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Tiêu đề US-China Education Review A
Trường học David Publishing Company
Thể loại journal
Năm xuất bản 2015
Thành phố Libertyville
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Số trang 68
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US-China Education Review A Volume 5, Number 8, August 2015 (Serial Number 51) David Publishing David Publishing Company www.davidpublisher.com Publication Information: US-China Education Review A (Earlier title: US-China Education Review, ISSN 1548-6613) is published monthly in hard copy (ISSN 2161-623X) by David Publishing Company located at 1840 Industrial Drive, Suite 160, Libertyville, IL 60048, USA Aims and Scope: US-China Education Review A, a monthly professional academic journal, covers all sorts of education-practice researches on Higher Education, Higher Educational Management, Educational Psychology, Teacher Education, Curriculum and Teaching, Educational Technology, Educational Economics and Management, Educational Theory and Principle, Educational Policy and Administration, Sociology of Education, Educational Methodology, Comparative Education, Vocational and Technical Education, Special Education, Educational Philosophy, Elementary Education, Science Education, Lifelong Learning, Adult Education, Distance Education, Preschool Education, Primary Education, Secondary Education, Art Education, Rural Education, Environmental Education, Health Education, History of Education, Education and Culture, Education Law, Educational Evaluation and Assessment, Physical Education, Educational Consulting, Educational Training, Moral Education, Family Education, the Educational Reform and Development, the Hot Issues and Controversies of the Globalization of Education as well as other issues Editorial Board Members: Asst Prof Dr Güner Tural Prof Alexandro Escudero Prof Diane Schwartz Prof Gordana Jovanovic Dolecek Prof Käthe Schneider Prof Michael Eskay Prof Smirnov Eugeny Associate Prof Rosalinda Hernandez Prof Cameron Scott White Prof Ghazi M Ghaith Prof Grigorios Karafillis Prof Lihshing Leigh Wang Prof Okechukwu Sunday Abonyi Prof Yea-Ling Tsao Prof Aaron W Hughey Prof Deonarain Brijlall Prof Gil-Garcia, Ana Prof James L Morrison Prof Mercedes Ruiz Lozano Prof Peter Hills Manuscripts and correspondence are invited for publication You can submit your papers via Web submission, or E-mail to teacher@davidpublishing.com or teacher@davidpublishing.org Submission guidelines and Web submission system are available at http://www.davidpublishing.com Editorial Office: 1840 Industrial Drive, Suite 160, Libertyville, IL 60048, USA Tel: 1-323-984-7526, 323-410-1082 Fax: 1-323-984-7374, 323-908-0457 E-mail: teacher@davidpublishing.com; teacher@davidpublishing.org; education1548@hotmail.com; or edu1658@yahoo.com Copyright©2015 by David Publishing Company and individual contributors All rights reserved David Publishing Company holds the exclusive copyright of all the contents of this journal In accordance with the international convention, no part of this journal may be reproduced or transmitted by any media or publishing organs (including various Websites) without the written permission of the copyright holder Otherwise, any conduct would be considered as the violation of the copyright The contents of this journal are available for any citation However, all the citations should be clearly indicated with the title of this journal, serial number and the name of the author Abstracted/Indexed in: Database of EBSCO, Massachusetts, USA Chinese Database of CEPS, American Federal Computer Library center (OCLC), USA Chinese Scientific Journals Database, VIP Corporation, Chongqing, P.R.C Ulrich’s Periodicals Directory ASSIA database and LLBA database of ProQuest NSD (Norwegian Social Science Data Service), Database for Statistics on Higher Education (DBH), Norway Universe Digital Library Sdn Bhd (UDLSB), Malaysia Excellent papers in ERIC Summon Serials Solutions Polish Scholarly Bibliography (PBN) Turkish Education Index Google Scholar CNKI J-GATE Scribd Digital Library Airiti Academic Key Electronic Journals Library (EZB) Subscription Information: Price (per year): Print $600 Online $480 Print and Online $800 David Publishing Company 1840 Industrial Drive, Suite 160, Libertyville, IL 60048, USA Tel: 1-323-984-7526, 323-410-1082 Fax: 1-323-984-7374, 323-908-0457 E-mail: order@davidpublishing.org D DAVID PUBLISHING David Publishing Company www.davidpublisher.com CiteFactor, USA SJournal Index Scientific Indexing Services New Jour Pubicon Science Sherpa Romeo Scholarsteer WorldCat Infobase Index Free Libs Pubget CrossRef US-China Education Review A Volume 5, Number 8, August 2015 (Serial Number 51) Contents Higher Education Senior High School Students’ Perceptions of Internationalization of Higher Education 511 Tsung-Ming Liu Curriculum and Teaching A Direct Vocabulary Teaching Model Based on Three Paradigms of Connection: An Action Research 526 Laurie Xiang Lu Smartphones for Teaching and Learning With Engineering Students 539 Alexis Tejedor De León Teacher Education Conceptualizations, Principles, Guidelines, and Models and Teaching Practice Present in Teacher Training 547 Claudio Pinto Nunes Educational Management Monitorship and Collaboration: The Creation of a Development Place 555 Márcia Sueli Pereira da Silva Schneider Educational Theory Learning to Learn: Basic Principles 563 Sinan Çaya Special Education The Use of Multimedia in Higher Special Education Zhao Chun-hui, Liu Fu 568 US-China Education Review A, August 2015, Vol 5, No 8, 511-525 doi:10.17265/2161-623X/2015.08.001 D DAVID PUBLISHING Senior High School Students’ Perceptions of Internationalization of Higher Education Tsung-Ming Liu National Chi Nan University, Nantao, Taiwan  Due to the dramatic increase of higher education institutions during the past decades, senior high school students in Taiwan have enjoyed easier access to higher education than never before On the other hand, colleges and universities are facing unprecedented competition on recruitment of students with the tendency of fewer children worsening year after year To cope with this challenge, internationalization has become an important strategy to attract students both from abroad and domestically Because domestic students still constitute the main part of the student body in each college and university so far, it is important to understand how senior high school students perceive internationalization of higher education The purpose of this study is to investigate senior high school students’ perceptions of internationalization in colleges and universities in Taiwan, which can be put into consideration by staff of higher education sectors looking for strategies to boost the sustainability and competitiveness in higher education institutions Eight senior high school students were interviewed to explore their perceptions of internationalization in colleges and universities Findings suggest that internationalization is a significant factor that affects students’ choice of colleges and universities and is supported by most students The main theme of students’ perceptions of internationalization is “walking out” to know more about different cultures in other countries Concerns emerge when foreign language competency is insufficient or opposition from parents interferes with students’ plans to go abroad Domestic students might also be afraid that recruiting international students may influence their admission opportunities Necessity of some practices needs to be considered Recommendations are proposed for students, higher education sectors, and future researchers Keywords: senior high school students, perception, internationalization of higher education Introduction With the booming of higher education institutions in Taiwan during the past decades, senior high school students enjoy much more opportunities to access higher education than ever before In 1950, there were only eight colleges and universities in Taiwan and only elites of the society could have higher education The number went up dramatically and reached its peak of 163 in 2006, and