Reconceptualising memorisation for effective language practice

T H E E U R O P E A N J O U R N A L OF A P P L I E D L I N G U I S T I C S A N D T E F L RECONCEPTUALISING MEMORISATION FOR EFFECTIVE LANGUAGE LEARNING PRACTICE Dat Bao, Monash University, Australia ABSTRACT This article examines memorisation as a form of language learning practice subject to conflicting attitudes in academic discourse, that is, receiving both support and criticism While some scholars recognise it as a sensible tool for learning, others view the efficiency of memorisation with scepticism While some researchers offer empirical evidence of learning accomplishment through students’ practice of learning by heart, others argue that there is no way to isolate memorisation as a success factor Stimulated by such controversy, the discussion raises the question: If the impact of a learning process has been viewed with doubt and disagreement, why does it continue to persist and survive in the practice of numerous language learners? Pursuing this inquiry is important because it helps unpack the teachinglearning tension Although some teachers criticise memorisation as a superficial approach to learning, many learners enjoy it in keeping track of language knowledge and skills In addition, this article will look at what exactly should be regarded as helpful in memorisation KEY WORDS Memorisation, rote learning, learning strategies, task design INTRODUCTION This article does not aim to promote memorisation; neither does it attempt to crown memorisation as a brilliant learning tool Instead, it offers a balanced and unbiased position for this learning construct, that is, to uncover the nature of memorisation as an intrinsic constituent of the language learning process To deny memorisation is to negate the role of conscious learning As a mental process, it can be either productively employed to benefit language development or misused that might result in poor learning outcome The discussion comes from the author’s interaction with the current literature and academic experiences over the past twelve years while working with students who have employed memorisation in their language learning Since my familiarity with learners’ memorising skills is set in the context of Australian educational settings, one section in this essay will also touch on the Australian perspective on this topic The article is by no means a literature review, although it may look like that at first glance Rather, it employs a combination of the author’s observation and referencing evidence to 29 support two main arguments Firstly, I would like to confront biased perceptions in the memorisation debate and warn educators of their damaging impact on student learning Secondly, I argue that memorisation is not a one-dimensional construct but encompasses a multiplicity of strategies, all of which can be identified and selected to suit individual learning tastes A variety of terms have been employed in academic discourse to refer to what memorisation is They include, for example, technique (Davidson-Kelly, Moran, & Overy, 2012, p 248), strategy (Eaves, 2011, p 682; Kember, 1996, p 343), method (Gent, 2011, p 13), skill (Fwu & Wang, 2001, p 16; Zulfikar, 2010, p 23), methodology (Dekker & Young, 2005, p 194), approach (Tan, 2011, p 124), mechanism (De Fonzo, Bersani, Aluffi-Pentini, & Parisi, 2000, p 753) and process (Porter, 2016, p 237) Such terminology choice illustrates the lack of consistency among authors and seems to depend on the nature of every discussion Since it is not the scope of this article to compare these terms, I will broadly refer to memorisation as a mental process, which embraces a range of strategies The conceptualisation of memorisation as a process was suggested by Porter (2016) and I would like to recapture it as a mental process, which in my view, comprises a series of steps taken in the mind to commit data to the memory system The first half of this essay discusses the memorisation process with its insights and issues; the second half then proposes a number of strategies that many learners have employed in maximising the potential of memorisation ROTE MEMORISATION To begin with, I would like to draw a distinction between rote memorisation, which involves repetition of language without necessarily understanding it, and proactive memorisation, which serves the mastery of knowledge and preparation for skills practice To confuse these terms would create bias that could hinder a fruitful understanding of memorisation The former is often portrayed as superficial, unprocessed gathering of information; while the latter is celebrated as critical and deep engagement in the Socratic tradition Reasonable as this distinction may sound, it becomes unfair to assume that deep learning, as opposed to surface learning (Biggs, 1999; Holmes, 2004; Marton & Säljö, 1976; Tweed & Lehman, 2002) is the merit of the Socratic learning tradition alone while the Confucian learning tradition advocates the contrary When rote is described as the opposite of critical thinking, the picture can be clear and helpful However, when rote is taken to mean memorisation and, to make matters worse, this whole misunderstanding is attributed as taking root in Confucianism (Aoki, 2008), the picture turns out to be misleading In fact, Confucius’ philosophy, which conceptualises learning in two phases, namely accumulating knowledge and reflecting on it (Kim, 2003), does emphasise the need for understanding and applying knowledge (Tan, 2015) Over the years, there has been misperception of rote memorisation as the focal principle of Confucian education It is said that aspiring Confucian scholars, who valued diligence in learning, often employed memorisation in order to ace the imperial civil exams (Tan, 2015) The common term Confucian values is used to describe the characteristics of Asian students 30 from Confucian Heritage Cultures (CHC), such as Mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Korea and Japan, and to highlight contrast with Western learning approaches To some educators, the East and West difference in learning is about Western education encouraging students “to engage in debate,” and about Confucian education emphasising “rote learning and memorisation” (Aoki, 2008, p 35) Rote memorisation without awareness of meaning, however, is not a completely pointless process In many cases, language learners while not focusing on content might be attentive to vocabulary usage and memory of syntactic structures The usefulness of such form-focused learning has been acknowledged to some extent by language theorists (see, for example, Scovel, 1983) According to qualitative research evidence, this need for language familiarisation is particularly helpful when learners practise memorising not individual words but extended texts (Xu, 2011) There have been scholarly insights which advocate productive use of rote learning in memorising set phrases and collocations, gaining a common sense of how language works, and developing confidence in language knowledge (Ding, 2007; Nasrollahi-Mouziraji & Nasrollahi-Mouziraji, 2015; Sowden, 2005; Watkins & Biggs, 1996) Sometimes students are assumed to be uncritical, unimaginative learners when they exhibit a tendency to memorise facts and enjoy reproducing previously learnt content This can be a hasty assumption that fails to recognise a student’s potential for long-term development In many cases, it is inequitable to take one snapshot of a phenomenon and make conclusions about students’ future learning outcomes Although there are students who practise unproductive memorisation without much understanding, it would be unfair to assume that anyone who tries to memorise knowledge would be prone to superficial learning A teacher with such thinking might refuse to expect independent thinking and might not be willing to recognise original ideas from students PREJUDICE TOWARD EAST-ASIAN LEARNING PERFORMANCE It is often noticed that many who engage in extensive practice of memorisation happen to be of East-Asian origins East-Asian students are sometimes stereotypically portrayed as passive rote learners (Mok, Kennedy, Moore, Shan, & Leung, 2008) who are not likely to think deeply and critically (Pratt, Kelly, & Wong, 1999), especially in many Western educational settings By contrast, Western students often enjoy the reputation of being deep learners whose main priority of learning is to understand the content of the material (Mathias, Bruce, & Newton, 2013) For instance, Students from China, Korea, Japan, Hong Kong and Singapore are often characterised as compliant and rote learners (Gan, 2009) Kennedy (2002) criticises Asian countries’ spoon-feeding approach to teaching in which students believe that learning is memorisation of knowledge provided by teachers It is also assumed that Confucian educational ideology, which demands docility, passivity and conformity (Clarke & Gieve, 2006), treats students as empty vessels to be filled with knowledge (Liu, 2010) Because of this perception, many students’ learning achievements are often denied the recognition as true achievements Some scholars assert that many high achievers from Asia are 31 successful because they follow a narrow systematic pattern of detailed, diligent study (Kember, 1996) and are driven by high motivation (Hawkins, 2012) It is also reasoned that East-Asian students’ better scores in assessments not come from intelligence and critical thinking skills but from surface learning and merit-oriented habits (Dooley, 2003); and, when it comes to practical, real-world learning, these students would be lost (Liu, 2009) Although Asian students perform better than Western counterparts in mathematics and sciences, they tend to repeat the information without understanding it and struggle with critical thinking and problem solving (Kennedy, 2002) Such unfavourable assertions run on indefinitely and, in many cases, are exaggerated beyond control These postulations, which seem to disregard human ability in contextual adaptation of learning styles, demonstrate limited trust in Asian students’ potential They also form a cultural dichotomy between Asian and Western learning modes, declaring the former as inferior to the latter Logically, teachers with static beliefs about students’ behaviour might demotivate them from engaging with profound approaches to learning and from developing critical thinking skills (McKay & Kember, 1997) THE CONTROVERSY OF MEMORISATION By definition, memorising is a conscious process of committing data to memory (Richards, Platt, & Platt, 1992) Ideally, it is the accumulation of existing knowledge in case