Index Antarctica 1:186T Australia 1:300–302, 1:303T average lifespan 4:656T coral reef ecosystems 2:332T deep-sea hydrothermal vents biodiversity variability 7:331 biogeography 7:330 gene flow/genetic diversity 7:330–331 prevalence 7:329–330 species origins 7:330 domesticated ruminants 1:709–710 endangered freshwater invertebrates 3:176–187 American Southeast rivers 3:184, 3:185F anthropogenic impacts direct harvests 3:181 global climate change 3:181–182 habitat destruction/degradation 3:180–181, 3:180F introduced species 3:181 pollution 3:181, 3:181F causal factors 3:177, 3:177F desert spring communities 3:186, 3:187F diversity hot spots 3:176 global conservation status 3:176–177, 3:176T, 3:177F global distribution patterns 3:182–184, 3:182T global diversity 3:176 number of species 3:182–184, 3:182T protection strategies 3:184–187 small ranges causal factors 3:178 conservation status 3:177F dispersal ability 3:178F high endemic hot spots 3:178–179 high endemic species 3:179, 3:180F Lake Baikal 3:179, 3:183F narrowly endemic species 3:177–178, 3:177F, 3:179 vulnerability factors small ranges 3:177–178, 3:177F sparse populations 3:179–180 forest canopies 3:512–513, 3:513F, 3:514F forest management impact 1:451–452 fossil record 3:687–688, 3:687F freshwater ecosystems 4:369–378 background information 4:369–370 ecological functions and processes characteristics 4:375 decomposition and recycling 4:375 material transfer and uptake 4:375–376 primary production 4:376 freshwater sediments 3:572T global patterns 4:373 influencing factors disturbances 4:375 endemism 4:374–375 habitat heterogeneity 4:375 isolation factors 4:374–375 origins 4:374 research background 4:373–374 species interactions 4:375 life cycles 4:370, 4:372F major groups 4:370, 4:371T major habitats 4:369–370, 4:369F major threats altered water regimes 4:377–378 biodiversity loss 4:376–377 exotic species invasions 4:378 habitat depletion and loss 4:376–377 pollution 4:377 reduced water quality 4:377 number of species 4:370–371, 4:371T river continuum concept (RCC) 4:373F taxonomic groups 4:371–373 zonal representatives 4:374F fruit and seed dispersal 6:50 genetic diversity 3:665F, 3:668F indicator species 7:206–207F introduced parasites–species decline relationships 2:528T introduced species Australia 1:76T, 1:80–81 Brazil 1:76T, 1:83 India 1:76T, 1:82 South Africa 1:76T, 1:81 United Kingdom 1:76T, 1:79–80 United States 1:76T, 1:78 lake and pond ecosystems 4:461T latitudinal range shifts 4:604T marine invertebrates 4:379–391 average lifespan 4:656T benthic large-scale diversity patterns bathymetric gradients 4:387, 4:388F latitudinal gradients 4:385–387, 4:386F, 4:387F benthic small-scale diversity patterns 4:387–389, 4:388T, 4:389F classifications and sampling methods benthic species 4:381–382, 4:381T, 4:382F pelagic species 4:382–383, 4:383T cold seeps 4:391 diversity control processes 4:380–381 endangered species 3:199–204 causal factors 3:199–202 definition 3:199 extinctions 3:202T IUCN criteria 3:200–201T recovery strategies 3:203 research challenges 3:202–203 species examples 3:199–202, 3:201T, 3:202T susceptible habitats and species 3:202, 3:202T, 3:203T fossil record 4:389–391, 4:390F global diversity 4:384–385, 4:385T hydrothermal vents 2:6F, 4:391 macrofauna 4:380–381, 4:381T megafauna 4:380–381, 4:381T meiofauna 4:380–381, 4:381T ocean characteristics 4:379–380 pelagic environment benthic biomass distribution 4:380–381, 4:380F pelagic diversity patterns 4:385, 4:386T physical characteristics 4:379, 4:380T 709 Phanerozoic diversity 3:683–684, 3:685F, 3:686F spatio-temporal mosaic theory 4:388–389, 4:389F taxonomy and species diversity 4:383–384, 4:384T ultraviolet radiation effects 7:300 mites 1:214–215 modern extinctions 5:368T mutation rates 2:628F Phanerozoic diversity 3:687–688, 3:687F phenological shifts 5:719F pollination 6:49T, 6:140–141, 6:141T riparian zones 6:462–463 river ecosystems 6:478–479, 6:478T seagrass ecosystems 6:547–548 slash-and-burn systems 6:556 storage ecology 7:24 Succulent Karoo 1:488 surface water acidification 1:10T temperature tolerance ranges 4:115 terrestrial invertebrates 4:392–394 Antarctica 1:184T conservation practices filter approach 3:224 recovery programs 3:225 surrogate use 3:224–225 umbrella/flagship species 3:225 endangered species 3:219–227 centipedes 3:226 conservation practices 3:224 crabs 3:226 daddy long legs 3:225–226 earthworms 3:225 insects 3:226 land snails 3:226 millipedes 3:226 pill bugs 3:226 pseudoscorpions 3:225–226 Red List Index (RLI) 3:225 spiders 3:225–226 status assessments 3:223–224 velvet worms 3:225, 3:226F woodlice 3:226 endemism 5:592T environmental conditions 4:393 life histories 3:220 species numbers and diversity 3:219 taxonomy limited-adapted groups 4:392–393, 4:394F taxonomic impediment 3:219–220 well-adapted groups 4:392, 4:393F, 4:394F threats and challenges climate change 3:221 habitat loss and fragmentation 3:220–221 invasive species 3:222 overharvesting/overcollecting 3:222–223 pest control 3:221–222 threatened species 7:201T, 7:206–207F wetland ecosystems 7:389–391 InVEST 3:101–102 Iocheirata 1:212–213