occupations: Europe FISHING Many of the islands of the Pacific Ocean are small and hard, and as such offered the people who settled them little opportunity to cultivate agriculture or livestock They do, however, offer excellent access to the ocean and to the thousands of types of fish there As soon as humans spread out from Papua New Guinea to the smaller islands to the northeast, beginning in approximately 28,000 B.C.E., fishing became the principal source of sustenance, marking them as some of the earliest people on the planet to pursue fish Fossils show a huge range of fish and shellfish consumed on the islands, from crab, lobster, and turtle to three species of sharks Since there are no signs of fishhooks from the Pleistocene, the general assumption is that fishing was done either by spearing or by catching fish in motion in nets or traps Fishing was practiced throughout the Pacific Islands, though different islands had different species of fish, from cod in the temperate Chatham Islands to the parrotfish that were overwhelmingly common in more tropical waters While abundance certainly had much to with the kind of fish that were sought, there also developed over the centuries cultural traditions that imparted social preferences for some species over others For instance, among the people of Kapingamarangi Atoll of Pohnpei, it is common to hear stories about the various methods of pursuit of the rainbow runner, even though that fish is small and its population is certainly much less significant to the islanders’ eating habits than the grouper Of course, centuries of fishing have led to the evolution of different methods of catching fish In lagoons and inland freshwaters, spearing and bow-and-arrow fishing eventually gave way to baited hooks Since fishing was such a significant part of the oceanic life, it is only natural that some cultures carved ornate hooks that resemble works of sculpture For ocean fishing, nets were the preferred method, manipulated by crews in large canoes There is evidence that as far back as 2,000 years ago, individuals in small canoes braved the ocean to fish individually, with hooks, for larger, big-game fish, like marlin carpenters used saws to cut planks from the tree From these they built furniture, beams for buildings, or coffins Most people in Japan, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Australia followed one occupation: survival Each person needed to know many crafts in order to make what was needed to stay alive It is likely that the peoples of the Japanese islands began to develop specialized occupations after about 813 200 b.c.e The numerous works of pottery and the building of wooden palisades and wooden palaces by the third century c.e suggest that potting and carpentry may have become specialized occupations by then EUROPE BY J USTIN CORFIELD Throughout Europe during ancient times most people were involved in farming, with the vast majority of families living in their farmhouses, which often incorporated protective walls encompassing the house as well as the shelters for livestock In some areas a wider expanse of land was surrounded by protective walls against outsiders and invaders, incorporating some farming or grazing land and gardens One of the main considerations for European farmers was (and still is) the difference in climate from north to south In the north farmers enjoyed short summers with abundant water and very fertile soil In the south, on the other hand, long, hot summers, some water shortages, and poorer soil resulted in the need for more intensive cultivation On ancient farms the whole variety of agricultural pursuits would have been followed: plowing fields; planting, nurturing, and then harvesting crops; maintaining the farm; using organic fertilizers; tending the animals; and slaughtering them for eating In addition, milking cows, churning milk, baking bread, preparing food, and maintaining herb gardens were tasks often done by women, with the children, even small children, used for scaring away birds, watching over grazing animals, or generally helping their parents and family In addition, women were often involved in spinning, with both men and women operating weaving looms Members of the farming household made and decorated ceramic vessels, baskets, tools, and weapons The collection of firewood was a very time-consuming task Around 2000 b.c.e we see the first evidence for craft specialization in ancient Europe; certain people minimized their role in farming or gave it up completely to specialize in making particular types of artifacts The earliest specialists were probably metalworkers In each village there would also have been blacksmiths and metalworkers who were capable of dealing with copper and subsequently bronze and then iron Many of these men would have been involved in simple tasks, such as making agricultural tools or simple weapons Especially in towns, a number, such as the mirror makers in southern Britain, became quite skilled at decorative work Because of the need for horses for transport and war, there were many horse breeders as well as people involved in “breaking in” and then looking after the animals There were also leather merchants who engaged in treating leather products, including saddles, reins, harnesses, and household items Coopers, who made barrels, and wheelwrights, who made carts, were also important There were also tribal chiefs, their families, administrators, and people in charge of collecting taxes Their roles