then there was a slight decline By the year 2014, there were still 159 colleges and universities in Taiwan (Ministry of Education, 2015), far more than neighboring areas and countries in terms of the population size of this island Higher education has become a popular choice of ordinary people after they graduate from high school On the other hand, the competition on recruiting students among colleges has toughened unprecedentedly with the trend of fewer children worsening year after year To cope with this competition, internationalization  Tsung-Ming Liu, Ph.D candidate, Department of International and Comparative Education, National Chi Nan University   PERCEPTIONS OF INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION 512 has become an important strategy for many colleges and universities The purpose of internationalization has two folds in this issue—to recruit international students and to attract domestic high school graduates In recent years, more and more elite senior high school graduates decide to go to colleges in Hong Kong and mainland China In addition to excellent scholarship, internationalization is the key reason for the decision made by those students (Feng, 2015) So far, domestic students still constitute the major part of the student body in colleges and universities, but the trend of going international is noteworthy It is important, therefore, to understand how senior high school students perceive internationalization of higher education, because higher level of internationalization may be more attractive to students and improve recruitment of new students The purpose of the present study is to investigate senior high school students’ perceptions of internationalization in universities in Taiwan The verb “perceive” means “to become aware, know, or identify by means of senses” It also means “to recognize, discern, envision, or understand” (Dictionary.com, 2015) The noun form of the word “perceive” is “perception” and can be understood as knowledge, understanding, and attitudes towards something In the present study, it refers to knowledge, understanding, and attitudes towards internationalization of higher education Recommendations will be proposed for students, higher education sectors, and future researchers according to the results The research questions are as follows: What senior high school students think of the internationalization practices in colleges and universities? How internationalization practices in colleges and universities affect senior high school students’ choice of colleges or universities? Literature Review Definition of Internationalization of Higher Education Internationalization has become a common term widely used in contexts that involve more than one nation However, it is still difficult to give it an exact definition due to the complexity of its nature So far, there is not a commonly agreed definition of the term by researchers Different researchers describe internationalization of higher education differently according to their own perspectives Some focus on foreign language education while others emphasize the exchange of teachers and students with other countries Still some others argue that educational exchange and technological cooperation are the key points (Yang, 2004) Some researchers hold that internationalization is a process Knight (1993) saw internationalization of higher education as the process of integrating an international/intercultural element into the teaching, research, and service functions of the institution This definition describes internationalization as a dynamic process than a set of fixed activities and points to the basic functions of a higher education institution—teaching, research, and service A similar definition was proposed by Maudarbekova and Kashkinbayeva (2014), who defined internationalization of education as the process including international aspects in the research, teaching, and administrative activities of schools Ellingboe (1998) explained that internationalization is a complex process of incorporating an international perspective into a higher education institution “that involves many stakeholders working to change the internal dynamics of an institution to respond and adapt appropriately to an increasingly diverse, globally focused, ever-changing external environment” (p 199) However, detailed projects and plans are needed when it comes to practice in real situations Hamrick (1999) argued that there are at least four ways to describe internationalization in higher education The traditional view of internationalization includes the academic activities under the heading of “International   PERCEPTIONS OF INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION 513 Studies”, including various courses that develop intercultural adaptability A second view of internationalization includes activities that facilitate the interaction of domestic students with foreign students and faculty to build a sense of global community, such as studying abroad and recruitment of international students and faculty The third view is international education as foreign aid or technical assistance to other countries, primarily developing countries The fourth view on internationalization is preparing people to function in an increasingly international and culturally diverse environment Evidently, these four views are not mutually exclusive and are all parts of the concept of internationalization Yang (2004) argued that internationalization is usually defined by the activity perspective At the same time, definition of internationalization is country-specific To adjust to the nature of senior high school students who have not had much experience in this field, the present study defines internationalization of higher education as activities held by colleges or universities to increase the interaction between domestic students and foreign students and faculty Those activities include academic exchange with foreign colleges or universities, professional courses taught in English, English proficiency training for all students, recruiting international students, recruiting international faculty, faculty exchanges with foreign colleges or universities, students exchanges with foreign colleges or universities, and setting up mutually recognized courses and programs with foreign colleges or universities Reasons for Internationalization of Higher Education The importance of internationalization of higher education seems to be widely recognized both by the administrative and academic sectors More and more countries are formulating various policies to internationalize their higher education institutions Japan has a comprehensive account of strategies to increase the level of internationalization of its universities in the 2008 White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan, 2008) The European University Association (EUA), with approximately 850 members in 47 countries, stated in its 2013 membership consultation survey that 99% of institutions that replied to the survey either have an internationalization strategy in place (56%), intend to develop one (13%), or have considered internationalization in other strategies (30%) In Taiwan, Ministry of Education (2001) proposed the White Paper on University Education Policy in which the insufficiency of internationalization in higher education is identified and related policies are rendered to address the issue Several reasons for internationalization of higher education have been offered by researchers in different levels—personal, institutional, national, and global At the personal level, internationalization offers opportunities for students and faculty to gain new perspectives and be internationally oriented (Bordean & Borza, 2013) At the institutional level, there are several reasons for internationalization First, internationalization provides financial benefits from recruiting international students which help a college or university survive in the highly competitive environment (Qiang, 2003) Second, internationalization of higher education is a key criterion in the majority of university rankings Higher level