nitrogen oxides, 213 sulphur dioxide, 213 external vs internal, 216 NOx emissions, 218 fuel-air mixedness, 223 mechanistic pathways, 219 oxygen concentration, 219 water and carbon dioxide effects, 221 radiation heat transfer, 210 transport properties, 210 experimental clean combustor program, 248 first commerical power plant, 32 Fischer-Tropsch synthesis, 73 flame holders, 244 fuel cell, 48 fuel coking, 14 fuel injectors, 15, 16, 19 Index air blast atomization, 16 pressure atomization, 15 fuel staging See combustor, fuel staged fuel-air mixing Damkohler number, 302 jet penetration, 18–19 mixing enhancement methods using air flow, 312 using fuel jet momentum, 312 unmixedness parameter, 314 fuel-air ratio vs load, 43 fuels alternative fuels, 64 comparison, 65 gas, 65 associated gases, 70 backup fuels, 67 classification, 294 coke oven gas, 71 landfill gas, 71 natural gas applications, 295 liquefied natural gas, 69 natural gas vs coal technology, 99 non conventional sources, 68 non-premixed combustors, 323 pipeline natural gas, 65 effect of composition, 67 sulphur, 68 variability, 66 See peak shaving implications, 66 premixed combustors, 334 non associated gases, 70 peak shaving, 67 propane, 67 reactivity, 294 refinery gas, 70 syngas, 73 compositions, 74, 75 future scenarios, 75 sources, 73 synthesis, 73 uses, 73 synthesis gas See syngas liquid fuel, 63, 296 crude oil, 64 diesel, 64 diesel fuel, 64, 65 distillates, 64 jet fuel composition, 176 non-premixed combustors, 323 premixed combustors, 334 usage, 65 surrogate fuels, 177 full fuel cycle analysis, 113 gas pipeline industry, 36 gas research institute, 66 gaseous aerosol precursors, 154 evolution, 155 open questions, 170 species, 156 organics, 156 contribution to particulate formation, 161, 162 control, 157 alternative fuels, 164 flame ionization detector, 157 limitations, 158 emission profile, 162 formation, 167 mechanisms, 168 oxidative route, 167 pyrolysis route, 167 fuel impacts, 168 measurement challenges, 158 SOx, 156 formation, 165 fuel impacts, 167 fuel source, 160 measurement, 166 regulations, 157 sulphur dioxide, 160 sulphur trioxide, 160 sulphuric acid, 160 General Electric full burner staging, 62 green house gases carbon dioxide, 83 hydrochloroflourocarbons, 97 methane, 99 methane vs carbon dioxide, 36 nitrous oxide, 97 reduction, 99 Grenelle environment forum, 109 ground based gas turbines combined cycles, 31 advanced designs, 45 issues condensers, 31, 41 noise impacts, 31, 42 thermal pollution, 31, 41 vapour plumes, 31 selective catalytic reduction, 32 cycle enhancements reheat, recuperation, intercooling, 26 designs aeroderivative, 57 heavy duty, 57 plug and play, 57 dispatchable power source, 29 flexibility, 28 fuels, 62 grid interaction, 28 microgrids, 29 remote power generation, 64 repowering, 32 advantages, 38, 99 365 366 Index ground based gas turbines (cont.) synchronous operation issues, 28 tandem operation, 28 water addition, 27, 41 hazardous air pollutants, 162 heat recovery steam generator, 32, 33 high speed civil transport program, 252 humid air turbine, 48 hybrid or duplex injectors See fuel injectors hydraulic fracturing, 69 hydrocarbon oxidation, 176, 179 chemical time scales, 182 high temperature, 178 low temperature, 178 role of nitric oxide, 190 hydrochlorofluorocarbons, 97 hydrogen-oxygen system chemical kinetics, 179 ICAO See international civil aviation organization ignition igniter placement, 17 mechanism, 15, 280 relight, starting, 15 stabilization, 16 integrated energy and climate programme, 109 integrated gasification combined