MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS HO CHI MINH CITY MAI TRUONG AN THE DUAL PATHS THAT ETHICAL LEADERSHIP DRIVES EMPLOYEES’ SUSTAINABILITY BEHAVIORS DISSERTATION Ho Chi Minh Cit[.]
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS HO CHI MINH CITY MAI TRUONG AN THE DUAL PATHS THAT ETHICAL LEADERSHIP DRIVES EMPLOYEES’ SUSTAINABILITY BEHAVIORS DISSERTATION Ho Chi Minh City – 2022 MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS HO CHI MINH CITY MAI TRUONG AN THE DUAL PATHS THAT ETHICAL LEADERSHIP DRIVES EMPLOYEES’ SUSTAINABILITY BEHAVIORS Major: Business administration Code: 9340101 DISSERTATION Academic advisors: ASSOC PROF TRAN MAI DONG ASSOC PROF LE NHAT HANH Ho Chi Minh City – 2022 STATEMENT OF AUTHENTICITY I hereby certify that this thesis was written independently without any aid from unnamed sources In addition, I also declare that all secondary materials used in this thesis are fully referenced Mai Truong An Mai Truong An ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am incredibly thankful to my supervisors, Associate Professor Tran Mai Dong and Associate Professor Le Nhat Hanh, School of Management, University of Economics Ho Chi Minh City (UEH), for their tremendous support and help during my doctoral study This thesis could not be possible without their guidance and assistance Further, I want to express my gratitude to my friends, who work in manufacturing companies in Vietnam, for helping me collect the data I would also like to thank my colleagues, the Faculty of Business Administration, Ho Chi Minh City College of Economics, for assisting me with teaching duties Lastly, I am grateful to my family for their endless support, both in financial and spiritual aspects TABLE OF CONTENT STATEMENT OF AUTHENTICITY i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii TABLE OF CONTENT iii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ix LIST OF TABLES x LIST OF FIGURES AND DIAGRAMS xii ABSTRACT xiii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .1 1.1 Research background .1 1.1.1 Ethical leadership and employees’ sustainability behaviors .1 1.1.2 Research gaps 1.1.3 The context of Vietnam 13 1.2 Research purposes and questions 15 1.3 Research object and scope .16 1.4 Research methodology 16 1.5 Research contributions 17 1.5.1 Theoretical contributions 17 1.5.2 Practical contributions .18 1.6 Chapter outline .18 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT 20 2.1 The study constructs .20 2.1.1 Ethical leadership 20 2.1.2 Organizational citizenship behavior toward the environment (OCB-E) 25 2.1.3 A review of the literature on the relationship between ethical leadership and OCB-E 26 2.1.3.1 Moral identity 37 2.1.3.2 Corporate environmental strategy 38 2.1.3.3 Green psychological climate 39 2.1.3.4 Agreeableness 39 2.2 Background theory 41 2.2.1 Social learning theory .42 2.2.2 Social identity theory 44 2.2.3 Self-consistency theory 44 2.2.4 Upper echelons theory 45 2.2.5 Substitutes for leadership theory .46 2.3 Hypotheses developments and proposed model 47 2.3.1 The role of ethical leadership in driving OCB-E 47 2.3.2 The mediating role of moral identity 49 2.3.3 The mediating role of corporate environmental strategy and green psychological climate 54 2.3.4 The moderating role of agreeableness 57 2.3.5 Proposed model .60 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 62 3.1 Research design 62 3.2 Scale and questionnaire 63 3.2.1 Variable measurements 63 3.2.1.1 Ethical leadership .63 3.2.1.2 Organizational citizenship behavior toward the environment (OCBE) 65 3.2.1.3 Moral identity 67 3.2.1.4 Corporate environmental strategy 69 3.2.1.5 Green psychological climate 70 3.2.1.6 Agreeableness 71 3.2.1.7 Control variables 72 3.2.2 Questionnaire development .72 3.3 Pilot test 73 3.3.1 Pilot test’s process 73 3.3.2 Pilot test’s results 75 3.4 Main study 86 3.4.1 Data collection 86 3.4.2 Data analysis 88 3.4.2.1 Common method bias 89 3.4.2.2 Measurement model 89 3.4.2.3 Structural model .90 3.4.2.4 Robustness checks 91 CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 92 4.1 Testing for common method bias 92 4.2 Assessment of the measurement model 93 4.2.1 Factor loadings 93 4.2.2 The scale reliability 99 4.2.3 The convergence validity 100 4.2.4 The discriminant validity 101 4.3 Assessment of the structural model .103 4.3.1 The variance inflation factor (VIF) .103 4.3.2 Hypotheses testing 103 4.3.2.1 The direct effect .104 4.3.2.2 The indirect effects .105 4.3.2.3 The moderating effects 108 4.3.3 The coefficient of determination adjusted (R2) .110 4.3.4 The Stone-Geisser Indicator values (Q2) 111 4.3.5 The effect size (f2) 112 4.3.6 PLSpredict .113 4.3.7 Model comparisons .116 4.4 Robustness checks 121 4.4.1 CTA-PLS application for the measurement model’s robustness check121 4.4.2 Robustness check for the structural model 127 4.4.2.1 Nonlinear effects 127 4.4.2.2 Assessment of the endogeneity 128 4.4.2.3 Assessment of the unobserved heterogeneity 128 4.5 Discussions 130 4.5.1 Hypotheses testing summary 130 4.5.2 Main effects 132 4.5.3 Moderating effects 135 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS 138 5.1 Conclusions 138 5.2 Theoretical contributions and practical implications 139 5.2.1 Theoretical contributions 139 5.2.2 Practical implications 141 5.3 Limitations and directions for future research .143 REFERENCES APPENDICES Appendix 1: Vietnamese research questionnaire Appendix 2: Pilot test Appendix 3: Focus group participants Appendix 4: Eight manufacturing companies in Vietnam Appendix 5: Sample profile of respondents Appendix 6: Common method bias testing Appendix 7: Measurement models Appendix 7.1: Factor loadings Appendix 7.2: The scale’s Cronbach’s Alpha, CR and AVE Appendix 7.3: Discriminant validity Appendix 8: Structural models Appendix 8.1: The variance inflation factor (VIF) Appendix 8.2: Hypotheses testing Appendix 8.2.1 The direct effect Appendix 8.2.2 The indirect effect Appendix 8.2.3 The moderating effect Appendix 8.3 The coefficient of determination adjusted (R2) Appendix 8.4 The Stone-Geisser Indicator values (Q2) Appendix 8.5 The effect size (f2) Appendix 8.6 PLSpredict Appendix 8.7 Model comparisons Appendix 9: Robustness checks Appendix 9.1: CTA-PLS Appendix 9.2: Nonlinear effects Appendix 9.3: Unobserved heterogeneity Appendix 8.2.3 The moderating effect Original Sample (O) Sample Mean (M) Standard Deviation (STDEV) T Statistics (|O/STDEV|) P Values AG -> MI 0.396 0.399 0.051 7.810 0.000 AG -> MS 0.291 0.294 0.056 5.207 0.000 EL -> MI 0.232 0.234 0.061 3.791 0.000 EL -> MS 0.310 0.313 0.055 5.642 0.000 AG x EL -> MI -0.139 -0.140 0.041 3.416 0.001 AG x EL -> MS -0.062 -0.056 0.043 1.439 0.150 Appendix 8.3 The coefficient of determination adjusted (R2) R Square R Square Adjusted CS 0.383 0.382 GC 0.735 0.735 MI 0.356 0.353 MS 0.278 0.275 OE 0.565 0.557 Appendix 8.4 The Stone-Geisser Indicator values (Q2) SSO AG Age CS Q² (=1SSE/SSO) SSE 2436 2436 406 406 5278 3764.63 0.287 3248 3248 2030 