Contents xv Thermal Destruction of Microorganisms Thermal Death Time D Value z Value F Value Thermal Death Time Curve 12-D Concept Some Characteristics of Thermophiles Enzymes Ribosomes Flagella Other Characteristics of Thermophilic Microorganisms Nutrient Requirements Oxygen Tension Cellular Lipids Cellular Membranes Effect of Temperature Genetics Canned Food Spoilage Low Acid (pH > 4.6) Acid (pH 3.7–4.0 to 4.6) High Acid (pH < 4.0–3.7) 423 424 425 426 428 428 429 429 430 432 432 432 432 433 433 434 434 435 435 435 435 436 18—Protection of Foods by Drying Preparation and Drying of Low-Moisture Foods Effect of Drying on Microorganisms Storage Stability of Dried Foods Intermediate-Moisture Foods Preparation of IMF Microbial Aspects of IMF Storage Stability of IMF IMF and Glass Transition 443 443 445 447 447 448 452 453 454 19—Other Food Protection Methods High Hydrostatic Pressures (HHP, HPP) Some Principles and Effects of HHP on Foods and Organisms Effects of HHP on Specific Foodborne Organisms Pulsed Electric Fields Aseptic Packaging Manothermosonication (Thermoultrasonication) 457 457 458 459 463 466 467 Part VI—INDICATORS OF FOOD SAFETY AND QUALITY, PRINCIPLES OF QUALITY CONTROL, AND MICROBIOLOGICAL CRITERIA 471 20—Indicators of Food Microbial Quality and Safety 473 Some Indicators of Product Quality 473 Indicators of Food Safety 475 xvi Modern Food Microbiology Coliforms Enterococci Bifidobacteria Coliphages/Enteroviruses The Possible Overuse of Fecal Indicator Organisms Predictive Microbiology/Microbial Modeling 476 481 485 487 489 491 21—The HACCP and FSO Systems for Food Safety Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) System Prerequisite Programs Definitions HACCP Principles Flow Diagrams Application of HACCP Principles Some Limitations of HACCP Food Safety Objective (FSO) Microbiological Criteria Definitions Sampling Plans Microbiological Criteria and Food Safety Microbiological Criteria for Various Products Other Criteria/Guidelines 497 497 498 498 499 503 503 506 506 506 507 508 509 511 512 Part VII—FOODBORNE DISEASES 517 22—Introduction to Foodborne Pathogens Introduction Foodborne Illness Cases in the United States The Fecal–Oral Transmission of Foodborne Pathogens Host Invasion “Universal” Requirements Attachment Sites Quorum Sensing Biofilms Apparent Role of Quorum Sensing Sigma (δ) Factors Alternative Sigma Factors Pathogenesis Gram-Positive Bacteria Gram-Negative Bacteria Summary 519 519 519 522 522 522 524 524 527 529 529 529 532 532 533 538 23—Staphylococcal Gastroenteritis Species of Concern in Foods Habitat and Distribution Incidence in Foods Nutritional Requirements for Growth 545 545 547 548 548 Contents xvii Temperature Growth Range Effect of Salts and Other Chemicals Effect of pH, Water Activity, and Other Parameters NaCl and pH pH, aw , and Temperature NaNO2 , Eh, pH, and Temperature of Growth Staphylococcal Enterotoxins: Types and Incidence Chemical and Physical Properties Production Mode of Action The Gastroenteritis Syndrome Incidence and Vehicle Foods Ecology of S aureus Growth Prevention of Staphylococcal and Other Food-Poisoning Syndromes 548 548 549 549 549 550 550 552 554 557 558 559 560 560 24—Food Poisoning Caused by Gram-Positive Sporeforming Bacteria Clostridium Perfringens Food Poisoning Distribution of C perfringens Characteristics of the Organism The Enterotoxin Vehicle Foods and Symptoms Prevention Botulism Distribution of C botulinum Growth of C botulinum Strains Ecology of C botulinum Growth Concerns for Sous Vide and Related Food Products Nature of the