cycle, 35 General Electric projects, 74 impact, 35 integrated mixer flame holder, 254 integrated pollution prevention and control, 106 intercooled recuperated cycle, 47 merits, 47 international civil aviation organization committee on aviation environmental protection, 86 data bank, sheets, 87 emission certification test, 87 emission standards, 86 adoption issues, 92 landing-takeoff cycle, 86 laminalloy, 254 landing fees, 93 large combustion plant directive, 106 lean direct injection, 263 NOx emissions, 264 operability aspects, 265 prevaporization, 264 lean premixed combustion applications, 239 atomizers, 256 autoignition, 245 correlation, 246 measurement, 246 combustion efficiency, 244 emissions, 244 effect of wall temperature, 245 cooling methods, 251 emissions comparison, 248 NOx, 238 effect of pressure, 239 mixture inhomogenity, 241 stoichiometry, 240 exit temperatures, 240 flame holding, 244 bluff body, 244, 260 perforated plate, 252 swirl stabilization, 244, 260 flashback, 246 lean premixed prevaporized combustor, 247 NASA funded programs, 248 Vorbix combustor, 250 stability, 251 partial premixing, 250, 261 combustor operability issues alternate fuels, 284 combustion oscillations, 283 emissions, 278 exit temperature, 283 ignition, 280 pressure loss, 282 stability, 279 thermal management, 281 GE twin annular premixing swirler combustor, 272 Japanese TechCLEAN combustor, 270 lifted flames, 265 jet flame vs bluff body stabilized flames, 265 piloting, 267 internal pilots, 269 internal vs external, 267 methods, 267 stability factors, 266 Rolls Royce lean combustor, 275 premixing, 257 injection/mixing devices, 257 liquid premixing issues, 259 methods, 258 prevaporization, 242, 255 NOx emissions, 242 vaporization rates, 256 stability, 243 lifted flames, 265 liner cooling, 18, 21 emissions, 22 designs, 21–2 durability, 12 fatigue cracks, 21 heat loads convection, 21 radiation, 20 Index maximum available control technology policy, 103 methane, 36, 99 multi angle absorption photometry, 126 multi nozzle quiet combustor, 326 municipal solid wastes, 71 national environmental policy act military engines, 92 natural gas, 68 new source performance standards, 102 July 2006 regulation, 103 nitrogen oxides control landing fees, 93 post combustion selective catalytic reduction, 39, 85, 116, 192 selective non-catalytic reduction, 192 water injection, 39, 43, 48, 76, 85 process modification air staging, 193 lean direct injection, 192 lean premixing, 40, 85, 191 lean prevaporized premixed, 192 reburning, 194 emission criteria, 101 concentration vs output based, 101 emissions exhaust gas recirculation, 216–24 lean direct injection, 263 lean premixed combustion, 238 prevaporization, 242 formation, 5, 183, 200 effect of equivalence ratio, 184 effect of pressure, 195, 198 burner stabilized premixed flame, 197 counterflow diffusion flame, 196 fuel-air mixing, 197 lean premixed swirl burner, 199 other factors, 196 fuel source, 188 N2O pathway, 186, 305 NNH pathway, 187 non-premixed flames, 306 pathways, 183, 189 premixed flames, 307 effect of mixing quality, 311 perfectly premixed, 308 effect of pressure, 308 effect of residence time, 309 turbulent flames, 310 prompt mechanism, 186, 305 thermal mechanism, 184, 305 jet fuel ignition, 191 jet methane reduction, 83 jet ozone formation, 82 nitrous oxide, 97 world bank guidelines, 110 non-premixed combustor Alstom designs, 327 Alstom LBtu combustor, 332 Alstom MBtu combustor, 330 can annular, 323 design criteria, 303 General Electric systems, 323 Siemens designs, 331 silo combustors, 328 very