756.675 406 406 2030 1531.079 2436 2030.766 3654 2571.633 406 406 EL GC Gender MI MS OE Position 0.627 0.246 0.166 0.296 Appendix 8.5 The effect size (f2) AG AG Age CS EL GC Gender MI MS OE Position Age CS EL GC Gender MI MS OE Position 0.255 0.114 0.001 2.779 0.621 0.095 0.123 0.002 0.226 0.002 0.087 0.038 0.001 Appendix 8.6 PLSpredict PLS-SEM RMSE MAE MAPE Q²_predict CS3 1.269 0.893 25.743 0.280 CS10 1.323 0.942 29.383 0.293 CS1 1.19 0.838 22.146 0.242 CS2 1.182 0.846 23.844 0.330 CS6 1.354 0.963 29.717 0.259 CS4 1.188 0.827 22.789 0.260 CS9 1.361 0.921 30.175 0.243 CS5 1.191 0.87 23.229 0.331 CS11 1.232 0.846 24.628 0.296 CS7 1.092 0.733 19.549 0.318 CS13 1.205 0.817 22.655 0.312 CS8 1.179 0.842 21.788 0.225 GC4 1.247 0.866 25.753 0.255 GC2 1.142 0.787 22.857 0.320 GC1 1.184 0.854 23.881 0.292 GC5 1.148 0.787 21.237 0.257 GC3 1.136 0.76 22.148 0.286 MI3 1.02 0.78 16.62 0.149 MI5 1.012 0.764 16.35 0.084 MI1 1.168 0.813 22.633 0.086 MI2 1.014 0.741 17.44 0.152 MI4 0.93 0.682 14.622 0.155 MS3 1.344 0.994 29.208 0.129 MS2 1.404 1.017 32.042 0.064 MS1 1.428 1.085 34.994 0.106 MS6 1.259 0.919 25.91 0.110 MS5 1.005 0.769 16.448 0.168 MS4 1.042 0.772 17.374 0.104 OE1 1.334 0.975 29.936 0.167 OE6 1.16 0.751 20.631 0.063 OE12 0.884 0.458 13.16 0.050 OE4 0.785 0.468 10.469 0.084 OE10 1.389 0.975 32.079 0.135 OE7 0.891 0.524 12.296 0.105 OE2 1.23 0.823 25.689 0.089 OE11 1.189 0.841 24.236 0.213 LM CS3 CS10 CS1 CS2 CS6 CS4 CS9 CS5 CS11 CS7 CS13 CS8 GC4 GC2 GC1 GC5 GC3 MI3 MI5 MI1 MI2 MI4 MS3 MS2 MS1 MS6 MS5 MS4 OE1 OE6 OE12 OE4 OE10 OE7 OE2 OE11 RMSE MAE MAPE Q²_predict 1.298 0.901 25.807 0.246 1.306 0.912 28.019 0.311 1.172 0.817 21.369 0.265 1.182 0.83 23.097 0.33 1.36 0.959 29.34 0.253 1.181 0.821 22.092 0.269 1.349 0.923 29.884 0.257 1.181 0.843 22.172 0.342 1.23 0.841 23.989 0.298 1.09 0.729 18.965 0.321 1.208 0.819 22.343 0.308 1.165 0.83 21.117 0.243 1.236 0.834 24.583 0.268 1.14 0.757 21.681 0.322 1.191 0.831 22.829 0.284 1.161 0.774 20.803 0.24 1.133 0.716 20.884 0.291 1.025 0.774 16.462 0.141 1.019 0.775 16.548 0.072 1.172 0.81 22.478 0.08 1.027 0.731 17.14 0.13 0.945 0.685 14.64 0.127 1.372 1.009 29.605 0.092 1.409 1.028 32.275 0.058 1.438 1.093 35.068 0.093 1.268 0.919 25.951 0.098 1.019 0.763 16.23 0.145 1.063 0.786 17.6 0.069 1.326 0.931 28.363 0.177 1.161 0.762 20.693 0.061 0.887 0.454 13.114 0.045 0.794 0.476 10.64 0.062 1.413 0.956 31.727 0.104 0.884 0.517 11.993 0.12 1.248 0.829 25.954 0.063 1.188 0.795 22.285 0.215 Appendix 8.7 Model comparisons Original Model CS GC MI MS OE RMSE 0.799 0.831 0.824 0.870 0.871 MAE 0.526 0.553 0.588 0.630 0.561 Q²_predict 0.376 0.330 0.338 0.262 0.284 MAE 0.454 Q²_predict 0.528 MAE 0.525 0.538 0.588 0.631 0.556 Q²_predict 0.376 0.333 0.339 0.263 0.287 Model OE RMSE 0.704 Model CS GC MI MS OE RMSE 0.798 0.826 0.824 0.869 0.862 Appendix 9: Robustness checks Appendix 9.1: CTA-PLS EL EL 1: EL1,EL10,EL4,EL5 2: EL1,EL10,EL5,EL4 4: EL1,EL10,EL4,EL6 6: EL1,EL4,EL6,EL10 7: EL1,EL10,EL4,EL7 10: EL1,EL10,EL4,EL8 13: EL1,EL10,EL4,EL9 17: EL1,EL10,EL6,EL5 23: EL1,EL10,EL8,EL5 26: EL1,EL10,EL9,EL5 30: EL1,EL6,EL7,EL10 33: EL1,EL6,EL8,EL10 42: EL1,EL7,EL9,EL10 73: EL1,EL4,EL8,EL9 85: EL1,EL5,EL7,EL8 97: EL1,EL6,EL7,EL9 100: EL1,EL6,EL8,EL9 110: EL10,EL4,EL7,EL5 121: EL10,EL4,EL6,EL8 156: EL10,EL7,EL8,EL6 Original Sample (O) Sample Mean (M) Standard Deviation (STDEV) T Statistics (|O/STDEV|) 0.272 0.270 0.136 1.996 0.046 -0.002 0.007 0.542 0.003 3.025 -0.138 0.687 0.381 0.377 0.124 3.074 0.002 -0.004 0.142 0.629 0.003 3.025 