of internationalization gives advantage to a college or university in coping with the pressure of becoming more entrepreneurial (Anderseck, 2004; Deem, Mok, & Lucas, 2008) Third, internationalization yields new perspectives in terms of quality assurance within universities (Bordean & Borza, 2013) At the national level, Ardakani, Yarmohammadian, Abari, and Fathi (2011) claimed that internationalization is an efficient strategy to fulfill the various needs of the international community This is considered from the national economic perspective The economic benefits   PERCEPTIONS OF INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION 514 of internationalization include national income from the expenses of international students in the country and the development of internationally competitive workforce to meet the demands of globalized society, economy, and labor markets (Qiang, 2003) At the global level, the reason for internationalization lies in the nature of higher education itself One of the missions of colleges and universities is the pursuit of universal knowledge that transcends national borders Using the knowledge to raise human well-being is usually not restricted in a nation Therefore, one of the reasons for internationalization of higher education is based on the nature of higher education to pursue universal knowledge and human well-being for all (Yang, 2004) Internationalization as Attraction to Senior High School Students Internationalization of higher education has been practiced in many colleges and universities around the world In Taiwan, many colleges and universities also have units of school administration that deal with affairs of internationalization In the mission or philosophy statement, many universities include internationalization as a key element to enhance their attractiveness For example, the first item of mission statement of National Chi Nan University (NCNU), a public university in central Taiwan, is to develop students’ forward-thinking and international perspective (NCNU, 2015) In the mission statement of National Taipei University (NTPU), which is located in Taipei City, the president wants to transform the passiveness of dealing with internationalization into proactive attraction (NTPU, 2015) Meiho University, a technological university in Southern Taiwan, states internationalization as one of its philosophies of education (Meiho University, 2015) Though the importance of internationalization of higher education is generally recognized, how attractive internationalization of higher education is to senior high school students has not been formally researched so far The purpose of the present study is going to conduct a formal research on this field to find empirical evidence of this issue Methodology According the purpose of the present study, the researcher has to collect data from senior high school students to explore how they perceive internationalization of higher education Qualitative design is applied in this research to find out the patterns and scopes of students’ description of their perception of internationalization of higher education Interview Questions As is shown in the literature review, internationalization is a complex concept and defined differently by different researchers To adjust to the characteristics and experiences of senior high school students in Taiwan, the researcher defines internationalization as activities held by colleges or universities to increase the interaction between domestic students and foreign students and faculty These activities include academic exchange, courses taught in English, English language training, recruiting international students, recruiting international faculty, exchange of teachers, exchange of students, and building up mutually recognized courses with foreign universities The nine interview questions of this research are as follows: What you think of international academic exchange of a university? Why? What you think of university courses taught in English? Why? What you think of English training for all students in a university? Why? What you think of recruitment of international students by a university? Why? What you think of recruitment of international faculty by a university? Why?   PERCEPTIONS OF INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION 515 What you think of exchange of faculty between domestic and foreign universities? Why? What you think of exchange of student between domestic and foreign universities? Why? What you think of building up of mutually recognized courses between domestic and foreign universities? Do you think the level of internationalization will affect your choice of a university? Why? Participants Participants of the present study were recruited from a senior high school in central Taiwan Senior high school students in Taiwan are streamed into two groups (liberal art group and science group) according to their aptitudes and interests since the second year To increase the diversity of the participants, the researcher recruited male and female senior students from different classes of both liberal art group and science group Eight participants in total were recruited and referred to as Liberal Art Male (LM1), Liberal Art Male (LM2), Liberal Art Female (LF1), Liberal Art Female (LF2), Science Male (SM1), Science Male (SM2), Science Female (SF1), and Science Female (SF2) Procedures Before the interview of each participant, an appointment was made according to the principle that the participants were not affected by an important coming event so that the participants can concentrate on the interview A quiet and safe place without the interruption of other people was arranged The researcher told each participant that the interview would be recorded, but the content would be kept confidential and only be used in the research report without revealing his/her true name The participants could answer the interview questions with ease All the interviews were conducted in Chinese during April of 2015 and were finished within two weeks Transcriptions were made after the all interviews and data were analyzed to yield the results in the next section Quoted transcriptions are translated into English by the researcher who is an English teacher Results Results show that there are a number of positive aspects of internationalization of higher education perceived by senior high school students However, the positive view not appear without concern The results of the interview will be presented and discussed in three parts: (a) positive aspects of internationalization of higher education perceived by senior high school students; (b) concerns of internationalization of higher education perceived by senior high school students; and (c) internationalization as an attraction to senior high school students The first two parts correspond to the first eight interview questions and the third part correspond to the last interview question The results of the last interview question is discussed separately because it corresponds to main purpose of this study Positive Aspects of Internationalization of Higher Education Perceived by Senior High School Students On each of the questions about internationalization of higher education, students mostly have positive perceptions Detailed results are presented and discussed according to the subjects of interview questions below Academic exchange There are four positive aspects about academic exchange—international perspective, knowledge, social, and economy These four aspects are discussed below The international perspective aspect of academic exchange and its related notions like broadening horizons and worldview appear to be dominant in the participants’ answers Each participant that mentions international   MONITORSHIP AND COLLABORATION 559 Table Reflective Session (04/06/2005) T: As I am studying modern language so they (school) called me invited me , so I was a little bit afraid in accepting it (Certainty/Epistemic), because I said if I cannot it well (Appreciative), it is better not to accept (Epistemic) so I said but I not have knowledge (Epistemic) What I can do? I not want to teach