232 Madero, Francisco colony of Lagos Soon, however, he became embittered by the racial inequities he saw in civil service In 1898 Macaulay resigned his post and began his own surveying company Macaulay’s dissatisfaction with colonial rule in Africa led him to express himself, contributing a number of articles to the Lagos Daily Times Lagos and the entire Nigerian region were under the Lugard system called indirect rule Britain established its power using extant administrative systems rather than imposing entirely new governmental institutions Although the governments and officials were often Africans, they had no real power British governors and primarily white legislatures made all the decisions As a result, the leaders lost standing among their people, the people distrusted the British even more, and protests were common In an effort to compromise, the British marginally increased African representation This action was partly the result of Macaulay’s 1921 trip to London as a representative of the king of Lagos Macaulay used the opportunity to denounce British rule for usurping the power of the king, or eleko, who Macaulay asserted was recognized by all Nigerians as their rightful ruler In 1922 Lagos and Calabar were able to send African representatives to the legislature, but they remained in the minority Macaulay then established the first Nigerian political party, which was able to win three seats in the legislative council in 1923 The Nigerian National Democratic Party sought self-government for Lagos and all Nigeria, universal primary education, the building of schools, and more representation of Africans in government and civil service positions Macaulay continued to work for these causes and in 1944 was instrumental in the formation of the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC) Macaulay was elected president of the NCNC The council brought together more than 40 different factions that represented many geographical, cultural, age, and ethnic groups Although he is often called the father of Nigerian nationalism, Herbert Macaulay did not see Nigerian independence He became ill in 1945 while on a speaking tour promoting the NCNC agenda He returned to Lagos, where he died the same year Nigeria was granted independence from Britain on October 1, 1960 For further reading: Anene, Joseph C International Boundaries of Nigeria, 1885–1960: The Framework of an Emergent African Nation New York: Humanities Press, 1970; Ezera, Kalu Constitutional Development in Nigeria: An Analytical Study of Nigeria’s Constitution-Making Development and the Historical and Political Factors that Affected Constitutional Change Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1964 Jean Shepherd Hamm Madero, Francisco (1873–1913) Mexican president The president of Mexico from 1911 until 1913, Francisco Indalecio Madero González was a prominent revolutionary who was from one of the richest families in Mexico He was born on October 30, 1873, at Parras de la Fuente, Coahuila, in northeastern Mexico His grandfather Evaristo Madero (1828–1911), of Portuguese ancestry, had established massive plantations in the region, becoming fabulously rich and also donating large sums to fund schools and orphanages in the area Francisco Madero went to school in Baltimore, Maryland, and then studied in Paris, where he attended the École des Hautes Études Commerciales before studying agriculture at the University of California, Berkeley Madero came to respect both systems of democracy and was intent on going into politics In 1904 Madero organized the Benito Juárez Democratic Club, with himself as the president, and they managed to get a candidate elected in the local municipal elections In 1905 they decided to contest the next election for governor when the incumbent illegally stood for reelection and protests did not succeed in getting him ousted In 1908 the Mexican dictator Porfirio Díaz announced that he would not stand for reelection He later decided that he would stand, which was unconstitutional In 1909 Madero wrote The Presidential Succession of 1910, in which he argued for free and fair elections and that rules to stop incumbents from standing for reelection should be enforced This led to the formation of the Mexican Anti-Reelectionist Center, with Madero as cofounder This movement rapidly gained support, and Madero’s enemies decided to preempt the result by having him arrested Madero was charged with stealing a guayule (a crop used in rubber cultivation) He evaded the police and managed to make it to the convention of the Anti-Reelectionists, where he was chosen as their candidate for the elections On the eve of the election, Madero was arrested, as were 6,000 other Anti-Reelectionists Porfirio Díaz was reelected with 196 votes in the electoral college