0.010 0.761 0.122 0.122 0.119 1.025 0.306 0.000 -0.112 0.355 0.003 3.025 -0.238 0.482 0.132 0.129 0.106 1.241 0.215 -0.003 -0.073 0.343 0.003 3.025 -0.186 0.456 -0.338 -0.335 0.167 2.021 0.043 0.003 -0.668 -0.013 0.003 3.025 -0.846 0.165 P Values Bias CI Low CI Up Alpha adj z(1alpha) CI Low adj CI Up adj 0.026 0.025 0.126 0.203 0.839 0.000 -0.221 0.273 0.003 3.025 -0.356 0.407 -0.274 -0.273 0.136 2.019 0.044 0.001 -0.542 -0.009 0.003 3.025 -0.686 0.135 0.302 0.299 0.110 2.747 0.006 -0.002 0.089 0.519 0.003 3.025 -0.028 0.636 0.297 0.295 0.103 2.887 0.004 -0.001 0.097 0.500 0.003 3.025 -0.013 0.609 0.021 0.021 0.100 0.206 0.836 0.001 -0.176 0.216 0.003 3.025 -0.282 0.322 0.303 0.302 0.131 2.318 0.020 -0.001 0.048 0.561 0.003 3.025 -0.091 0.701 0.155 0.156 0.085 1.838 0.066 0.000 -0.011 0.321 0.003 3.025 -0.101 0.411 -0.044 -0.043 0.122 0.363 0.717 0.001 -0.285 0.193 0.003 3.025 -0.414 0.323 0.211 0.210 0.118 1.780 0.075 -0.001 -0.021 0.444 0.003 3.025 -0.146 0.570 0.155 0.151 0.124 1.250 0.211 -0.004 -0.084 0.401 0.003 3.025 -0.216 0.533 0.117 0.116 0.109 1.068 0.286 0.000 -0.097 0.331 0.003 3.025 -0.213 0.447 0.084 0.084 0.119 0.706 0.480 0.001 -0.150 0.315 0.003 3.025 -0.276 0.442 -0.576 -0.570 0.174 3.308 0.001 0.006 -0.924 -0.241 0.003 3.025 -1.110 -0.055 -0.021 -0.019 0.096 0.215 0.830 0.002 -0.210 0.165 0.003 3.025 -0.312 0.267 0.397 0.395 0.145 2.749 0.006 -0.002 0.116 0.683 0.003 3.025 -0.037 0.837 OE OE 1: OE1,OE10,OE11,OE12 2: OE1,OE10,OE12,OE11 4: OE1,OE10,OE11,OE2 6: OE1,OE11,OE2,OE10 9: OE1,OE11,OE4,OE10 10: OE1,OE10,OE11,OE5 13: OE1,OE10,OE11,OE6 17: OE1,OE10,OE7,OE11 20: OE1,OE10,OE2,OE12 26: OE1,OE10,OE5,OE12 29: OE1,OE10,OE6,OE12 33: OE1,OE12,OE7,OE10 41: OE1,OE10,OE6,OE2 47: OE1,OE10,OE5,OE4 49: OE1,OE10,OE4,OE6 51: OE1,OE4,OE6,OE10 57: OE1,OE5,OE6,OE10 109: OE1,OE12,OE2,OE4 113: OE1,OE12,OE5,OE2 133: OE1,OE12,OE5,OE7 137: OE1,OE12,OE7,OE6 149: OE1,OE2,OE6,OE5 151: OE1,OE2,OE5,OE7 161: OE1,OE4,OE7,OE5 165: OE1,OE6,OE7,OE4 174: OE10,OE12,OE4,OE11 231: OE10,OE4,OE6,OE12 Origina l Sample (O) Sample Mean (M) Standard Deviatio n (STDEV) T Statistics (|O/STDEV| ) P Values -0.051 -0.053 0.155 0.328 0.743 -0.002 -0.352 Bias CI Low CI Up Alpha adj z(1alpha) CI Low adj CI Up adj 0.255 0.002 3.115 -0.531 0.433 0.085 0.083 0.115 0.734 0.463 -0.002 -0.139 0.313 0.002 3.115 -0.273 0.446 -0.443 -0.435 0.181 2.451 0.014 0.007 -0.804 -0.096 0.002 3.115 -1.012 0.113 0.174 0.169 0.202 0.864 0.387 -0.005 -0.216 0.575 0.002 3.115 -0.449 0.807 0.168 0.168 0.101 1.669 0.095 -0.001 -0.029 0.367 0.002 3.115 -0.145 0.483 -0.146 -0.147 0.175 0.837 0.402 0.000 -0.489 0.197 0.002 3.115 -0.691 0.399 -0.113 -0.115 0.175 0.648 0.517 -0.002 -0.454 0.231 0.002 3.115 -0.656 0.433 0.122 0.119 0.126 0.968 0.333 -0.003 -0.122 0.372 0.002 3.115 -0.267 0.518 -0.100 -0.099 0.104 0.956 0.339 0.000 -0.305 0.105 0.002 3.115 -0.425 0.225 -0.172 -0.171 0.100 1.726 0.084 0.001 -0.369 0.023 0.002 3.115 -0.484 0.138 0.202 0.199 0.120 1.679 0.093 -0.003 -0.031 0.441 0.002 3.115 -0.170 0.580 0.023 0.022 0.065 0.356 0.722 -0.001 -0.104 0.152 0.002 3.115 -0.179 0.228 0.019 0.021 0.142 0.134 0.894 0.002 -0.261 0.296 0.002 3.115 -0.426 0.461 -0.192 -0.191 0.104 1.851 0.064 0.001 -0.397 0.010 0.002 3.115 -0.517 0.130 0.225 0.223 0.114 1.978 0.048 -0.002 0.004 0.451 0.002 3.115 -0.127 0.582 -0.035 -0.035 0.063 0.559 0.576 0.000 -0.158 0.088 0.002 3.115 -0.230 0.160 0.168 0.166 0.132 1.276 0.202 -0.002 -0.088 0.427 0.002 3.115 -0.240 0.579 -0.209 -0.207 0.105 2.000 0.046 0.003 -0.417 -0.007 