in the same way (Pragmatic), because if they (school) want other teacher I not know I have to work in a different way (Deontic) I have to something different (Deontic) because it is no use doing the same way they (school) want something different Table Initial Description (Part II) T: Besides, the didactical material that was being used, and the way the class of English was being worked, were not in accordance with everything I have studied at a college (Certainty/Epistemic) The analyses, on one hand, show the sense of the teacher which indicates a traditional teaching in the school, on the other hand, through her internal conflicts, show her consciousness of having to promote changes Her perception of it takes her to try to understand and reflect about the context in which she would work (see Table 4) Table Reflective Session (24/05/2005, Part I) T: I have already been thinking (Psychological) “My God! what…” We have already had a different thinking (Certainty/Epistemic) from that teacher that was working there because I not know we are here at a college … we see every time that we have to work something interesting (Deontic) that we have to work new things (Deontic) it is different né so I have already been thinking (Psychological) that I would find a way to work in a different way (Intention/Pragmatic) Her conflict, understood in a social, historical, and cultural perspective (Vygotsky, 1934/2001), takes us to notice how the environment makes possible the transformation and the evolution of the thinking, since when she accepted to work with children in basic level, she tried to understand and reflect about the context in which she would work, and from that, find solutions to change it The collaborative work between the researcher and the teacher to develop a monitorship work in classroom The analyses of the reflective session (29/04/2005) (see Tables and 6) review the interaction happened between the researcher and the teacher to think about the work with monitorship The analyses show the researcher’s worry in developing the work, such as group formation, student monitor turnrounds, procedure of the teacher during the work, and so on Table Reflective Session (24/05/2005, Part II) R: (…) Which the criteria for the distribution of the students in groups … ok? … because you are going to think I not know 30 students in how many groups we are going to divide them it cannot be a big group Table Reflective Session (24/05/2005, Part III) R: (…) Which the criteria for the monitor a thing now you are talking about this group … the turnrounds because they will no be in a only one group T: Ok … so … because … we have to the turnround The participation and co-responsibility of the researcher in developing the work is showed by the factive verb used (“We are going to divide them”)   MONITORSHIP AND COLLABORATION 560 During the interaction, it can be seen that the researcher tried to involve the teacher, creating a zone (Vygotsky, 1934/2001) for building the meanings collaboratively, when, for instance, making use of challenge questions, asking for explanation, and giving the teacher the opportunity to reflect and talk about her initial attempt of work The analyses in Table show that the first problem found reflects what normally happen in class when they have to work in group—do not accept the leader or they choose who they are going to work with These show up the difficulty in developing a work in group and the necessity of developing in the students the necessary factors that take them to relate to or interact with others to work together (Delors, 2003) Table Reflective Session (24/05/2005, Part IV) R: Have you tried to put some and what happened? T: I divided the class because I … at first, because the girls would like to work together because the class has less girls … I am going to talk with them why not mix so that one minute so we formed the groups and I tried this way … that student that I thought that would show a big facility leadership … so I think this to choose and put them into the groups I think that I thought that in my class … I thought we got a good result I think it was very well but two groups can’t work together they can’t R: Why? T: Because the students not want… Got it? One student does not accept to work … He says “I not want you as a leader” … Got it? “Otherstudents could lead me but not you”… Sometimes, it happens … so I cannot … I cannot it … né? The difficulty pointed by the teacher shows the culture of the school where the work is realized in a traditional mold—Students sitting in a line and the teacher as a holder of knowledge It shows the difficulty of running away from the pedagogical practice based on Cartesian method Faced with it, the researcher tries to find ways to solve the problem and show the teacher the positive points in a work developed in group; tries to create a context to clarify the sense of working with monitorhip For that, the researcher reinforces the necessity of turnrounds the monitor in the groups, pointing that this turnround as a possible solution for the problem and as a tool to the teacher to rethink the group formation As can be seen from Table 8, during the reflective process, the sense of the teacher in relation to the turnround and the work in group is changed from the meanings shared with the researcher This reflective process shows that the constant built and transformation of the human being happen through the interaction, and the opportunities that the teacher and the researcher had for positioning, put their opinions, confronting the problem, giving them the opportunity to find the answer, through a collaborative process (Brookfield, 1999) This reflective process also shows how the learning should be—knowing how to relate to and interact with others (Stambak, 2004; John-Steiner & Manh, 1996), and the responsibility of all in the development This responsibility can be seen in the letters (see Tables and 10) that were sent to the researcher by the students where they show the evaluation of the work developed in group and their sense in relation to the monitor’s role and the different habits of learning On one hand, the work provides that the teacher and the researcher shared meanings, changed their senses, and built their knowledge, on the other hand, it provides that the teacher took the classroom this practice, trying to stimulate the students to the work, letting them to give their position and, by negotiation, find the solution for the problem, that is it, letting them to build their knowledge collaboratively   MONITORSHIP AND COLLABORATION 561 The teacher’s position is exactly what is hoped for a pedagogical practice in this new conception of education, that is it, to make the students realize that they are active agents in their knowledge building (see Table 11) Table Reflective Session (24/05/2005, Part V) R: ( ) A thing now you are talking about these groups the turnround because they (student monitor) cannot only stay with that group T: Ok so because it have to the turnround? R: Yes T: So I thought exactly this because (…) but I think this way for instance if I put the monitor a child that has more facility there I put him … he (monitor) developed in that activity that I asked that group did it very well everybody (students of the groups) contributed that group will have a different development from the other groups it is not only responsibility of the monitor was the group … they are going to have a different development from the group where there is no contribution … so I have to the turnround R: So … we also have … we have to think because it always have in class the student that not want to work not like to work with “that” student but why not like? T: Yes … this work R: This is the point the work with monitorship also gives condition to you work in this point … it is to bring that excluded student to the group T: It’s really true! Table Letter of the Student X (…) I like English class, and I like to work in group I like to work in group because I teach and learn with my colleagues But I know that lots have difficulties It is necessary to study a lot, learn new words (…) When