it needs to be ready for use Memorisation is also interpreted as a conscious cognitive activity with a focus on factual information (see, for example, Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006) This interpretation, however, seems to contain prejudice as it spotlights cognition as the main nature In fact, memorisation does not have to be a purely cognitive process, but can be characterised by cultural, psychological, affective and social dimensions Research by Yu (2013) and Duong (2006) has connected learners’ memorising experiences with emotional constructs such as contentment, praise, discomfort, frustration, pride in high performance, confidence in achievement, and satisfaction with the learning progress Besides, memorising skills not have to be performed within the solitary mind but can take place collectively, collaboratively and competitively Memory games and activities in the language classroom are clear examples of such social practice The value of memorisation, however, is often not recognised with neutrality Memorisation has been treated with uncertainty and reluctance, rather than encouragement and comfort, in much of Western education The general basis for acceptance of students’ memorising practice remains fairly obscure, with loose indication that this practice seems fine if it satisfies certain needs (see, for example, Sowden, 2005; Watkins & Biggs, 1996); if misused, it might become an obstacle to communication (Cortazzi & Jin, 1996) Memorisation, moreover, has been rejected by many scholars by connecting it with low critical thinking, lack of freedom, banking education and digestive education, as opposed to dialogic education, liberating education and education for freedom (see, for example, Freire, 1972) Such dichotomy seems rational in principle In reality, however, East-Asian students 32 who perform well in memorisation efforts can also be critical and creative thinkers It would be absurd to say that if space in someone’s brain gets occupied by extended memorised data, there will then be no more space left for one to think deeply anymore Historically, there has been evidence of highly creative inventions from East Asia or in collaboration with Asia, including, for example, selfie sticks, emoticons, karaoke, Walkman, DVD, LED technology, 3D printing, among others These examples show how our living world has fundamentally changed as the result of effective education systems where memorisation represents one way of using the brain Many Asian scholars have examined the efficiency of memorisation in language learning (see, for example, Long & Huang, 2009; Yu, 2013) Empirical research has provided evidence that there are successful learners with high proficiency in a second language who have employed memorisation on a discourse level, that is, remembering texts, as a frequent strategy (Ding, 2007; Gu, 2003; Stevick, 1989) Such findings, however, remain controversial Western scholars who are sceptical about such research argue that it is uncertain whether these learners’ success comes mainly from memorising rehearsal or from other kinds of practices and experiences (Ellis, 2000) Ironically, many East-Asian students who utilise memorisation and who are sometimes labelled as superficial learners have consistently achieved the highest outcome at international tests Such educational success raises doubts over blanket assumptions made by many Western authors on memorisation as an approach (Biggs, 1994; Mok, Kennedy, Moore, Shan, & Leung, 2008) In many cases, memorisation and understanding are not two distinct opposites but they have to interplay in the learning process (Kember, 1996; Kember, Wong, & Leung, 1999) Repetition and memorisation, which have been downplayed as learning strategies, can also lead to and enhance deep understanding and, through practice, long-term memory In examining Malaysian and Chinese students’ learning processes, Tan (2011) argues that memorisation can transcend to the level of understanding that is achieved through meaningful learning Given that Asian students have a strong inclination to memorise in order to understand, there is a need to broaden the conceptualisation of memorisation, that is, if properly employed would lead to a high learning impact Empirical research by Tang (1993) has demonstrated that deep memorisation, that is, to combine recall and reasoning, is intuitively employed by many Hong Kong Chinese students to achieve high learning outcomes, a path which seems uncommon among their Western counterparts In order to challenge the misconceptions of East-Asian learners and their learning styles, it is vital to understand Confucius’ concept of thinking beyond the emphasis on rote memorisation Scrutinising Confucian philosophy, Tan (2014) realises that Confucius advocates a form of thinking based on a firm foundation of knowledge In particular, “critical reflection and other forms of higher order thinking are efficacious only if one has acquired sufficient content knowledge” (p 9) As she explains, it is such a combination, not memorisation alone, that would result in the success of academic performance among highachieving students in CHC countries 33 MEMORISATION IN A RANGE OF STRATEGIES It would be helpful to visualise memorisation in a wide range of strategies (which I will provide examples for