Korea, Japanese invasion of rebellions in the Anatolian Peninsula and the Balkans He also reinstituted rigorous adherence to the law Before his death in 1661, Mohammad recommended that his son Ahmed (Fazil Ahmed Koprülü) succeed him as grand vizier Ahmed (served 1661–76) proved to be as able an administrator as his father and continued to strengthen the empire Led by Kara Mustafa, Ahmed’s brother-in-law, the Ottomans moved in 1683 to regain their ascendancy in Hungary and lay siege to Vienna, the city Suleiman I the Magnificent had failed to take in 1529 Reinforced with troops from Poland, the Habsburgs, now equipped with heavy artillery, defeated the Ottomans, who were forced to retreat to Belgrade Upon the sultan’s orders, Kara Mustafa was then assassinated In 1689, Ahmed’s brother Mustafa was appointed grand vizier and continued the family tradition of honest administration; Mustafa reduced some taxes—a popular policy—as well as instituting other economic reforms Although a devout Muslim, Mustafa was also known for his religious tolerance and fair treatment of the large Christian minority populations in the empire and he became known as “Koprülü the Virtuous.” However, his tenure as grand vizier was short as he died fighting with Ottoman troops in the Balkans in 1691 In 1697, Sultan Mustafa II sought to restore Ottoman power by appointing Husayn Koprülü as his grand vizier His tax policies enabled the Ottomans to raise and equip a large army and fleet to protect territory in the Balkans; Husayn served as vizier until 1702 and another Koprülü became vizier for a short time in 1710 But even the reforms and efficiency of the Koprülü viziers failed to halt the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the gradual loss of territory to Russian and other European enemies See also Habsburg dynasty Further reading: Itzkowitz, Norman Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition New York: Alfred A Knopf, 1972; Kinross, Lord The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire New York: William Morrow, 1979; Shaw, Stanford History of the Ottoman Empire, 1280–1808 London: Cambridge University Press, 1976 Janice J Terry Korea, Japanese invasion of Japanese warlord Toyotumi Hideyoshi dreamed of conquering China and launched two invasions of Korea, 205 in 1592 and 1597, in order to so Although he ultimately failed, the wars inflicted terrible devastation on Korea Because as its overlord the Ming dynasty in China sent a large army to aid Korea, the war also considerably weakened the Ming dynasty In the 16th century, Japan underwent constant civil wars as the Ashikaga Shogunate weakened and various feudal lords sought supremacy; in fact this period was called the “Warring States” era in Japanese history Hideyoshi was an ambitious general who rose from obscurity By 1590, he had destroyed all rival lords and unified Japan, freeing him and his large army to conquer new lands His target was China and to reach China he needed passage through Korea When Korea refused his demands he led an invading army of 160,000 men, landing on the southern tip of the peninsula and advancing northward The inferior Korean army was overwhelmed, King Sonjo abandoned his capital city Seoul and fled, and his two sons were made captives The Korean cause was saved from complete ruin by the emergence of Admiral Yi Sun-sin, who built a fleet of “turtle ships,” the world’s first wooden ships with steel plating, which repeatedly defeated the Japanese navy, thus disrupting their supply lines Meanwhile, China responded with 200,000 troops, who captured Pyongyang and pursued the Japanese forces southward until they only held the southern tip of the peninsula Peace negotiations proved fruitless and were broken off because China demanded that Hideyoshi acknowledge Chinese overlordship while Hideyoshi demanded a part of Korea to be ceded to him, the marriage of a Ming princess to the Japanese emperor, and Korean princes as hostages Undaunted, Hideyoshi launched a second invasion in 1597 but proceeded no farther than Korea’s two southernmost provinces because both the Koreans and the Chinese relief army were prepared When Hideyoshi died in 1598 his army quickly returned home In 1606, Tokugawa Ieyasu, the new shogun of Japan and Hideyoshi’s successor, made peace with Korea The two Japanese invasions inflicted terrible sufferings on the Koreans Whole areas were devastated and depopulated and many historical sites and libraries were burned The Yi dynasty of Korea never fully recovered its authority and the country its prosperity The retreating Japanese moreover took many looted treasures and took as prisoners men with skills, most notably Korean potters, who built up Japan’s ceramics industry Hideyoshi’s dream of ruling Japan died with him because his son was too young to rule, allowing