I am working in a group, I not tell them off, I just help them, I talk with them, I explain, but I not the activity for them, because they will never learn Table 10 Letter of the Student Y (…) I think that this project is very interesting Working in group is nice but there are children that think the monitor has to everything for them, but not, the monitor is that person that knows a little bit more than the others, as you said in the video, the monitor has to help the other and not the job Table 11 Reflective Session (04/06/2005) T: (…) I noticed and I said “Guys! it too … after you talk about the answer, because it is no use he (monitor) does because you will not have another opinion”! (…) Let us think … look back to the text (…) Conclusion Teachers are constantly in a new context of work and by lots of reasons, they feel unprepared to act with this new situation This difficulty lies, principally, in understanding the necessities of the students and the relation between theory and practice It can be seen that monitorship, while as a tool for the reflective process, provided that new meanings were produced from sharing senses; provided the reflection about the teaching-learning process in the school and to the teacher’s realization that he/she was not the principal part of it While as a tool of the teaching-learning process, the work developed through the monitorship contributed to students’ realization that they are a responsible part of the process and knowledge building occurs through sharing senses   MONITORSHIP AND COLLABORATION 562 References Antunes, C (2002) Vygotsky, quem diria?! Em minha sala de aula (Vygotsky, who would have thought it?! In my classroom) Petrópolis, R.J.: Vozes Bronckart, J P (1997/1999) Atividade de linguagem, textos e discursos: Por um interacionismo sócio-discursivo (Language activity, texts and discourse: For a socio-discursive interactionism) São Paulo: EDUC Brookfield, S (1987) Developing critical thinkers: Challenging adults to explore alternative ways of thinking and acting San Francisco, C.A.: Jossey-Bass Publishers Brookfield, S (1999) Discussion as a way of teaching: Tools and techniques for democratic classrooms São Francisco, C.A.: Jossey-Bass Publishers Celani, M A A (2005) Questões de ética na pesquisa em lingüística aplicada (Ethical issues in applied linguistics research) Linguagem & Ensino, 8(1), 101-122 Delors, J (2003) Educaỗóo: Um tesouro a descobrir (Education: A treasure to be found) São Paulo: Cortez Faria, J P (2003) A monitoria como prática colaborativa na universidade (Monitoring as collaborative practice at the university) (Master’s thesis, LAEL-PUC/SP) Freire, P (2000) Pedagogia oprimido (Pedagogy of the oppressed) São Paulo: Paz e Terra Freire, P (2001) Educaỗóo e mudanỗa (Education and changing) Sóo Paulo: Paz e Terra John-Steiner, V., & Mahn, H (1996) Sociocultural approaches to learning and development: Vygotskian framework Retrieved from http://webpages.charter.net/schmolze1/vygotsky/johnsteiner.html Lei de Diretrizes E Bases Da Educaỗóo Nacional (LDB) (1996) LEI nº 9394-96 de Dezembrode 1996 (Law No 9394-96 of December 1996) Retrieved from http://www.planalto.gov.br/CCIVIL/leis/L9394.htm Leont’ev, A N (1904/1959) O desenvolvimento psiquismo (Psyche development) São Paulo: Editora Moraes Ltda Stambak, M (2004) Dar vontade de aprender a todos: O desafio cresas (Making everyone want to learn: The Cresas’ challenge) In F Platone, & M Hardy (Eds.), Ninguém ensina sozinho: Responsabilidade coletiva na creche, no ensino fundamental e no ensino médio (No one teaches by themselves: Collective responsibility in the nursery, elementary school and high school) (pp 23-33) Porto Alegre: Artmed Vygotsky, L S (1934/1998) A formaỗóo social da mente: O desenvolvimento dos processos psícológicos superiors (The social formation of the mind: The development of higher psychological processes) São Paulo: Martins Fontes Vygotsky, L S (1934/2001) A psicologia e o mestre (Psychology and the master) In L S Vygotsky (Ed.), Psicologia pedagógica (Pedagogical psychology) São Paulo: Martins Fontes   US-China Education Review A, August 2015, Vol 5, No 8, 563-567 doi:10.17265/2161-623X/2015.08.006 D DAVID PUBLISHING Learning to Learn: Basic Principles Sinan Çaya Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey A Chinese proverb says, “Do not give me fish; instead, teach me how to fish!!” A big advance in education occurred in an accelerated trend along with modernization by teaching students how to attain knowledge by themselves, instead of providing them with readily given knowledge Accordingly, students came to gain independence from the teacher Along the course of history, possibilities enabling this understanding commenced with the abundance of published books As this understanding prevailed, education came to be more motivating, more inciting, and more free while its effectiveness certainly grew Keywords: learning, teacher, student, research, education, enthusiasm Introduction Today, instead of providing students with “ready-made” knowledge and leading them to memorize it (which almost automatically follows once the “spoon-feeding” is affected) (see Figure 1), as research displays, it is encouraged that students reach the knowledge through their own means Figure The teacher asks, “Why did you not memorize the Logarithmic Table?” (Illustration by the author) This philosophy can briefly be named as “learning to learn” In the model of learning to learn, the school takes each student as an individual being able to think and full of responsibility Thus, the school rescues him/her from being an anonymous and insignificant part of a throng Sinan Çaya, Ph.D., instructor, Institute of Marine Administration and Sciences, Istanbul University   LEARNING TO LEARN: BASIC PRINCIPLES 564 This idea represents appreciating the student personality and urging him/her in the direction of self-development In this manner, the student is expected to acquire self-control and conscience Memorization is discarded and is replaced by comprehension, research, and generation of information As the concept takes root within the student mentality, the teacher keeps getting motivated, accordingly He/she evolves into more pleasure giving and more relaxing teaching methods After all, he/she is now a vis-à-vis enthusiastic, serious, and knowledge-thirsty young being The teacher learns from the students also, especially regarding term papers and projects The eagerness is a mutual aim As a matter of fact, one-sided motivation does not count much when it comes to talk about interaction The Moral Value of the Model Learning to learn at the same time ensures honesty, self-confidence, moral courage, and love of democracy thanks to the educative ambiance it constructs Once the model is applied properly, the principle of equal opportunities also comes to flourish Instead of a wild and careless competition, now a gentlemanly race with a sweet and becoming tone gets to prevail Emulation, rather than sheer imitation, gains ground One tends to appropriate and internalize his/her classmate’s virtues and even further develop them Various students constitute positive examples for one another It would be realistic to point out that this moral dimension is late in ripening Lawrence Kohlberg’s (1927-1987) theory holds that moral reasoning, the basis for ethical behavior, follows six stages each more adequate than the preceding one It does not form overnight (Unpublished class notes for the course of Behavioral Sciences for Engineers, Faculty of Engineering, Marmara University, Sinan Çaya, 2015) Let us suppose that a certain housewife likes a meal offered to her by a neighbor woman and asks for the recipe of that delicious meal She is anxious to prepare such a dish all by herself Her head is full of Turkish proverbs like “It is not a shame to ask; it is a shame to stay ignorant” or “Knowledge increases as it gets distributed to others” But in practice, is everybody so generous in displaying or revealing useful knowledge? Is it an irresistible pleasure to act as a counselor, for everyone? Maybe the owner of the recipe had obtained it the hard way back