in Section of this article when discussing task design) and move beyond the isolated function of knowledge recall Memorisation can lead to better understanding of learning materials and positive education outcomes when it innovatively operates alongside the ability to understand, apply, analyse, evaluate and create To promote retention would be insufficient in learning but one needs to transfer learnt material to a facilitation stage Retention is the ability to remember the material in the same way as it is presented during instruction and transfer is the ability to apply learnt knowledge It is this blend that can lead to positive learning outcomes When memorised content is connected with problem-solving and communicative practice, in-depth internalisation is likely to take place, especially when the same information is contextualised in different learning situations Cognitive processing of the learnt material easily becomes meaningful when it is applied to a particular task (Mayer, 2002) Memorisation does not have to be an end in itself but as a prelude to deeper understanding and reflection (Dooley, 2003; Kennedy, 2002) Since many language curricula across the world are shifting towards a more learner-centred approach, it is necessary that students maximise their learning opportunities and realise their full potential as language learners (Gan, 2009) INCLUSIVE LEARNING STRATEGIES IN AUSTRALIA AND CHINA This section responds to the question: What reforms took place to make memorisation most helpful in learning? In Australia, there have been efforts to make learning strategies more inclusive rather than favouring certain learning styles and frowning upon others (Mullen, 2001) As Brown, Aoshima, Bolen, Chia and Kohyama (2007) emphasise, schools are becoming more aware of cultural differences in learning and are encouraging educators to implement more appropriate teaching strategies for learners with differing acculturation Instructors in many Australian schools carefully clarify the overall goals of student learning and include a combination of learning strategies, including both retention and transfer of knowledge (Mayer, 2002) For instance, Australian teachers are instructed by the Queensland Equity Policy to be sensitive to the cultural background of the international students in Australia and form pedagogical structures that enhance independent learning (Dooley, 2003) Curriculum is being reformed to provide more opportunities and methods for students to demonstrate deep level understanding (Centre for Development of Teaching and Learning, 2006) Changing the class structure and methods of classroom assessment will influence students’ motivation and their approach to learning regardless of their cultural context Besides, the ways in which students are assessed have a strong influence on the ways they approach their learning tasks It is observed that teachers use assessment methods which involve cognitive processes that go beyond recognising and recalling (Mayer, 2002) 34 While memorisation provides a solid foundation at the beginning of the learning process, it is recommended for curriculum to be structured with a basis of memorised knowledge followed by applied, practical study and other skills such as critical thinking and problem solving at a later stage For example, there is no substitute for rote memorisation in learning alphabets Thus, acquiring that knowledge is essential for learning to read an alphabetic writing system Moving beyond memorisation, students then learn to grasp meanings, apply and transfer knowledge to other areas It seems clear that memorising words is not worthwhile without understanding how to use them in conversation To sum up, both types of learning are important, but they work best when they complement each other, rather than as a single method of instruction In China, curriculum reform calls for student autonomy in language learning and a shift of students’ roles from passive receivers to active constructors of knowledge In many cases, secondary school teachers who value authority may find this practice a challenge for them A study by Zhang and Liu (2013), which examined the beliefs of Chinese high school teachers about foreign language teaching in Chinese schools in relation to the curriculum reform in China, found that teachers adopted both traditional and constructivist approaches to teaching Constructivist beliefs favour student participation, interactive class, and learning strategy training while traditional beliefs involve a focus on grammar and language form, drill and practice, rote memorisation and teacher authority The teachers as interview participants also asserted that they required their students to memorise vocabulary, sentences or even texts This practice is a basic element of a typical English class in Chinese secondary schools The interview with participants also shows a varying degree of approval for drill and practice, depending on factors such as teachers’ personal theory, student characteristics and the pressure for test preparation ROTE LEARNING AS PERCEIVED BY AUSTRALIAN AND CHINESE EDUCATORS Australian educators perceive students of Asian backgrounds as being impacted by their cultural and educational background still holding onto traditional techniques, but despite intensive memorisation practice, they