0.002 3.115 -0.538 0.114 -0.120 -0.120 0.104 1.158 0.247 0.000 -0.324 0.083 0.002 3.115 -0.444 0.203 -0.283 -0.281 0.127 2.224 0.026 0.002 -0.535 -0.036 0.002 3.115 -0.682 0.111 0.032 0.031 0.079 0.399 0.690 -0.001 -0.122 0.187 0.002 3.115 -0.213 0.278 0.222 0.221 0.141 1.576 0.115 -0.001 -0.053 0.499 0.002 3.115 -0.216 0.662 -0.120 -0.119 0.119 1.004 0.315 0.001 -0.354 0.113 0.002 3.115 -0.491 0.250 0.022 0.021 0.025 0.893 0.372 -0.001 -0.026 0.072 0.002 3.115 -0.055 0.101 0.064 0.063 0.051 1.253 0.210 -0.001 -0.035 0.165 0.002 3.115 -0.094 0.224 -0.027 -0.027 0.066 0.414 0.679 0.001 -0.158 0.102 0.002 3.115 -0.234 0.178 -0.045 -0.044 0.038 1.185 0.236 0.001 -0.121 0.028 0.002 3.115 -0.165 0.072 MI MI 1: MI1,MI2,MI3,MI4 2: MI1,MI2,MI4,MI3 4: MI1,MI2,MI3,MI5 6: MI1,MI3,MI5,MI2 10: MI1,MI3,MI4,MI5 Sample Mean (M) Standard Deviatio n (STDEV ) T Statistics (|O/STDEV| ) 0.051 0.052 0.065 0.788 0.431 0.000 -0.077 0.179 0.010 2.577 -0.117 0.219 0.073 0.074 0.058 1.251 0.211 0.001 -0.042 0.186 0.010 2.577 -0.078 0.222 0.020 0.020 0.054 0.376 0.707 0.000 -0.086 0.128 0.010 2.577 -0.119 0.161 0.034 0.035 0.041 0.843 0.399 0.001 -0.046 0.113 0.010 2.577 -0.071 0.138 0.000 0.000 0.036 0.004 0.997 0.000 -0.072 0.071 0.010 2.577 -0.095 0.093 Origina l Sample (O) P Values Bias CI Low CI Up Alpha adj z(1alpha) CI Low adj CI Up adj MS MS 1: MS1,MS2,MS3,MS4 2: MS1,MS2,MS4,MS3 4: MS1,MS2,MS3,MS5 6: MS1,MS3,MS5,MS2 7: MS1,MS2,MS3,MS6 10: MS1,MS2,MS4,MS5 16: MS1,MS2,MS5,MS6 22: MS1,MS3,MS4,MS6 26: MS1,MS3,MS6,MS5 Standard Deviatio n (STDEV ) Origina l Sample (O) Sample Mean (M) 0.228 0.226 0.163 1.403 0.161 -0.002 -0.088 0.549 0.006 2.774 -0.221 0.681 0.280 0.277 0.180 1.558 0.119 -0.003 -0.070 0.635 0.006 2.774 -0.216 0.781 0.191 0.189 0.171 1.117 0.264 -0.002 -0.142 0.527 0.006 2.774 -0.281 0.666 0.017 0.017 0.123 0.139 0.889 0.000 -0.224 0.259 0.006 2.774 -0.324 0.360 0.155 0.149 0.193 0.800 0.424 -0.005 -0.219 0.539 0.006 2.774 -0.377 0.696 0.489 0.486 0.160 3.067 0.002 -0.003 0.179 0.805 0.006 2.774 0.050 0.935 0.356 0.354 0.150 2.382 0.017 -0.002 0.065 0.652 0.006 2.774 -0.056 0.773 0.189 0.188 0.103 1.832 0.067 -0.001 -0.012 0.393 0.006 2.774 -0.096 0.477 0.013 0.014 0.165 0.082 0.935 0.000 -0.310 0.336 0.006 2.774 -0.444 0.471 Origina l Sample (O) Sample Mean (M) Standard Deviatio n (STDEV ) T Statistics (|O/STDEV| ) -0.170 -0.167 0.116 1.467 0.142 0.003 -0.400 0.055 0.001 3.366 -0.563 0.217 -0.039 -0.038 0.082 0.471 0.638 0.001 -0.200 0.122 0.001 3.366 -0.315 0.237 -0.084 -0.081 0.106 0.792 0.428 0.003 -0.295 0.121 0.001 3.366 -0.444 0.271 T Statistics (|O/STDEV| ) P Values Bias CI Low CI Up Alpha adj z(1alpha) CI Low adj CI Up adj CS CS 1: CS1,CS10,CS11,CS1 2: CS1,CS10,CS12,CS1 4: CS1,CS10,CS11,CS1 6: CS1,CS11,CS13,CS1 P Values Bias CI Low CI Up Alpha adj z(1alpha) CI Low adj CI Up adj -0.267 -0.266 0.153 1.742 0.082 0.000 -0.567 0.033 0.001 3.366 -0.782 0.248 10: CS1,CS10,CS11,CS3 -0.130 -0.129 0.088 1.475 0.140 0.002 -0.305 0.041 0.001 3.366 -0.430 0.165 13: CS1,CS10,CS11,CS4 0.020 0.020 0.096 0.207 0.836 0.000 -0.169 0.209 0.001 3.366 -0.305 0.345 17: CS1,CS10,CS5,CS11 -0.482 -0.479 0.168 2.874 0.004 0.003 -0.813 -0.156 0.001 3.366 -1.049 0.080 20: CS1,CS10,CS6,CS11 -0.865 -0.857 0.234 3.701 0.000 0.008 -1.331 -0.414 0.001 3.366 -1.659 -0.086 24: CS1,CS11,CS7,CS10 -0.448 -0.444 0.169 2.649 0.008 0.004 -0.784 -0.121 0.001 3.366 -1.022 0.117 26: CS1,CS10,CS8,CS11 -0.053 -0.052 0.123 0.431 0.666 0.002 -0.296 0.187 0.001 3.366 -0.469 0.360 27: CS1,CS11,CS8,CS10 