in previous years Maybe she had kept imploring another neighbor in order to get it She could easily conceal her talent and invent excuses for grounding her jealousy But the asker may proceed with words like “I shall announce everyone that you gave me the description Your prestige in this quarter will rise tremendously!” Perhaps this cunning approach will solve the problem The would-be-giver now considers a public esteem besides a word of simple compliment In a sense, she is bestowed with a “copyright” in the art of cookery In an ethical environment, negative happenings and mistakes sink to a minimum level Communication channels stay wide open Detrimental gossip and whispering and discord cannot find opportunities It has been told that if one cannot speak up, then he/she resorts to mumbling Why would one mumble if he/she can literally and distinctly talk? Let us suppose that a student thinks that his/her teacher dislikes him/her as a person The best solution would be to go and talk the issue with the teacher If his/her style is respectful and conveniently tactful, it should trigger a self-evaluation on the part of the teacher even if the ego of the teacher previously had been largely involved in the equation The student himself/herself will probably acquire a new insight more emphatic than before He/she would differentiate between different characters A tolerance atmosphere thus creep into the relationship “As Le Senne points out, some characters represent the passionate personality and such an   LEARNING TO LEARN: BASIC PRINCIPLES 565 individual wants to be considered important and likes to emphasize himself” (Palmade, 1953, pp 104-107) Might not the teacher fall into that particular category, for instance? If a solution cannot be obtained in a situation like that depicted above, the result may be a self-fulfilling prophecy The wrong idea of the authority figure may become a reality The student gets demoralized He/she thinks that he/she will flunk even if he/she does study The teacher proves to be “right” in his/her prejudices Indeed, a Turkish idiom says that a powerful person can transform one into a vizier1 or a miserable person The Situation of the Individual In a social climate well representing the concept of learning to learn, many positive results are generated via interactions of persons But, a person devoid of such an ambiance can also make progress in self-building all by himself/herself! A young person may constantly take measures in the direction of self-development Why play backgammon instead of chess? Why not seek a high-level debate in real life or on TV instead of a meeting full of idle words and slang? Why not find a good book and go concentrate in reading it somewhere? One may help an aged and intellectual neighbor and urge him/her to talk and, in this manner, “distill” precious knowledge from his/her vast life experience (Especially in Western societies, the service sector is highly-developed and institutionalized while part-time jobs are easily arranged for students) Possibilities are diversified If I were a young student in such a world, I would not opt for dog-walking or baby-sitting or window-cleaning; I would be nursing an aged retired social; I would equip myself with bits of information spilling over this monument of knowledge! I would be introduced to new words and concepts through this sophisticated mouth, continuously orienting and navigating the conversation towards my favored topics as much as possible; and I would explore or even grope for old memories full of scientific flavor, urging the protagonist to share them all with me! Two Turning Points in Education, in Turkey Two important breakthroughs in the field of education in Turkish near history are worth of mentioning The first is the educational reform in late Ottoman era commencing after the Reformation of 1839 and getting re-shaped after 1880s and influencing the Ottoman intellectuals The modern schooling, unlike the former madrasa, got based on books In medieval times, it used to be awfully difficult to find books The Hodga (instructor) would relate the content of a book, having himself read it, above all, books became avaiable Higher School of Political Sciences, Higher School of Medicine, and Military Schools are the fruits of that new investment Student Mustafa Kemal and other commandants of the Turkish War of Independence had all benefited from these campaigns of getting informed They became able to reach books in French in their young years (Mardin, 1983) The second leap is the Alphabet Revolution in 1928 The old scripture was difficult The Arabic letters were not really compatible with Turkish wording Vocals were very few in number Words could not be written as they were pronounced (modern Turkish writing is now completely phonetic) Written words were sometimes guessed from the context (On the other hand, the break with the former culture due to the loss of the older scripture is also true and this issue forms a separate gigantic topic of debate) An interesting social development is Turkish people’s embracing the new scripture Benoist-Méchin (1954, The opposing words rhyme in Turkish (vezir & rezil) and this reinforces the effect   LEARNING TO LEARN: BASIC PRINCIPLES 566 p 424) related that the success even transcended the hopes The reaction of the people was very different than the reaction displayed to the abolishment of the fez and taking up of the European hat as head-cover The new scripture was appealing to the peasantry, because it was regarded as a privilege It was the road to knowledge and achievement Beating ignorance meant beating poverty A Famous Learning Experiment The roots of the learning experience can be traced back to an experiment carried out by Harry Harlow2 and his associates in the 1950s, whereby apes were employed as subjects in cages The apes were presented with different objects in trays If the ape came up with the right choice, he obtained hidden food samples beneath the object, i.e., he got rewarded After many repetitions, the subjects found out to differentiate the objects skillfully They learned problem-solving In a certain case, they picked out a triangular stuff as the right one nearby two round stuffs In another occasion, they chose a fork as the right kitchen utensil nearby two knives They could discern that the right object may be defined by shape, color, or size Harlow accepted this sudden learning insight as an expansion of the former theoretical concept of transfer (N A Sprinthal & R C Sprinthal, 1990, p 257) It is convenient to arrange similar experiments with animals because their previous experiences can be controlled It would not work with human beings as (Karn & Weitz, 1955, pp 118-119) In those experiences, the organization of learning proves to be hierarchic Smaller learning gains can be used for bigger purposes (D Wrench & C Wrench, 1973, p 91) Indeed, small parts may eventually lead to complicated inventions as a whole, verifying creativity on the part of the maker The former discoveries of dogs salivating at the sound of a bell as if meat were presented, carried out by Russian scientist Pavlov in 1904 and known as classical conditioning, were much more simple achievements (Karn & Weitz, 1955, p 84) On the other hand, it was known that the newly-hatched duck-chickens instinctively follow the first moving being (normally the female duck) In 1937, Lorenz caused the newly-hatched duck-chickens follow himself He called the phenomenon imprinting (Liebert, Poulos, & Marmor, 1977, p 291) A Balance of Realities and Fantasies One should come up with a good equilibrium between realism and imagination Discovery and creativity are favored by imagination and fantasy, while applications are based on realistic conceptions A French scholar described his former youth efforts to conquer the castles of knowledge with relentless efforts at the time Then he went on as follows: I talked about myself but you must have recognized yourselves3 in the narrations of those lived adventures You also know this old dramatic game between abstract intellectualism and activism Perhaps this (age-old) conflict should be resolved somewhere in-between Everything should be altered with respect to its opposite It would be hazardous for us to consume all our energies after abstract ideals To overcome this risk, let us release our pack of wolves bursting with a wish In a later experiment, Harlow put a young ape in a cage and introduced two surrogate mothers One is made of coils; it is cold and rigid The other is a puffy teddy-monkey toy; it is soft and reassuring The milk bottle is attached to the former and it is also the feeder Despite the feeding capability of the coil-mother, when a confederate of the experiment frightens the young ape, he goes and seeks comfort in the bosom of the soft-mother This experiment is an indication of the significance of a mild, easy atmosphere for the healthy growth of children Indeed, hermeneutical (interpretive) sociologist Hans-Georg Gadamer elaborated the concept of “fusion of horizons” (horizons verschmelzung) The concept involves a reader’s somehow devising or finding ways of relating a given reading text to his/her own background.    