yield high achievement scores For example, according to the Department of Education in Queensland, Australia, overused memorisation represents low quality academic outcomes and is not an effective technique but, surprisingly, Chinese learners abroad achieve high scores and this has become a matter of consideration, different pedagogies are framed for Chinese students in Australia to promote deeper understanding of the matter and reinforce higher order thinking (Dooley, 2003) Australian teachers have admired East-Asian students for their outstanding academic results, but they were critical of the way the students adopted various techniques of learning Some hold stereotypes of these students as being passive in class participation and inclined to rote learning As a matter of fact, there are certain stereotypical characteristics of the Chinese students from the angle of Australian instructors If a Chinese student adopts rote learning, it is 35 ascribed to the cultural background; however, if an Australian adopts it, then it might be attributed to their status as being a novice (Clarke & Gieve, 2006) One important view among Chinese scholars and educators regarding memorisation suggests that the learning motivation among many East-Asian students has a social focus, as opposed to many Western students with an individualistic focus (Yu & Yang, 1994) Based on research data, Chao (1996) argues that many Chinese students connect their academic success with family pride, while their European-American counterparts tend to relate their achievement to personal satisfaction and self-esteem These world views reflect different values in learning cultures The Chinese culture of learning, according to an empirical study by Li (2001), emphasises the need to seek knowledge, hardship and persistence One way to absorb knowledge is by making memorisation efforts However, one should not look at memorisation in isolation and assume the absence of other factors such as analysis, understanding and application in the learning process In language education, the attempt to memorise syntax and lexis does not necessarily represent surface learning In many cases, students’ hard work that leads to effective communication and successful test performance is the evidence of a more complex outcome than mere regurgitation (see, for example, Kember, 2016) In the meantime, a study conducted by Brown et al (2007) to explore what learning approaches are adopted by 383 students at universities in Japan, USA and Taiwan produces a surprising outcome It reveals that students from the USA utilised more rote memory learning compared to students from Japan and Taiwan, while students from Japan and Taiwan were more achievement-oriented Data also demonstrated that acculturation influences the students’ attribution style and learning approach, and that Asian students not employ any singular approach to learning It was thought-provoking to learn that the American students in the study actually practise more memorisation their Asian counterparts This case study challenges the common assumption which relies on memorisation to label East-Asians as superficial learners APPLIED MEMORISATION In a study report based on the interview of students of universities in Hong-Kong and Mainland China, it is found that an intensive use of memorisation tends to occur more in English learning at secondary school, but as students moved to tertiary levels, English learning became more communication-oriented (Gan, 2009) Chinese students value competence and mastery of new tasks, for their own sake, an inclination incompatible with rote learning However, this inclination lessens in the most competitive years of secondary schooling when rote learning and achievement orientation are seen as effective strategies for coping with demanding courses (Dooley, 2001) Chinese learners may cope with learning the material through a traditional memorising technique till the primary or early secondary school level, but at the university level, with the course content becoming more debate-oriented, it is important to get out of that habit The notion that the learning styles of East-Asian learners are impossible to change at the university level is inaccurate When the context of the learning changes and the modes of 36 teaching and assessment require learners to adapt to other techniques, they it successfully (Kennedy, 2002) Memorisation is still used in various degrees, especially by young children, to retain as much textual material as possible in preparing students for more analytical learning in the future If the purpose reaches beyond the primary level in school, then rote learning is formed as a habit which is difficult to abstain from at a college or university level When Hong Kong Chinese adult learners undertake post-secondary study, at universities in Hong Kong and overseas or in part-time continuing education programmes, they often encounter learning activities, modes of teaching and assessment that are very different from those they knew in school (Kennedy, 2002) Although it is sometimes observed that Asian students in their English medium schools are less creative when it comes to language expression in writing, it seems unfair to assume that learners only limit their technique to memorisation without the ability to apply and contextualise