Botulinal Neurotoxins The Adult Botulism Syndrome: Incidence and Vehicle Foods Infant Botulism Bacillus Cereus Gastroenteritis B cereus Toxins Diarrheal Syndrome Emetic Syndrome 567 567 568 568 570 571 572 573 574 576 578 579 580 581 582 583 583 584 585 25—Foodborne Listeriosis Taxonomy of Listeria Serotypes Subspecies Typing Growth Effect of pH Combined Effect of pH and NaCl Effect of Temperature Effect of aw Distribution The Environment Foods and Humans 591 591 594 594 595 595 596 597 598 598 598 598 xviii Modern Food Microbiology Prevalence Thermal Properties Dairy Products Nondairy Products Effect of Sublethal Heating on Thermotolerance Virulence Properties Listeriolysin O and Ivanolysin O Intracellular Invasion Monocytosis-Producing Activity Sphingomyelinase Animal Models and Infectious Dose Incidence and Nature of The Listeriosis Syndromes Incidence Source of Pathogens Syndromes Resistance to Listeriosis Persistence of L monocytogenes in Foods Regulatory Status of L monocytogenes in Foods 600 600 601 602 603 603 603 604 604 605 605 606 606 607 609 609 610 611 26—Foodborne Gastroenteritis Caused by Salmonella and Shigella Salmonellosis Serotyping of Salmonella Distribution Growth and Destruction of Salmonellae The Salmonella Food-Poisoning Syndrome Salmonella Virulence Properties Incidence and Vehicle Foods Prevention and Control of Salmonellosis Competitive Exclusion to Reduce Salmonellae Carriage in Poultry Shigellosis Foodborne Cases Virulence Properties 619 619 620 620 623 625 625 625 629 629 631 634 634 27—Foodborne Gastroenteritis Caused by Escherichia coli Serological Classification The Recognized Virulence Groups Enteroaggregative E coli (EAggEC) Enterohemorrhagic E coli (EHEC) Enteroinvasive E coli (EIEC) Enteropathogenic E coli (EPEC) Enterotoxigenic E coli (ETEC) Prevention Travelers’ Diarrhea 637 637 637 637 639 647 648 648 650 650 28—Foodborne Gastroenteritis Caused by Vibrio, Yersinia, and Campylobacter Species 657 Vibriosis (Vibrio parahaemolyticus) 657 Growth Conditions 657 Contents xix Virulence Properties Gastroenteritis Syndrome and Vehicle Foods Other Vibrios Vibrio cholerae Vibrio vulnificus Vibrio alginolyticus and V hollisae Yersiniosis (Yersinia enterocolitica) Growth Requirements Distribution Serovars and Biovars Virulence Factors Incidence of Y enterocolitica in Foods Gastroenteritis Syndrome and Incidence Campylobacteriosis (Campylobacter jejuni) Distribution Virulence Properties Enteritis Syndrome and Prevalence Prevention 659 660 661 661 663 664 664 665 666 666 667 668 668 668 669 670 671 671 29—Foodborne Animal Parasites Protozoa Giardiasis Amebiasis Toxoplasmosis Distribution of T gondii Sarcocystosis Cryptosporidiosis Cyclosporiasis Flatworms Fascioliasis Fasciolopsiasis Paragonimiasis Clonorchiasis Diphyllobothriasis Cysticercosis/Taeniasis Roundworms Trichinosis Anisakiasis 679 679 680 682 683 684 686 687 689 690 691 691 692 692 693 695 696 697 702 30—Mycotoxins Aflatoxins Requirements for Growth and Toxin Production Production and Occurrence in Foods Relative Toxicity and Mode of Action Degradation Alternaria Toxins Citrinin 709 709 710 711 713 714 715 715 ... 548 548 549 549 549 550 550 552 5 54 557 558 559 560 560 24? ? ?Food Poisoning Caused by Gram-Positive Sporeforming Bacteria Clostridium Perfringens Food Poisoning... Predictive Microbiology/ Microbial Modeling 47 6 48 1 48 5 48 7 48 9 49 1 21—The HACCP and FSO Systems for Food Safety ... 49 7 49 7 49 8 49 8 49 9 503 503 506 506 506 507 508 509 511 512 Part VII—FOODBORNE DISEASES 517 22—Introduction to Foodborne Pathogens