compact combustor, 329 nozzle aerodynamics design criteria, 54 organic Rankine cycles, 37 Orimulsion®, 65 oxyfuel combustion applications, 210 carbon dioxide capture, 214 combustor considerations, 224 blowoff, 225 flame temperature vs residence time, 229 emissions, 225 carbon monoxide, 226 post-flame relaxation, 228 molecular oxygen, 227 requirements, 214 integrated gasification combined cycle, 225 oxyfuel combustion vs exhaust gas recirculation, 214 partial premixing, 261 particulate matter break-up vs erosion, 137 carbonization rates, 141 coalescence, 138 collision frequencies, 138 Smulochowski equation, 138 particle size distribution, 139 method of moments, 140 monodisperse distribution, 139 quadrature method, 140 sectional method, 140 rates, 139 control, 144–6 lean premixing, 143 dilution effects, 145 formation process, 130 modeling issues, 132 fuel effects, 142 gas vs PAH laden, 143 jet fuel content, 143 physical vs chemical properties, 143 global warming, 124 ground vs aero engines, 147 impact of combustor design, 145 inception, 132 aromatic ring formation, 133 multi-ring aromatics, 133 pyrene-pyrene dimerization, 134 mass production rate, 134 indirect control, 124 367 368 Index particulate matter (cont.) limits, 124 measurement standards, methods, 126 oxidation, 136 ageing effects, 138, 141 molecular oxygen, 137 Nagle and Strickland-Constable rate, 137 oxidation rate, 137 role of hydroxyl radical, 136 oxidation rate, 138 polyaromatic hydrocarbons, 145 radiation loss, 142 gas turbine engines, 142 optical thickness, 142 sampling, 128 loss issues, 129 secondary particulate matter, 82 smoke number, 89, 124 relantionship with soot mass, 128 surface growth, 134 active surface area, 135 hydrogen abstraction carbon addition model, 134 soot mass growth rate, 135 temperature and pressure effects, 141 terminology, 123 time scales, 140 peak shaving, 67 pet coke, 73 piloting, 267 pollutants See emissions pollution prevention and abatement handbook, 110 positive matrix factorization, 162 power purchase agreement, 29 premixed combustor, 237 Alstom designs, 335 General Electric DLN-1, 348 General Electric DLN-2, 350 Siemens DLN, 355 Siemens hybrid combustor, 339 Siemens PCS, 359 Siemens ULN, 357 silo combustor, 334 single stage annular, 339 two stage annular, 346 premixed vs non-premixed combustion, 293 flame characteristics, 296 fuel choice, 295 prevention of significant deterioration program, 102 pyrolysis, 73 reburning, 194 recuperated cycle, 46 repowering, 32 rich quench lean See combustor rich quench lean scanning mobility particle sizer, 126 selective catalytic reduction, 39, 85, 116, 192 issues, 39 selective non-catalytic reduction, 192 semi-closed oxyfuel combustion combustion cycle, 224 shale gas, 68 shale oil, 64 silo combustor, 59 smoke number, 89 stability loop, 49 stratospheric cruise emission reduction, 252 sulfuric acid corrosion, 214 supersonic transport emission requirements, 252 surrogate fuels, 177 swirling flames, 54 syngas, 35, 73–5 combustion challenges, 35 emission challenges, 35 syngas burners design criteria, 54 thermal pollution, 97 thermal-deNOx See selective non-catalytic reduction turbine design considerations, 18–19 durability rotating blades, 18 static hardware, 18 turbulence production, 300 turbulent flame speed, 51, 300 vitiated air, 189 effect on fuel oxidation, 189 Vorbix combustor, 250 wastewater treatment, 72 water injection, 39, 43, 48, 76, 85 water shift reaction, 35 white certificate system, 109 Wobbe index, 294 world bank guidelines, 110 Zeldovich mechanism, 5, See nitrogen oxides