knowledge (Clarke & Gieve, 2006) PRODUCTIVE MEMORISATION IN TASK DESIGN Having pointed out several useful features of the construct, I would like to argue that memorisation does not inherently contain positive impacts but needs to be well-organised and thoughtfully rehearsed to bring out helpful outcomes For an illustrating example, I would like to propose a classroom activity for the beneficial use of memory practice in classroom activities I invite readers to think of a combination between memorisation and creative thinking as the foundation of such thinking practice If we perceive memorisation as the ability to retain content knowledge and creative thinking as the ability to produce an original idea, the next important question to raise would be: Can existing knowledge extend itself and find ways to become an original idea? It might be helpful to keep in mind that in this proposed task, memorisation is not the focus of the activity Instead, it is the first step that would play the opening role for creativity to happen It is eventually the latter that should be celebrated as the final outcome, yet without memory playing its role, creativity might not be effective In this way, the practice of retaining memory can assist creative work rather than prevent it from developing If we can implement such a task in these two stages, so that students both learn well and enjoy the task, we then can see how memorisation serves as a building block to high-level thinking Step – The class falls into small groups of three to four students The teacher provides each group with a list of words to try and remember This list is printed on a card for students to view for about 12 seconds, without being allowed to take notes Each group is given a different list Below are two examples of such word lists (with about 15 items each): School, year 7, small boy, vulnerable, big boys, bully, cry, tree, talk, power, levitate, disappear, shocked, scared, respect Travel, forest, noise, animal, frightened, no harm, friend, food, bag, play, follow, laugh, enjoy, home, exotic pet, wow 37 Step – The teacher takes back the word list from every group Now members of each group try and use as many words on the list as they can remember to invent a story The story should come from the verbal discussion by the group without taking notes Step – Once the story has taken shape, members of the group then divide the work of telling the story to the whole class Still without notes, each group will send one to four members to the front of the class to tell the story their group has created After that, the class can ask questions and make comments for the interaction In today’s classroom when too much has relied on prompts and notes (textbooks, exercise books, handouts, online resources, computer screens, iPads, phones, typed and hand-written words, pictures, movies), this activity represents a change that offers freedom from all the above Six benefits may arise from this task: ● Cognitive challenge: students have to attain memory of vocabulary; ● Social/Affective challenge: students need to discuss to reach a shared output; ● Psychological challenge: students struggle not only to remember, but also produce language within a given duration of time; ● Logistic challenge: students made decisions about who will be in charge of what part of the final report; ● Creativity: everyone uses imagination to build the story, from a word list that is restrained as it does not necessarily offer a ready-made plot for students; ● Reflection of real-world communication: In everyday life, one would tell a story or anecdote straight from memory and improvisational wording, without notes to refer to 10 VOCABULARY MEMORISATION STRATEGIES Memorisation does not have to work on a short-term basis It is through contextualising rehearsal and practical commitment to long-term memory that learners can lay the foundation for skilled performance As Walter (2005) emphasises, the merit of memorisation has to with the extent to which it can facilitate long-term recall of language knowledge, rather than overloaded temporary memory Some of the strategies proposed below, which I have documented over the years from students, colleagues, friends and family members who have succeeded in mental retention of language knowledge, might contribute to language rehearsal for longstanding efficiency It might be useful for learners to try some of them and decide which ones work best It might be interesting for teachers to process them into short classroom activities and invite students to try them out ● Memorising – Try to remember words through a written means, that is, by writing down words in context so you can see not only the word (it helps memorisation), but also study how that word is put into use Memorise words and then memorise sentences For every word, you should know at least one sentence to go with it 38 ● Reappearance – Revisit and recycle Read the words again and even write them again so they re-appear in your mind This will transfer short-term memory to long-term memory ● Selecting – Learn words you keep re-encountering Make a decision to commit a word to your memory if you see it many times in reading or hear it often in daily life ● Contextualising – Make each word relevant – Relate to your own experience; imagine how you would