0.127 0.127 0.144 0.882 0.378 0.000 -0.155 0.411 0.001 3.366 -0.358 0.613 -0.088 -0.086 0.113 0.778 0.436 0.002 -0.312 0.132 0.001 3.366 -0.471 0.291 0.044 0.044 0.073 0.607 0.544 0.000 -0.099 0.188 0.001 3.366 -0.202 0.291 37: CS1,CS10,CS12,CS3 -0.091 -0.090 0.081 1.121 0.262 0.001 -0.252 0.067 0.001 3.366 -0.367 0.182 43: CS1,CS10,CS12,CS5 0.029 0.028 0.075 0.385 0.700 -0.001 -0.118 0.177 0.001 3.366 -0.224 0.283 47: CS1,CS10,CS6,CS12 -0.938 -0.928 0.248 3.786 0.000 0.010 -1.434 -0.462 0.001 3.366 -1.782 -0.114 59: CS1,CS10,CS2,CS13 -0.795 -0.789 0.190 4.174 0.000 0.006 -1.174 -0.428 0.001 3.366 -1.442 -0.160 62: CS1,CS10,CS3,CS13 -0.723 -0.716 0.194 3.734 0.000 0.006 -1.109 -0.350 0.001 3.366 -1.381 -0.078 66: CS1,CS13,CS4,CS10 -0.196 -0.195 0.169 1.158 0.247 0.001 -0.528 0.135 0.001 3.366 -0.765 0.372 68: CS1,CS10,CS5,CS13 -0.289 -0.287 0.155 1.860 0.063 0.002 -0.595 0.014 0.001 3.366 -0.813 0.232 76: CS1,CS10,CS13,CS8 -0.348 -0.347 0.153 2.276 0.023 0.001 -0.648 -0.049 0.001 3.366 -0.863 0.166 84: CS1,CS2,CS3,CS10 0.242 0.239 0.121 2.000 0.046 -0.003 0.008 0.482 0.001 3.366 -0.162 0.652 86: CS1,CS10,CS4,CS2 0.122 0.120 0.076 1.600 0.110 -0.002 -0.026 0.273 0.001 3.366 -0.133 0.380 88: CS1,CS10,CS2,CS5 -0.513 -0.511 0.175 2.929 0.003 0.002 -0.858 -0.171 0.001 3.366 -1.104 0.075 92: CS1,CS10,CS6,CS2 -0.126 -0.126 0.114 1.098 0.272 0.000 -0.350 0.099 0.001 3.366 -0.511 0.260 97: CS1,CS10,CS2,CS8 -0.919 -0.914 0.212 4.334 0.000 0.005 -1.340 -0.509 0.001 3.366 -1.638 -0.211 102: CS1,CS2,CS9,CS10 0.939 0.932 0.247 3.803 0.000 -0.007 0.462 1.430 0.001 3.366 0.115 1.777 105: CS1,CS3,CS4,CS10 0.216 0.214 0.144 1.501 0.133 -0.002 -0.064 0.501 0.001 3.366 -0.267 0.704 110: CS1,CS10,CS6,CS3 -0.059 -0.056 0.158 0.374 0.709 0.003 -0.371 0.247 0.001 3.366 -0.592 0.469 171: CS1,CS12,CS2,CS11 -0.879 -0.873 0.207 4.250 0.000 0.005 -1.289 -0.478 0.001 3.366 -1.580 -0.188 214: CS1,CS11,CS13,CS9 -0.149 -0.150 0.132 1.130 0.258 -0.001 -0.407 0.110 0.001 3.366 -0.592 0.295 231: CS1,CS2,CS7,CS11 0.413 0.413 0.107 3.859 0.000 0.001 0.202 0.622 0.001 3.366 0.052 0.772 247: CS1,CS11,CS3,CS7 -0.430 -0.429 0.135 3.197 0.001 0.001 -0.695 -0.168 0.001 3.366 -0.885 0.022 290: CS1,CS11,CS9,CS6 0.155 0.153 0.079 1.955 0.051 -0.002 0.001 0.312 0.001 3.366 -0.110 0.423 308: CS1,CS12,CS4,CS13 -0.270 -0.269 0.142 1.905 0.057 0.002 -0.550 0.006 0.001 3.366 -0.750 0.206 333: CS1,CS2,CS5,CS12 0.572 0.569 0.150 3.812 0.000 -0.003 0.281 0.870 0.001 3.366 0.070 1.080 337: CS1,CS12,CS2,CS7 -0.437 -0.435 0.109 4.009 0.000 0.002 -0.652 -0.225 0.001 3.366 -0.805 -0.072 343: CS1,CS12,CS2,CS9 -0.890 -0.883 0.252 3.532 0.000 0.006 -1.390 -0.402 0.001 3.366 -1.744 -0.048 350: CS1,CS12,CS5,CS3 0.148 0.147 0.117 1.262 0.207 -0.001 -0.081 0.380 0.001 3.366 -0.246 0.545 28: CS1,CS10,CS11,CS9 31: CS1,CS10,CS12,CS1 363: CS1,CS3,CS9,CS12 0.760 0.754 0.233 3.264 0.001 -0.006 0.309 1.222 0.001 3.366 -0.018 1.549 376: CS1,CS12,CS4,CS9 -0.334 -0.332 0.198 1.682 0.093 0.001 -0.724 0.054 0.001 3.366 -1.002 0.333 377: CS1,CS12,CS9,CS4 0.046 0.046 0.088 0.518 0.604 0.000 -0.128 0.219 0.001 3.366 -0.252 0.343 410: CS1,CS13,CS3,CS2 0.121 0.120 0.115 1.049 0.294 -0.001 -0.104 0.347 0.001 3.366 -0.266 0.509 430: CS1,CS13,CS3,CS4 0.080 0.082 0.212 0.376 0.707 0.002 -0.338 0.494 0.001 3.366 -0.636 0.793 454: CS1,CS13,CS4,CS7 -0.044 -0.044 0.098 0.449 0.653 0.000 -0.236 0.149 0.001 3.366 -0.374 0.287 458: CS1,CS13,CS8,CS4 0.213 0.213 0.154 1.386 0.166 0.000 -0.088 0.515 0.001 3.366 -0.304 0.731 479: CS1,CS13,CS8,CS6 