Vercingetorix Dravidians and are unrelated to Indo-European languages The year 1000 b.c.e also marked the transition from the Early to the Late Vedic age There are still few archaeological sources for the Late Vedic age, so scholars must principally rely on sacred texts: the later Vedas, the Brahmanas, and Upanishads Other written sources include the epics (Mahabharata and Ramayana) and Puranas, which include legends that seem to refer to this period By the Late Vedic age the Aryan tribes had spread across north India and almost forgotten their earlier home in the northwest and Punjab Territorial kingdoms had replaced the tribal state and old kinship relationships were being replaced by geographic alignments Late Vedic society was more advanced economically compared with that of the Early Vedic Most people had settled down and become farmers Many different kinds of trades and crafts were mentioned, indicating a more advanced material culture They include jewelers, goldsmiths, basket makers, dyers, and potters The rich had servants; there were also references to professional acrobats, musicians, fortune-tellers, and dancers who entertained the townspeople While most people lived in villages, texts from the period mention towns; some of those names persist to the present NEW RELIGIOUS TRENDS Two religious trends emerged One had Brahman religious leaders challenging the power of the kings Another was dissatisfaction with established religious rituals because they no longer satisfied the popular longings nor answered the questions of people whose lives had become more prosperous but felt insecure as a result of the changes New religious ideas emerged One was the doctrine of karma (karma means “deed” or “action”), which held that that one’s position in this life is the result of actions in previous lives and that one’s actions in this life will influence future lives This doctrine of the transmigration of the soul gave ethical content to human conduct and also justified inequities in life Since the doctrine included all living things, it inspired kindness to animals, which resulted in vegetarianism Some sought an answer in asceticism and joined bands of holy men debating religious questions and seeking answers Out of the intellectual quest came the writing of the Upanishads and the emergence of two new religions, Buddhism and Jainism The end of the Vedic age also ended the shadowy early historic age in Indian civilization See also Aryan invasion; Hindu philosophy 481 Further reading: Basu, Praphullachandra Indo-Aryan Society, Being a Study of the Economic and Political Conditions of India as Depicted in the Rig Veda London: King and Son, 1925; Dutt, Romesh Chander A History of Civilization in Ancient India Based on Sanskrit Literature Rev ed Vol 1, B.C 2000 to 320 New Delhi, India: Cosmo Publications, 2000; Ghurye, G S Vedic India Bombay, India: Popular Prakashan, 1979; E J Rapson, ed The Cambridge History of India, Vol 1, Ancient India Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1922; Majumdar, R C An Advanced History of India London: Macmillan, 1958 Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur Vercingetorix (72–46 b.c.e.) Gallic chieftain Vercingetorix was a tribal chieftain of the Gallic Celtic Arverni tribe who attempted to stop the encroachment of Romans into his territory, Provence, in presentday France, from 53 to 52 b.c.e The Roman leader, Gaius Julius Caesar (100–44 b.c.e.), and his lieutenant Quintus Atius Labienus (100–45 b.c.e.), lost early engagements against Vercingetorix, who against all odds had managed to unite the generally warring tribes in Provence This temporary alliance allowed Vercingetorix the upper hand He retreated by using hit-and-run tactics within the natural boundaries of Provence that were unknown to the Romans To prevent the Romans from finding sustenance, they scorched over 20 towns In the spring of 52 b.c.e Caesar ordered siege fortifications to be built in order to capture the capital of Avaricum, present-day Bourges, which contained huge supplies of grain Through unrelenting rain his troops built two 80-foot towers with more than 300-foot ramps in one month The Gauls tried to sabotage the Roman siege works unsuccessfully In the end 800 Gauls fled to Vercingetorix The angry Romans massacred the 40,000 remaining inhabitants of Avaricum Caesar, tired of the ceaseless and unproductive skirmishes and battles, had no desire to face the fierce Celtic tribes and decided to starve them out before reinforcement could reach Alesia Caesar had his Romans build encircling fortifications around the Arverni stronghold at Alesia, near presentday Dijon, from which Vercingetorix had planned to fight and in which he was ultimately trapped Caesar once again used siege warfare to obtain his objective He had his troops build a two-walled perimeter that would keep the Arverni and the Romans within close contact The outer ring held the Romans,