406 suburbanization, U.S and Casey Hayden anonymously circulated a position paper noting male dominance in movement organization Later, they publicly raised the importance of feminism in civil rights and antiwar groups Some men in the movement saw women’s issues as a trivial distraction from their own concerns about the draft King and Hayden’s work led to women’s caucuses Between 1964 and 1969 many of the nation’s college campuses became stages for student activism, whether connected to the war or not Black students occupied buildings at the University of Chicago, Brandeis, and Cornell (armed with rifles) University officials were held hostage at Columbia University, Trinity College, and San Fernando Valley State College (now California State University Northridge) Students stormed boards of regents meetings and occupied buildings and offices In May 1968 youth uprisings in Paris nearly brought down the government of Charles de Gaulle A general strike led by elite Sorbonne university students, joined by many French workers, decried France’s education system and its role in the Vietnam War That same year, Czechoslovakia’s “Prague Spring” tried to implement “socialism with a human face” in the teeth of Soviet domination In August Warsaw Pact troops crushed the movement, while in the United States riots erupted between Chicago police and student activists during the Democratic National Convention Violence escalated in 1970 when National Guard units shot and killed students protesting the Vietnam War at Kent State and Jackson State Universities, touching off protests on many other campuses But by then SNCC and SDS were collapsing SDS had splintered at its 1969 convention into a number of groups, the best known of which, the Weathermen, took its name from a Bob Dylan song Renamed the Weather Underground, this group is best remembered for a Greenwich Village explosion in which three members blew themselves up while assembling explosives Broad-based student activism declined after the draft was discontinued in 1973 See also counterculture in the United States and Europe Further reading: Carson, Clayborne In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981; Miller, James Democracy Is in the Streets: From Port Huron to the Siege of Chicago Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994 David Miller Parker suburbanization, U.S Suburbanization describes a process by which U.S city dwellers moved from central cities into residential areas characterized by single-family homes with lawn space It is generally associated with the period directly following World War II, but suburbanization is a much older process The term “suburb” has been in use since 1800 Although it originally applied to a pastoral existence, connected to but outside the central city, it is now associated with the basic ideals of U.S family life The form of the U.S city has been changing since the development of the steam engine As the railroad replaced the stagecoach as a means of transportation, it became possible to live farther from the center of the city while still working in the central business district The streetcar accelerated this outward movement, and automobiles accelerated it even more, creating “bedroom communities” with access to commuter trains, buses and ferries, and parking lots By 1940 only 20 percent of U.S citizens lived in the suburbs, which were regarded as communities for the upper class A shortage of housing in cities with significant concentrations of war-related industries led to the building of suburban communities to house workers during World War II, but the diversion of resources for the war effort created a national housing shortage for returning servicemen Ninety-seven percent of all new singlefamily dwellings built between 1946 and 1956 were surrounded by their own plots The period saw the cottage industry of single-family home construction transformed into a major manufacturing process The most famous example of this is Levittown, which is named after the family who built it In 1946 Levittown was 4,000 acres of potato fields in Long Island, New York; by 1950 it was a town with 17,400 separate houses Similarly the developers of Lakewood, in Los Angeles County, California, purchased 3,500 acres in 1949 and had built and sold 17,500 houses by 1953 The new suburbs were characterized by low density, architectural monotony, and economic and racial homogeneity Soon businesses, especially retailers, opened branch stores in the suburbs, creating shopping malls to reach consumers who had moved there The suburbs continue to grow as the urban/suburban relationship in the nation’s metropolitan areas evolves This is evident in the explosive growth of suburbia in the formerly rural hinterlands of cities in the southern and southwestern United States, now known as the Sun