0.297 0.296 0.130 2.273 0.023 -0.001 0.042 0.553 0.001 3.366 -0.142 0.736 484: CS1,CS13,CS7,CS8 0.045 0.048 0.114 0.399 0.690 0.002 -0.180 0.267 0.001 3.366 -0.341 0.427 504: CS1,CS3,CS7,CS2 -0.071 -0.069 0.096 0.732 0.464 0.001 -0.261 0.117 0.001 3.366 -0.397 0.253 535: CS1,CS2,CS5,CS9 0.385 0.383 0.145 2.663 0.008 -0.003 0.104 0.672 0.001 3.366 -0.099 0.875 565: CS1,CS3,CS4,CS8 0.317 0.314 0.134 2.371 0.018 -0.004 0.059 0.583 0.001 3.366 -0.129 0.771 609: CS1,CS5,CS8,CS4 0.074 0.076 0.157 0.469 0.639 0.002 -0.236 0.379 0.001 3.366 -0.456 0.599 626: CS1,CS4,CS9,CS7 0.061 0.062 0.087 0.693 0.488 0.002 -0.112 0.230 0.001 3.366 -0.235 0.353 636: CS1,CS6,CS8,CS5 0.298 0.294 0.147 2.023 0.043 -0.004 0.013 0.590 0.001 3.366 -0.194 0.797 640: CS1,CS5,CS7,CS8 0.058 0.061 0.107 0.546 0.585 0.003 -0.154 0.265 0.001 3.366 -0.304 0.415 741: CS10,CS3,CS6,CS11 0.082 0.080 0.115 0.712 0.476 -0.002 -0.141 0.308 0.001 3.366 -0.302 0.469 775: CS10,CS11,CS5,CS9 -0.003 -0.004 0.164 0.017 0.987 -0.001 -0.322 0.319 0.001 3.366 -0.552 0.549 793: CS10,CS11,CS8,CS9 0.146 0.147 0.208 0.700 0.484 0.001 -0.264 0.554 0.001 3.366 -0.557 0.846 1037: CS10,CS2,CS8,CS6 -0.529 -0.524 0.197 2.685 0.007 0.006 -0.921 -0.148 0.001 3.366 -1.198 0.129 1078: CS10,CS3,CS6,CS7 0.133 0.130 0.161 0.824 0.410 -0.003 -0.181 0.452 0.001 3.366 -0.408 0.679 1238: CS11,CS12,CS7,CS5 0.233 0.229 0.137 1.693 0.091 -0.004 -0.033 0.505 0.001 3.366 -0.226 0.699 1306: CS11,CS13,CS4,CS6 0.350 0.349 0.174 2.009 0.045 -0.001 0.009 0.692 0.001 3.366 -0.235 0.937 1373: CS11,CS2,CS7,CS4 -0.209 -0.210 0.101 2.067 0.039 -0.001 -0.407 -0.010 0.001 3.366 -0.549 0.132 1425: CS11,CS4,CS9,CS3 -0.630 -0.629 0.237 2.659 0.008 0.001 -1.096 -0.167 0.001 3.366 -1.428 0.166 1700: CS12,CS3,CS8,CS7 -0.167 -0.167 0.149 1.124 0.261 0.001 -0.460 0.124 0.001 3.366 -0.669 0.333 GC GC 1: GC1,GC2,GC3,GC 2: GC1,GC2,GC4,GC 4: GC1,GC2,GC3,GC 6: GC1,GC3,GC5,GC 10: GC1,GC3,GC4,GC Sample Mean (M) Standard Deviatio n (STDEV ) T Statistics (|O/STDEV| ) 0.066 0.065 0.086 0.770 0.441 -0.002 -0.101 0.236 0.010 2.577 -0.154 0.289 0.138 0.137 0.068 2.032 0.042 -0.001 0.006 0.272 0.010 2.577 -0.036 0.314 0.062 0.061 0.088 0.699 0.484 -0.001 -0.110 0.236 0.010 2.577 -0.165 0.291 -0.030 -0.028 0.052 0.565 0.572 0.001 -0.133 0.072 0.010 2.577 -0.165 0.104 0.152 0.152 0.093 1.625 0.104 0.000 -0.031 0.335 0.010 2.577 -0.089 0.392 Origina l Sample (O) Sample Mean (M) Standard Deviatio n (STDEV ) T Statistics (|O/STDEV| ) P Values 0.063 0.064 0.103 0.613 0.540 0.001 -0.139 0.263 0.006 2.774 -0.222 0.346 0.110 0.110 0.075 1.469 0.142 0.000 -0.037 0.257 0.006 2.774 -0.098 0.318 0.132 0.134 0.110 1.205 0.228 0.002 -0.085 0.344 0.006 2.774 -0.174 0.434 0.072 0.070 0.086 0.841 0.400 -0.002 -0.094 0.243 0.006 2.774 -0.163 0.312 0.108 0.110 0.103 1.048 0.295 0.002 -0.096 0.307 0.006 2.774 -0.180 0.391 0.062 0.065 0.078 0.796 0.426 0.002 -0.094 0.214 0.006 2.774 -0.157 0.277 0.198 0.199 0.094 2.107 0.035 0.001 0.013 0.380 0.006 2.774 -0.064 0.457 -0.084 -0.086 0.120 0.704 0.481 -0.002 -0.317 0.152 0.006 2.774 -0.415 0.249 0.060 0.060 0.134 0.448 0.654 0.000 -0.203 0.324 0.006 2.774 -0.313 0.434 Origina l Sample (O) P Values Bias CI Low CI Up Alpha adj z(1alpha) CI Low adj CI Up adj AG AG 1: AG4,AG5,AG6,AG 2: AG4,AG5,AG7,AG 4: AG4,AG5,AG6,AG 6: AG4,AG6,AG8,AG 7: AG4,AG5,AG6,AG 10: AG4,AG5,AG7,AG 16: AG4,AG5,AG8,AG 22: AG4,AG6,AG7,AG 26: AG4,AG6,AG9,AG Bias CI Low CI Up Alpha adj z(1alpha) CI Low adj CI Up adj Appendix 9.2: Nonlinear effects Bootstrapping