LEARNING TO LEARN: BASIC PRINCIPLES 567 of action! Let us be down-to-earth, rather than day-dreamers But let the howling of the wolves not repress the voices of the abstract intelligence, either Let the abstract intelligence stand up and clack its own whip of sovereignty among the wolves from time to time! (Rouges, 1936, pp 14-15) Conclusion A young scholar aware of the importance of learning to learn recognizes the precious value of the passing time His main concern is always deepening his knowledge He knows how to be selective in today’s world where a pollution of information is also a concern to calculate Accordingly, he gives priority to sort out what is useful and what is in his affinity, to begin with He grasps that life is a construction made up of all shades of gray and not only black and white He aims at obtaining an optimization under the given circumstances He does not disobey the laws of nature He would not go to his former teachers and ask accounts with words like “You claimed to have taught me the right things But life proved to be full of crooked things as many as straight ones and I got astonished to witness that!” He knows that problems are ever-present, but they can be attacked and got over and this is a resolute process References Benoist-Méchin, J (1954) Mustapha Kémal ou la mort d’un empire (Mustafa Kemal or the death of an empire) Paris: Albin Michel Karn, H W., & Weitz, J (1955) An introduction to psychology New York, N.Y.: John Wiley & Sons Inc Liebert, R M., Poulos, R W., & Marmor, G S (1977) Developmental psychology Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall Inc Mardin, Ş (1983) Yenileşme dinamiğinin temelleri ve Atatürk (The dynamics of innovation and Atatürk) In Çağdaş düşüncenin işığında Atatürk (Atatürk in the light of contemporary thought) Istanbul: Eczacıbaşı Foundation Publications Palmade, G (1953) La charactériologie (The reading of character) Paris: Press Universitaires de France Rouges, J D V (1936) Deviens un chef (Do become a leader) Paris: Éditions J Oliven Sprinthal, N A., & Sprinthal, R C (1990) Educational psychology: A developmental approach New York, N.Y.: McGraw Hill Book Co Wrench, D., & Wrench, C (1973) Psychology: A social approach New York, N.Y.: McGraw Hill Book Co   D US-China Education Review A, August 2015, Vol 5, No 8, 568-571 doi:10.17265/2161-623X/2015.08.007 DAVID PUBLISHING The Use of Multimedia in Higher Special Education* Zhao Chun-hui Liu Fu Changchun University, Changchun, China Jilin Jianzhu University, Changchun, China Multimedia can increase the sensory stimuli of students by the integration of sound, image, text, and animation, and make the teaching and learning process become figurative, three-dimensional, and vivid, thus, it improves students’ interest, attention, and learning efficiency Complementary advantages between teaching materials and media improve the teaching environment and optimize the teaching structure Teachers can use the network multimedia courseware assisted teaching Classroom teaching based on multimedia courseware means that students learn in the multimedia environment Teachers use multimedia courseware to guide students to learn to live The development of multimedia network technology has provided a broad field for English teaching and created an open, pluralistic, and authentic language learning environment for learners Therefore, the application of multimedia in higher education is of great significance Keywords: higher special education, multimedia network teaching, usage Introduction The disabled people is a special group in human society Higher special education is the key to increase the quality of the disabled, to improve their living condition, and to help them integrate into the society Under the Chinese government and the Communist Party’s concern and support, the education course for the disabled people in China has got considerable development Receiving compulsory education for disabled persons has brought into national nine-year compulsory education’s whole work, initially formed mutual connection of elementary education, career education, adult education, and higher education The education course of the disabled people in China not only combines with general education, but also has a relatively independent special education system, so it has become an important part of China’s education course (Li, 1999, p 31) The education course of the disabled people in China began in the 1980s, since the establishment of Medical Department of Shandong Binzhou Medical College, which is the first college for the disabled youth Till the 21th century, there were about 10 universities that accept the disabled students to study in higher schools With 30 years of development, China’s higher special education has gone out of the dilemma, groped the road of development with Chinese characteristics (Zhu, 2001, p 12) Especially after 1990, China has promulgated a series of laws and regulations, which had some significant influence on the layout of the present development of higher education for the disabled in China, and also makes the higher education for the disabled in China have a leap-forward development * This paper is part of the result of the authors’ research program “Research on Multimedia Application in English Teaching of Higher Special Education” (2014, No 276), Jilin Education Department Fund Project; and “Research on College English Teaching Strategy of Higher Special Education” (2014, XZYB14-24), Changchun University Zhao Chun-hui, M.A., associate professor, Public Foreign Language Teaching and Research Department, Changchun University Liu Fu, M.A., lecturer, The Hongqi Campus, Jilin Jianzhu University THE USE OF MULTIMEDIA IN HIGHER SPECIAL EDUCATION 569 Because the born-deaf students not have the language learning environment of the ordinary people, they have a lot of trouble in learning professional theory The words and phrases of sign languages are very limited, and there are different sign languages to express the same word, so it has significant meaning to use multimedia in English teaching of higher special education From the special narrow angle of English teaching, multimedia refers to the integrated learning systems (ILSs) Necessity of Multimedia English Teaching The development of education and the usage of educational media are not separated In accordance with the laws of education itself, the results of cognitive psychology research, creative labor, and the integration of modern science and technology of artists and system creative personnel, interactive multimedia English teaching develops rapidly System has brought a strong impact on China’s traditional education, a great transformation of education has already been bred (Deng, 2004, pp 1-6) We should take advantage of the multimedia technology to reform college English teaching Multimedia teaching is a good way to make up for the shortcomings of the traditional English teaching, and also can greatly improve teaching efficiency and teaching quality Multimedia teaching is a new teaching method Firstly, it is propitious to stimulate students’ interest in learning and cultivate their awareness of exploration Secondly, multimedia network teaching can provide many kinds of training methods The Advantages of Multimedia Application in English Teaching Image Teaching, Improving Quality Multimedia English teaching can effectively reproduce the objective nature of things by all kinds of media information, such as words, signs, graphics, images, and activity images, which make the students feel like they are right on the scene The application of multimedia in English teaching can create interactive teaching environment, in which lights, colors, and figures are good Then, it can make students feel fresh, thus, generate interest and desire for knowledge A relaxed, autonomous learning atmosphere can promote the study of subjective initiative and the development of personality Multimedia English teaching can make students participate in studying with multiple sensory organs in the process of English learning A variety of media information stimulates students’ cerebral cortex function area, its reaction is stronger than that of the stimulation of a single media information, and it is more conductive to the understanding and memory of the knowledge, so it can produce better learning effect (Shao, 2000, p 8) Gear to the Needs of All, According to Their Aptitude “Teaching students in accordance of their aptitude” is in the first position of the educational principles in higher special education We must pay attention to the fact that the objects of the higher special education exist physical defects and the gap in cultural layer, which directly affects the basic teaching structure forms of teaching, general teaching methods, and the usage of teaching (Feng, 2000, pp 34-36) In teaching, education for the disabled generally attaches great importance to the use and study of the unique culture means (the hand language and Braille), active promotion of the use of multimedia teaching means, and application of auxiliary teaching utensils and appliances, which are developed and produced by information technology A variety of characteristics of higher education for disabled persons gradually appear (Lan, 1995, pp 45-48) In multimedia classrooms, teachers operate courseware in the workstation to teach classes, and all the students observe the operation of the courseware in their workstation, and at the same time, they can watch the 570 THE USE OF MULTIMEDIA IN HIGHER SPECIAL EDUCATION teacher’s explanation and the language taught of the courseware Each student can obtain the same effect of listening to lectures, avoid the disadvantages of the traditional classroom poor lectures effect that deaf students could not see the teacher’s sign and lip languages In normal multimedia classrooms, teachers in their workstation can send courseware to students’ workstation for students to practice English After students entering the answers, computers can judge immediately If the answer is incorrect, the computer may alarm directly and ask the student to enter the answer again, or it may give the correct answer or give tooltip to ask the student to it again Teachers can monitor students’ workstation screen in their own workstation to understand the situation of the students and to make individual auxiliary guide If a student can complete quantitative practice within the given time, the teacher may send a batch of raising exercises to him/her to it This kind of classroom practice faces to every student, embodies all-round individualized teaching, improves the efficiency of classroom practice, and truly accomplishes “according to their aptitude” (Wang, 2009, p 127) The multimedia software of English class teaching can offer the reappearance of the text scene (including entourage of vivid images); the translation of the text; the analysis and explanation of the text difficult points; the explanation of the grammar knowledge; exercises bank; all kinds of knowledge contest or interesting play set associated with learning; all kinds of intensive training—listening, speaking, reading, and writing; many kinds of ways to learn; and so on When learning, according to the requirement of the teachers or the different levels of learning, multimedia software provides students with the different progress and ways of learning Promote Thinking and Cultivate Ability In English multimedia teaching, teachers use vivid real-time animation in multimedia software and rigorous accurate instruction, making learning content illustrated in the true sense vivid and making students turn from passive learners to active participants in study interest, so edutainment can be implemented The success of learning has become naturally (Cai, 2005, p 70) The application of multimedia in the current English teaching practice proves a fact that multimedia English teaching can indeed improve students’ English ability From a class teaching program by using multimedia English teaching means, we can also see that due to the use of multimedia, class teaching content correspondingly increases; intervention of media is more than normal traditional classroom English teaching; and multi-channel information input is conducive to students from different sides to understand and grasp the teaching contents Practice has proved that multimedia English teaching can make classroom teaching vivid and imaginative Conclusion In a word, the usage of modern teaching means is one of the significant symbols in modern English teaching For a long time, English teaching in China has been in a “chalk + talk” manner Students’ engagement is not strong, and the teaching effect is not very ideal Multimedia classroom can deal with and show various forms of information, it can most effectively match process and characteristics of human cognitive thinking (Guo, 2009, pp 229-235) As more and more people are concerned about the multimedia English teaching, we should plunge ourselves into multimedia English teaching practice, spare no efforts to make full use of multimedia classroom, and play the potential function of teaching, then, totally improve the English teaching level of higher special education THE USE OF MULTIMEDIA IN HIGHER SPECIAL EDUCATION 571 References Cai, X F (2005) Interactive principle and college English multimedia network teaching model Journal of Foreign Languages of Xi’an College, 1, 70-73 Deng, M (2004) The thinking of the adjustment of the whole school curriculum China Special Education, 3, 1-6 Feng, D W (2000) The trend of the development of special education in the world Special Education Research, 3, 34-36 Guo, H Y (2009) Problems and countermeasures in the teaching of multimedia courseware China Science and Technology Information, 19, 229-235 Lan, J J (1995) On development strategy of higher education for disabled persons China Special Education, 3, 45-48 Li, D M (1999) The development and current situation of the higher special education China Disabled Persons, 3, 31 Shao, S P (2000) The harmony of multimedia technology in English teaching Foreign Language Audio Visual Teaching, 1, Wang, H C (2009) The use of multimedia in English teaching Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information, 12, 127 Zhu, N B (2001) On the form of higher education for the disabled China Special Education, 3, 12 Call for Papers or Books US-China Education Review A (Education Practice) (ISSN: 2161-623X) and US-China Education Review B (Education Theory) (ISSN: 2161-6248), the earlier title: US-China Education Review (ISSN: 1548-6613) are professional journals published across the United States by David Publishing Company, USA These journals are regularly published by China National Publication Import & Export Corporation on commission If you have the idea of making our journal a vehicle for your research interests, please send electronic version of your paper to us US-China Education Review A & US-China Education Review B are collected and indexed by the Library of U.S Congress, on whose official Website (http://catalog.loc.gov) an on-line inquiry can be triggered with its publication number ISSN No as key words in “Basic 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