use it and use it in real life communication when you find a chance to so ● Use of imagination and creativity – Build an image in your mind to later help recall the word ● Enjoyment – Choose your favourite words that denote things you like the most, which could be food, sports, fashion, feelings and relationships ● Experimenting – Make word flashcards and use them for vocabulary revision, pronounce a word silently, say it out loud, try to perfect your pronunciation and intonation, put emotion to it, add a gesture to it, walk around and say it, hold object and say it, sing it in a tune, dance and sing it, say it to a puppet or a pet, say it to the mirror ● Setting a goal – Depending on every learner’s ability, it could be ten to twenty words a day Write down a weekly schedule for daily practice, such as on Mondays, one might learn nouns related to food, on Tuesdays, learn verbs related to ordering food, on Wednesdays, learn adjectives related to enjoying food, etc ● Clustering – Keep related words together in your notes and use them together in your examples; try to remember them together as a group rather than as individual words Examples of such clusters are: colours, actions, types of food and clothing items ● Memory palace – Associate words to different locations in your real life, such as words of food are placed in the kitchen, words of emotions are placed around your family members and friends, words of actions are placed in movies that you have seen ● Iconicity – Using icons and non-verbal gestures, such as miming, acting, visualising, movement, locations, shapes and metaphor creation to aid memorisation Research has shown that such processes can trigger the relationship between form and meaning (Anderson & Reilly, 2002; Baus, Carreiras, & Emmorey, 2013) ● Developing a reading and listening habit – Read captions in movies, posters, billboards, shop signs and public announcements Listen to songs, movie dialogues, casual conversations, and the words as they are pronounced in your head ● Memorisation at a discourse level – Learners write a short text that they wish to present (which could be a story, a personal anecdote, or a reflective piece of some kind), underline key words, try to memorise them, and show up in front of class without notes to present the text in the most natural way possible For these strategies to stay in their communication repertoire, learners must take the next step of putting the words into use so that over time such practice will store vocabulary into their subconscious system (with minimal attention or effort in recalling it), a process known as 39 acquisition Keep in mind that memorisation of language will not be helpful until you process it, practise it, contextualise it and keep it alive Other important practices to keep in mind would be the capability to identify the knowledge needed for communication, put knowledge in a logical sequence, invest sufficient time and energy in the rehearsal process, frequently recycle language by combining new data with previously learnt knowledge, among other exercises 11 CONCLUSION There are two reasons why I have included Australian and Chinese views on the topic Firstly, these perspectives are well connected with my academic experience as an observer of students’ memorisation practice and of educators’ policy Such practice and policy can be highly complex; memorisation may or may not lead to learning success; policy may or may not be inclusive towards student learning Secondly, the two educational settings of Australia and China can represent two distinctive cultures of learning; while one is drawn towards critical thinking, the other is drawn towards the foundation of knowledge Looking forward, the message which I would like to convey to TESOL practitioners and researchers is that these two seemingly opposing views not have to be contradictory but can be mutually complementary In other words, it seems unnecessary to establish the dichotomy between memorised knowledge and a critical thinking facility Instead, as educators, it is important to be able to see students’ learning repertoires and encourage learners to practise their own combination of abilities so that the optimal learning impact can be achieved The discussion closes here with my recommendation that memorisation if practised as a range of learning strategies can contribute greatly to a meaningful classroom process Memorising is an effective technique for learning English as a second language There is a great deal of potential in the ability to connect memorised knowledge and creative use of that knowledge in yielding positive outcomes in student learning Such pedagogical structures need to be reframed in the second language curriculum to help remove the stereotype formed regarding certain communities of learners as being rote learners REFERENCES Anderson, D., & Reilly, J (2002) The MacArthur communicative development inventory: Normative data for American Sign Language Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 7(2), 83–106 Aoki, K (2008) Confucius vs Socrates: The impact of educational traditions of East and West in a global age The International Journal of Learning, 14, 35–40 Baus, C., Carreiras, M., & Emmorey, K (2013) When does iconicity in sign language matter? 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