AG -> MI AG -> MS Age -> OE CS -> GC EL -> CS EL -> MI EL -> MS EL -> OE GC -> OE Gender -> OE MI -> OE MS -> OE Position -> OE Quadratic AG-MI -> MI Quadratic AG-MS -> MS Quadratic CS-GC -> GC Quadratic EL-CS -> CS Quadratic EL-MI -> MI Quadratic EL-MS -> MS Quadratic EL-OE -> OE Quadratic GC-OE -> OE Quadratic MI-OE -> OE Quadratic MS-OE -> OE Standard Origina Deviatio l Sample n T Statistics Sample Mean (STDEV (|O/STDEV| P (O) (M) ) ) Values 0.362 0.366 0.063 5.736 0.000 0.278 0.281 0.073 3.784 0.000 0.028 0.025 0.030 0.943 0.346 0.816 0.814 0.056 14.484 0.000 0.646 0.650 0.048 13.565 0.000 0.312 0.318 0.082 3.824 0.000 0.337 0.345 0.079 4.290 0.000 0.100 0.091 0.059 1.689 0.091 0.343 0.342 0.093 3.674 0.000 0.043 0.043 0.033 1.332 0.183 0.207 0.207 0.091 2.271 0.023 0.118 0.138 0.072 1.636 0.102 0.034 0.031 0.032 1.060 0.289 -0.047 -0.042 0.041 1.135 0.256 -0.020 -0.017 0.038 0.540 0.589 -0.022 -0.024 0.028 0.778 0.437 0.019 0.023 0.038 0.506 0.613 0.024 0.031 0.058 0.409 0.682 0.007 0.014 0.055 0.119 0.905 0.044 0.041 0.050 0.889 0.374 -0.032 -0.029 0.060 0.530 0.596 -0.040 -0.044 0.050 0.794 0.427 -0.050 -0.032 0.051 0.981 0.327 PLS Algorithm – f Square AG Age CS AG Age CS EL GC Gender MI MS OE Position Quadratic AG-MI Quadratic AG-MS Quadratic CS-GC Quadratic EL-CS Quadratic EL-MI Quadratic EL-MS Quadratic EL-OE Quadratic GC-OE Quadratic MI-OE Quadratic MS-OE EL GC Gender MI MS OE 0.090 0.047 0.002 0.950 0.356 0.064 0.066 0.008 0.053 0.004 0.022 0.010 0.003 0.008 0.001 0.004 0.001 0.002 0.000 0.007 0.004 0.006 0.009 Appendix 9.3: Unobserved heterogeneity Segment AIC (Akaike's Information Criterion) AIC3 (Modified AIC with Factor 3) AIC4 (Modified AIC with Factor 4) BIC (Bayesian Information Criteria) CAIC (Consistent AIC) HQ (Hannan Quinn Criterion) MDL5 (Minimum Description Length with Factor 5) LnL (LogLikelihood) EN (Entropy Statistic (Normed)) NFI (Non-Fuzzy Index) NEC (Normalized Entropy Criterion) 4412.38 4430.38 4448.38 4484.494 4502.494 4440.921 4916.952 -2188.19 Segment AIC (Akaike's Information Criterion) AIC3 (Modified AIC with Factor 3) AIC4 (Modified AIC with Factor 4) BIC (Bayesian Information Criteria) CAIC (Consistent AIC) HQ (Hannan Quinn Criterion) MDL5 (Minimum Description Length with Factor 5) LnL (LogLikelihood) EN (Entropy Statistic (Normed)) NFI (Non-Fuzzy Index) NEC (Normalized Entropy Criterion) 2909.257 2946.257 2983.257 3057.492 3094.492 2967.926 3946.432 -1417.63 0.998 0.998 0.963 Segment AIC (Akaike's Information Criterion) AIC3 (Modified AIC with Factor 3) AIC4 (Modified AIC with Factor 4) BIC (Bayesian Information Criteria) CAIC (Consistent AIC) HQ (Hannan Quinn Criterion) MDL5 (Minimum Description Length with Factor 5) LnL (LogLikelihood) EN (Entropy Statistic (Normed)) NFI (Non-Fuzzy Index) NEC (Normalized Entropy Criterion) 2458.096 2514.096 2570.096 2682.452 2738.452 2546.892 4027.875 -1173.05 0.833 0.833 67.86 ... when leadership and their selfishness goes beyond their altruism, - Charismatic Harrison they may act in unethical ways (2005) Ethical leaders highlight leadership moral /ethical - Ethical leadership. .. between ethical leadership and its potential outcomes, the literature relating to ethical leadership is underexplored (Bavik et al., 2018) In line with the idea that perceived ethical leadership. .. interpretations of their organization’s policies, procedures, and practices regarding environmental sustainability? ?? (Norton et al., 2017) 8 Furthermore, the dual paths that ethical leadership could